(  LIBRARY  ^ 

UNIVERSITY  OF 
CALIFORNIA 

!       SAN  DIEGO 


HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL 
LITERATURE 


HANDBOOK 


OF 


UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE 


FROM  THE  BEST  AND  LATEST  AUTHORITIES 


BT 

C.  LYNCH  BOTTA 


"  Partont  le  vaste  champ  de  la  literature  ressembte  i  une  immense 
arene,  ou  peu  de  vainqueurs  61event  leurs  trophies  sur  les  annes  brisges 
d'une  grande  masse  de  vaincus ;  ce  n'est  que  lorsque  la  defaite  est 
derenue  memomble,  que  1'histoire  peut  a'en  occuper." 


NEW  EDITION 
REVISED  AND  BROUGHT  DOWN  TO  188S 


BOSTON 
HOUGHTON,  MIFFLIN  AND  COMPANY 

New  York  :  11  East  Seventeenth  Street 


1886 


Copyright,  1860  and  1884, 
BT  ANNS  C.  LYNCH  BOTTA. 

All  rights  reserved. 


The  Riverside  Press,  Cambridge: 
Electrotyped  and  Printed  by  H.  0.  Houghton  &  Co. 


PREFATORY  NOTE  TO  THE  REVISED  EDITION. 


SINCE  the  first  publication  of  this  work  in  1860,  many  new 
names  have  appeared  in  modern  literature.  Japan,  hitherto  al- 
most unknown  to  Europeans,  has  taken  her  place  among  the  na- 
tions with  a  literature  of  her  own,  and  the  researches  and  dis- 
coveries of  scholars  in  various  parts  of  the  world  have  thrown 
much  light  on  the  literatures  of  antiquity.  To  keep  pace  with 
this  advance,  a  new  edition  of  the  work  has  been  called  for. 
Prefixed  is  a  very  brief  summary  of  an  important  and  exhaust- 
ive History  of  the  Alphabet  recently  published. 


PREFACE. 


THIS  work  was  begun  many  years  ago,  as  a  literary  exercise, 
to  meet  the  personal  requirements  of  the  writer,  which  were  such 
as  most  persons  experience  on  leaving  school  and  "  completing 
their  education,"  as  the  phrase  is.  The  world  of  literature  lies 
before  them,  but  where  to  begin,  what  course  of  study  to  pursue, 
in  order  best  to  comprehend  it,  are  the  problems  which  present 
themselves  to  the  bewildered  questioner,  who  finds  himself  in  a 
position  not  unlike  that  of  a  traveler  suddenly  set  down  in  an 
unknown  country,  without  guide-book  or  map.  The  most  nat- 
ural course  under  such  circumstances  would  be  to  begin  at  the 
beginning,  and  take  a  rapid  survey  of  the  entire  field  of  litera- 
ture, arriving  at  its  details  through  this  general  view.  But  as 
this  could  be  accomplished  only  by  subjecting  each  individual  to 
a  severe  and  protracted  course  of  systematic  study,  the  idea  was 
conceived  of  obviating  this  necessity  to  some  extent  by  embody- 
ing the  results  of  such  a  course  in  the  form  of  the  following 
work,  which,  after  being  long  laid  aside,  is  now  at  length  com- 
pleted. 

In  conformity  with  this  design,  standard  books  have  been  con- 
densed, with  no  alterations  except  such  as  were  required  to  give 
unity  to  the  whole  work ;  and  in  some  instances  a  few  additions 
have  been  made.  Where  standard  works  have  not  been  found, 
the  sketches  have  been  made  from  the  best  sources  of  informa- 
tion, and  submitted  to  the  criticism  of  able  scholars. 

The  literatures  of  different  nations  are  so  related,  and  have 
so  influenced  each  other,  that  it  is  only  by  a  survey  of  all  that 
any  single  literature,  or  even  any  great  literary  work,  can  be 
fully  comprehended,  as  the  various  groups  and  figures  of  a  his- 
torical picture  must  be  viewed  as  a  whole,  before  they  can  as- 
sume their  true  place  and  proportions. 

A.  C.  L.  B. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

LIST  OF  AUTHORITIES rv 

INTRODUCTION. 

THE  ALPHABET. 

1.  The  Origin  of  Letters.  —  2.  The  Phoenician  Alphabet  and  Inscriptions.  —  3.  The 
Greek  Alphabet.  Its  Three  Epochs.  —  4.  The  Mediaeval  Scripts.  The  Irish.  The 
Anglo-Saxon.  The  Roman.  The  Gothic.  The  Runic 1 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  LANGUAGES 3 

CHINESE  LITERATURE. 

1.  Chinese  Literature.  —  2.  The  Language.  —  3.  The  Writing.  —  4.  The  Five  Classics 
and  Four  Books.  —  6.  Chinese  Religion  and  Philosophy.  Lao-tse^  Confucius. 
Meng-ts6  or  Mencius.  —  6.  Buddhism.  —  7.  Social  Constitution  of  China.  —  8.  In- 
vention of  Printing.  —  9.  Science,  History,  and  Geography.  Encyclopaedias.  — 10. 
Poetry.  — 11.  Dramatic  Literature  and  Fiction.  — 12.  Education  in  China  .  .  7 

JAPANESE    LITERATURE. 

1.  The  Language.  —  2.  The  Religion. — 3.  The  Literature.  Influence  of  Women. — 
4.  History. — 5.  The  Drama  and  Poetry.  —  6.  Geography.  Newspapers.  Novels. 
Medical  Science.  —  7.  Position  of  Woman 15 

SANSKRIT  LITERATURE. 

1.  The  Language. — 2.  The  Social  Constitution  of  India.  Brahmanism. — 3.  Charac- 
teristics of  the  Literature  and  its  Divisions.  —  4.  The  Vedas  and  other  Sacred 
Books.  —  5.  Sanskrit  Poetry ;  Epic ;  the  Rainayana  and  Mahabharata.  Lyric  Po- 
etry. Didactic  Poetry  ;  the  Hitopadesa.  Dramatic  Poetry.  —  6.  History  and  Sci- 
ence. —  7.  Philosophy.  — 8.  Buddhism.  — 9.  Moral  Philosophy.  The  Code  of  Manu. 
— 10.  Modern  Literatures  of  India.  — 11.  Education.  The  Brahmo  Somaj  .  .  20 

BABYLONIAN  AND   ASSYRIAN  LITERATURE. 

1.  The  Accadians  and  Babylonians.  —  2.  The  Cuneiform  Letters. — 3.  Babylonian 
and  Assyrian  Remains .....35 

'PHOENICIAN  LITERATURE. 
The  Language.  —  The  Remains 37 

SYRIAC  LITERATURE. 
The  Language.  — Influence  of  the  Literature  in  the  Eighth  and  Ninth  Century       .    38 

PERSIAN  LITERATURE. 

1.  The  Persian  Language  and  its  Divisions.  —  2.  Zendic  Literature  ;  the  Zendavesta. 
— 3.  Pehlvi  and  Parsee  Literatures.  —  4.  The  Ancient  Religion  of  Persia  ;  Zoro- 


viii  CONTENTS. 

aster. — 5.  Modern  Literature.  —  6.  The  Sufis. — 7.  Persian  Poetry. —8.  Persian 
Poets ;  Ferdusi ;  Essedi  of  Tus  ;  Togray,  etc.  —  9.  History  and  Philosophy.  — 10. 
Education  in  Persia 39 

HEBREW  LITERATURE. 

1.  Hebrew  Literature ;  its  Divisions.  —  2.  The  Language  ;  its  Alphabet ;  its  Struc- 
ture ;  Peculiarities,  Formation,  and  Phases.  —  3.  The  Old  Testament.  —  4.  Hebrew 
Education.  — 5.  Fundamental  Idea  of  Hebrew  Literature.  —  6.  Hebrew  Poetry.  — 
7.  Lyric  Poetry ;  Songs  ;  the  Psalms  ;  the  Prophets.  —  8.  Pastoral  Poetry  and  Di- 
dactic Poetry  ;  the  Proverbs  and  Ecclesiastes.  —  9.  Epic  and  Dramatic  Poetry  ;  the 
Book  of  Job.  — 10.  Hebrew  History ;  the  Pentateuch  and  other  Historical  Books. 
— 11.  Hebrew  Philosophy.  — 12.  Restoration  of  the  Sacred  Books.  —  13.  Manu- 
scripts and  Translations.  — 14.  Rabbinical  Literature.  — 15.  The  New  Revision  of 
the  Bible,  and  the  New  Biblical  Manuscript •  49 

EGYPTIAN    LITERATURE. 

1.  The  Language. — 2.  The  Writing. — 3.  The  Literature. — 4.  The  Monuments. — 
6.  The  Discovery  of  Champollion.  —  6.  Literary  Remains ;  Historical ;  Religious ; 
Epistolary ;  Fictitious  ;  Scientific  ;  Epic ;  Satirical  and  Judicial.  —  7.  The  Alexan- 
drian Period.  —  8.  The  Literary  Condition  of  Modern  Egypt  60 

GREEK  LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION.  —  1.  Greek  Literature  and  its  Divisions.  —  2.  The  Language.  —  3.  The 
Religion 67 

PERIOD  FIRST.  — 1.  Ante-Homeric  Songs  and  Bards.  — 2.  Poems  of  Homer ;  the  Iliad ; 
the  Odyssey. — 3.  The  Cyclic  Poets  and  the  Homeric  Hymns. — 4.  Poems  of  He- 
siod ;  the  Works  and  Days ;  the  Theogony.  —  5.  Elegy  and  Epigram ;  Tyrtaeus ; 
Archilochus  ;  Simonides.  —  6.  Iambic  Poetry,  the  Fable,  and  Parody  ;  J£sop.  —  7. 
Greek  Music  and  Lyric  Poetry  ;  Terpander.  —  8.  .3Solic  Lyric  Poets  ;  Alcaeus ;  Sap- 
pho ;  Anacreon.  —  9.  Doric,  or  Choral  Lyric  Poets ;  Alcman  ;  Stesichorus  ;  Pindar. 
— 10.  The  Orphic  Doctrines  and  Poems. — 11.  Pre-Socratic  Philosophy;  Ionian, 
Eleatic,  Pythagorean  Schools.  — 12.  History  ;  Herodotus 72 

PERIOD  SECOND. —  1.  Literary  Predominance  of  Athens.— 2.  Greek  Drama.  — 3.  Trag- 
edy.—  4  The  Tragic  Poets  ;  .SSschylus;  Sophocles;  Euripides. — 5.  Comedy;  Aris- 
tophanes ;  Menander. —  6.  Oratory,  Rhetoric,  and  History  ;  Pericles  ;  the  Sophists ; 
Lysias  ;  Isocrates  ;  Demosthenes;  Thucydides;  Xenophon. — 7.  Socrates  and  the 
Socratic  Schools ;  Plato  ;  Aristotle 90 

PERIOD  THIRD.  —  1.  Origin  of  the  Alexandrian  Literature.  —  2.  The  Alexandrian 
Poets  ;  Philetas  ;  Callimachus  ;  Theocritus  ;  Bion ;  Moschus.  —  3.  The  Prose  Writ- 
ers of  Alexandria ;  Zenodotus ;  Aristophanes ;  Aristarchus ;  Eratosthenes  ;  Euclid ; 
Archimedes. — 4.  Philosophy  of  Alexandria;  Neo-Platonism.  —  5.  Anti-Neo-Pla- 
tonic  Tendencies  ;  Epictetus  ;  Lucian  ;  Longinus.  —  6.  Greek  Literature  in  Rome  ; 
Dionysius  of  Halicarnassua ;  Flavius  Josephus  ;  Polybius  ;  Diodorus  ;  Strabo  ;  Plu- 
tarch.—  7.  Continued  Decline  of  Greek  Literature. — 8.  Last  Echoes  of  the  Old 
Literature  ;  Hypatia ;  Nonnus ;  Musaeus  ;  Byzantine  Literature.  —  9.  The  New  Tes- 
tament and  the  Greek  Fathers.  Modern  Literature  ;  the  Brothers  Santsos  and  Al- 
exander Rangabg 107 

ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION.  —  1.  Roman  Literature  and  its  Divisions. — 2.  The  Language  ;  Ethno- 
graphical Elements  of  the  Latin  Language  ;  the  Umbrian  ;  Oscan  ;  Etruscan  ;  the 
Old  Roman  Tongue ;  Saturnian  Verse ;  Peculiarities  of  the  Latin  Language.  —  3. 
The  Roman  Religion 121 

PERIOD  FIRST.  —  1.  Early  Literature  of  the  Romans  ;  the  Fescennine  Songs  ;  the  Fab- 
ute  Atellanae.  —  2.  Early  Latin  Poets ;  Livius  Andronicus,  Naevius,  and  Enuius.  — 
3.  Roman  Comedy.  —  4.  Comic  Poets ;  Plautus,  Terence,  and  Statius.  —  5.  Roman 
Tragedy.  —  6.  Tragic  Poets ;  Pacuviua  and  Attius.  —  7.  Satire  ;  Lucilius.  —  8.  His- 


CONTENTS.  ix 

tory  and  Oratory  ;  Fabius  Pictor ;  Cencius  Alimentus ;  Cato ;  Varro ;  M.  Antonius ; 
Crassus  ;  Hortensius.  —  9.  Roman  Jurisprudence.  —  10.  Grammarians    .         .         .  127 
PERIOD  SECOND.  —  1.  Development  of  the  Roman  Literature.  —  2.  Mimes,  Mimogra- 
phers,  Pantomime  ;  Laberius  and  P.  Lyrus.  —  3.  Epic  Poetry ;  Virgil ;  the  JSueid. 

—  4.  Didactic  Poetry ;  the  Bucolics;  theGeorgics;  Lucretius. — 5.  Lyric  Poetry; 
Catullus ;  Horace.  —  G.  Elegy  ;  Tibullus ;  Propertius ;  Ovid.  —  7.  Oratory  and  Phi- 
losophy ;  Cicero.  —  8.  History  ;  J.  Caesar ;  Sallust ;  Livy.  —  9.  Other  Prose  Writers  140 

PEEIOD  THIRD.  —  1.  Decline  of  Roman  Literature.  —  2.  Fable ;  Phaedrus.  —  3.  Satire 
and  Epigram  ;  Persius,  Juvenal,  Martial.  —  4.  Dramatic  Literature  ;  the  Tragedies 
of  Seneca.  —  5.  Epic  Poetry ;  Lucan  ;  Silius  Italians  ;  Valerius  Flaccus ;  P.  Statins. 

—  6.  History  ;  Paterculus  ;  Tacitus ;  Suetonius ;  Q.  Curtius ;  Valerius  Maximus.  — 
7.  Rhetoric  and  Eloquence  ;  Quintilian ;  Pliny  the  Younger.  —  8.  Philosophy  and 
Science ;  Seneca  ;  Pliny  the  Elder ;  Celsus  ;  P.  Mela  ;  Columella ;  Frontinus.  —  9. 
Roman  Literature  from  Hadrian  to  Theodoric  ;  Claudian ;  Eutropius  ;  A.  Marcelli- 
nus  ;  S.  Sulpicius  ;  Gellius ;  Macrobius ;  L.  Apuleius ;  Boethius :  the  Latin  Fathers. 

— 10.  Roman  Jurisprudence 156 

ARABIAN  LITERATURE. 

1.  European  Literature  in  the  Dark  Ages.  —  2.  The  Arabian  Language.  —  3.  Arabian 
Mythology  and  the  Koran.  — 4.  Historical  Development  of  Arabian  Literature.  — 
6.  Grammar  and  Rhetoric. —6.  Poetry.— 7.  The  Arabian  Tales.  —  8.  History  and 
Science. —  9.  Education 176 

ITALIAN  LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION.  — 1.  Italian  Literature  and  its  Divisions.  — 2.  The  Dialects.  — 3.  The 
Italian  Language 193 

PERIOD  FIRST. — 1.  Latin  Influence.  —  2.  Early  Italian  Poetry  and  Prose.  —  3.  Dante. 

—  4.  Petrarch.  —  5.  Boccaccio  and  other  Prose  Writers.  —  6.  First  Decline  of  Ital- 
ian Literature 195 

PERIOD  SECOND.  —  1.  The  Close  of  the  Fifteenth  Century  ;  Lorenzo  de' Medici.  —  2. 
The  Origin  of  the  Drama  and  Romantic  Epic ;  Poliziano,  Pulci,  Boiardo.  —  3.  Ro- 
mantic Epic  Poetry ;  Ariosto.  —  4.  Heroic  Epic  Poetry ;  Tasso.  —  5.  Lyric  Poetry ; 
Bembo,  Molza,  Tarsia,  V.  Colonna.  —  6.  Dramatic  Poetry  ;  Trissino,  Rucellai ;  the 
Writers  of  Comedy.  —  7.  Pastoral  Drama  and  Didactic  Poetry  ;  Beccari,  Sannaz- 
zaro,  Tasso,  Guarini,  Rucellai,  Alarnaiini.  —  8.  Satirical  Poetry,  Novels,  and  Tales ; 
Berni,  Grazzini,  Firenzuola,  Bandello,  and  others. —  9.  History  ;  Machiavelli,  Guic- 
ciardini,  Nardi,  and  others.  — 10.  Grammar  and  Rhetoric  ;  the  Academy  della 
Crusca,  Delia  Casa,  Speroni,  and  others.  — 11.  Science,  Philosophy,  and  Politics  ; 
the  Academy  del  Cimento,  Galileo,  Torricelli,  Borelli,  Patrizi,  Telesio,  Campanella, 
Bruno,  Castiglione,  Machiavelli,  and  others.  — 12.  Decline  of  the  Literature  in  the 
Seventeenth  Century.  — 13.  Epic  and  Lyric  Poetry  ;  Marini,  Filicaja.  — 14.  Mock 
Heroic  Poetry,  the  Drama,  and  Satire  ;  Tassoni,  Bracciolini,  Anderini,  and  others. 
— 15.  History  and  Epistolary  Writings ;  Davila,  Bentivoglio,  Sarpi,  Redi  .  .  205 

PERIOD  THIRD.—  1.  Historical  Development  of  the  Third  Period. —  2.  The  Melodrama ; 
Rinuccini,  Zeno,  Metastasio. — 3.  Comedy;  Goldoni,  C.  Gozzi,  and  others. — 4. 
Tragedy  ;  Maffei,  Alfieri,  Monti,  Manzoni,  Nicolini,  and  others.  —  5.  Lyric,  Epic, 
and  Didactic  Poetry ;  Parini,  Monti,  Ugo  Foscolo,  Leopardi,  Grossi,  Lorenzi,  and 
others. — C.  Heroic-Comic  Poetry,  Satire,  and  Fable;  Fortiguerri,  Passeroni,  G. 
Gozzi,  Parini,  Giusti,  and  others.  —  7.  Romances  ;  Verri,  Manzoni,  D'Azeglio, 
Cantu,  Guerrazzi,  and  others.  —  8.  History  ;  Muratori,  Vico,  Giannone,  Botta,  Col- 
letta,  Tiraboschi,  and  others. — 9.  ./Esthetics,  Criticism,  Philology,  and  Philosophy; 
Baretti,  Parini,  Giordani,  Gioja,  Romagnosi,  Gallupi,  Rosmini,  Gioberti.  —  From 
1860  to  1885 227 

FRENCH  LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION. — 1.  French  Literature  and  its  Divisions.  —  2.  The  Language      .       .242 
PERIOD  FIRST.  —  1.  The  Troubadours.  — 2.  The  Trouveres,  —3.  French  Literature  in 


x  CONTENTS. 

the  Fifteenth  Century.  —  4.  The  Mysteries  and  Moralities :  Charles  of  Orleans, 
Villon,  Ville-Hardouin,  Joinville,  Froissart,  Philippe  de  Commines  ....  245 
PERIOD  SECOND.  —  1.  The  Renaissance  and  the  Reformation:  Marguerite  de  Valois, 
Marot,  Rabelais,  Calvin,  Montaigne,  Charron,  and  others.  —  2.  Light  Literature  : 
Ronsard,  Jodelle,  Hardy,  Malherbe,  Scarron,  Madame  de  Rambouillet,  and  others. 

—  3.  The  French  Academy. — 4.   The  Drama:   Corneille. — 5.  Philosophy:  Des- 
cartes, Pascal ;  Port  Royal.  —  6.  The  Rise  of  the  Golden  Age  of  French  Literature : 
Louis  XIV.  —  7.  Tragedy :  Racine.  —  8.   Comedy  :  Moliere.  —  9.   Fables,   Satires, 
Mock-Heroic,  and  other  Poetry  :  La  Fontaine,  Boileau. —  10.  Eloquence  of  the  Pul- 
pit and  of  the  Bar  :  Bourdaloue,  Bossuet,  Massillon,  Fle'chier,  Le  Maitre,  D'Agues- 
seau,  and  others.  — 11.  Moral  Philosophy:  Rochefoucault,  La  Bruyere,  Nicole. — 
12.  History  and  Memoirs  :  M6zeray,  Fleury,  Rollin,  Brantome,  the  Duke  of  Sully, 
Cardinal  de  Retz.  — 13.  Romance  and  Letter  Writing :  Fenelon,  Madame  de  86- 
vigne" 257 

PERIOD  THIRD.  —  1.  The  Dawn  of  Skepticism :  Bayle,  J.  B.  Rousseau,  Fontenelle,  La- 
motte.  —2.  Progress  of  Skepticism  :  Montesquieu,  Voltaire.  —  3.  French  Literature 
during  the  Revolution  :  D'Holbach,  D'Alembert,  Diderot,  J.  J.  Rousseau,  Buffon, 
Beaumarchais,  St.  Pierre,  and  others.  — 4.  French  Literature  under  the  Empire  : 
Madame  de  Stael,  Chateaubriand,  Royer-Collard,  Bouald,  De  Maistre.  — 5.  French 
Literature  from  the  Age  of  the  Restoration  to  the  Present  Time.  History  :  Thierry, 
Sismondi,  Thiers,  Mignet,  Martin,  Michelet,  and  others.  Poetry  and  the  Drama ; 
Rise  of  the  Romantic  School :  Be'ranger,  Lamartine,  Victor  Hugo,  and  others ;  Les 
Parnassiens.  Fiction :  Hugo,  Gautier,  Dumas,  Merime'e,  Balzac,  Sand,  Sandeau, 
and  others.  Criticism  :  Saiute-Beuve,  Tame,  and  others.  Miscellaneous  .  .  275 

SPANISH  LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION.  —  1.  Spanish  Literature  and  its  Divisions.  —  2.  The  Language     .        .  295 
PERIOD  FIRST.  —  1.  Early  National  Literature  ;  the  Poem  of  the  Cid ;  Berceo,  Alfonso 
the  Wise,  Segura ;  Don  Juan  Manuel,  the  Archpriest  of  Hita,  Saiitob,  Ayala.  — 
2.  Old  Ballads. —3.  The  Chronicles.  —  4.  Romances  of  Chivalry. —5.  The  Drama. 

—  6.  Provencal  Literature  in  Spain. — 7.  The  Influence  of  Italian  Literature  in 
Spain.  —  8.  The  Cancioneros  and  Prose  Writing.  —  9.  The  Inquisition     .        .        .299 

PERIOD  SECOND.  —  1.  The  Effect  of  Intolerance  on  Letters.  —  2.  Influence  of  Italy  on 
Spanish  Literature  ;  Boscan,  Garcilasso  de  la  Vega,  Diego  de  Mendoza.  —  3.  His- 
tory;  Cortez,  Gomara,  Oviedo,  Las  Casas.  —  4.  The  Drama,  Rueda,  Lope  de  Vega, 
Calderon  de  la  Barca.  —  5.  Romances  and  Tales ;  Cervantes,  and  other  Writers  of 
Fiction. — 6.  Historical  Narrative  Poems ;  Ercilla. —  7.  Lyric  Poetry  ;  the  Argen- 
solas ;  Luis  de  Leon,  Quevedo,  Herrera,  Gongora,  and  others.  —  8.  Satirical  and 
other  Poetry.— 9.  History  and  other  Prose  Writing;  Zurita,  Mariana,  Sandoval, 
and  others 311 

PERIOD  THIRD. — 1.  French  Influence  on  the  Literature  of  Spain. — 2.  The  Dawn  of 
Spanish  Literature  in  the  Eighteenth  Century ;  Feyjoo,  Isla,  Moratin  the  elder, 
Yriarte,  Melendez,  Gonzalez,  Quintana,  Moratin  the  younger. — 3.  Spanish  Litera- 
ture in  the  Nineteenth  Century 330 

PORTUGUESE  LITERATURE. 

1.  The  Portuguese  Language.  —  2.  Early  Literature  of  Portugal.  —  3.  Poets  of  the 
Fifteenth  Century;  Macias,  Ribeyro.  —  4.  Introduction  of  the  Italian  Style;  Saa 
de  Miranda,  Montemayor,  Ferreira.— 5.  Epic  Poetry;  Camoens;  the  Lusiad. — 
6.  Dramatic  Poetry;  Gil  Vicente.  —7.  Prose  Writing;  Rodriguez  Lobo,  Barros, 
Brito,  Veira.  —  8.  Portuguese  Literature  in  the  Seventeenth,  Eighteenth,  and 
Nineteenth  Centuries  ;  Antonio  Jose1,  Manuel  do  Nascimento,  Manuel  de  Bocage  .  335 

FINNISH  LITERATURE. 
L  The  Finnish  Language  and  Literature  :  Poetry ;  the  Kalevala  ;  Lonnrot ;  Korrhoinen. 

—  2.  The  Hungarian  Language  and  Literature:  the  Age  of  Stephen  I.  ;  Influence 
of  the  House  of  Anjou  ;  of  the  Reformation ;  of  the  House  of  Austria  ;  Eossuth  ; 
Josika  ;  Eotvos  ;  Kuthy  ;  Srigligeti ;  Peto'fi 345 


CONTENTS. 


SLAVIC  LITERATURES. 

The  Slavic  Race  and  Languages  ;  the  Eastern  and  Western  Stems;  the  Alphabets; 
the  Old  or  Church  Slavic  Language ;  St.  Cyril's  Bible  ;  the  Pravda  Russkaya  ;  the 
Annals  of  Nestor 352 

RUSSIAN  LITERATURE. 

1.  The  Language.  —  2.  Literature  in  the  Reign  of  Peter  the  Great ;  of  Alexander ; 
of  Nicholas  ;  Danilof,  Lomonosof ,  Kheraskof,  Derzhavin,  Karamzin.  —  3.  History, 
Poetry,  the  Drama :  Kostrof ,  Dmitrief,  Zhukoffski,  Krylof,  Pushkin,  Lermontoff, 
Gogol. — 4.  Literature  in  Russia  since  the  Crimean  War  :  School  of  Nature;  Tur- 
guenieff ;  Ultra- realistic  School :  Science  ;  Mendele&f 353 

THE  SERVIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 358 

THE  BOHEMIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 

John  Huss,  Jerome  of  Prague,  Tycho  Brahe,  Kepler,  Comenius,  and  others  .  .  360 
THE  POLISH  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 

Rey,  Bielski,  Copernicus,  Czartoryski,  Niemcewicz,  Mickiewicz,  and  others  .  .  363 
ROUMANIAN  LITERATURE. 

Carmen  Sylva 367 

DUTCH  LITERATURE. 

1.  The  Language.  — 2.  Dutch  Literature  to  the  Sixteenth  Century :  Mae  riant ;  Melis 
Stoke  ;  De  Weert ;  the  Chambers  of  Rhetoric ;  the  Flemish  Chroniclers ;  the  Rise 
of  the  Dutch  Republic. — 3.  The  Latin  Writers:  Erasmus;  Grotius  ;  Arminiua; 
Lipsius ;  the  Scaligers,  and  others ;  Salmasius  ;  Spinoza  ;  Boerhaave  ;  Johannes 
Secundus.  — 4.  Dutch  Writers  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  :  Anna  Byns ;  Cooruhert ; 
Marnix  de  St.  Aldegonde  ;  Bor,  Visscher,  and  Spieghel.  —  5.  Writers  of  the  Sev- 
enteenth Century :  Hooft ;  Vondel ;  Cats ;  Antouides  ;  Brandt,  and  others i  Decline 
in  Dutch  Literature.  —  6.  The  Eighteenth  Century :  Poot ;  Laugendijk  ;  HoogvUet ; 
De  Marre  ;  Feitaina ;  Huydecoper ;  the  Van  Harens ;  Smits ;  Ten  Kate ;  Van  Win- 
ter ;  Van  Merken ;  De  Lanuoy ;  Van  Alphen ;  Bellamy ;  Nieuwland,  Styl,  and 
others. —  7.  The  Nineteenth  Century :  Feith ;  Helmers  ;  Bilderdyk  ;  Van  der  Palm; 
Loosjes ;  Loots,  Tollens,  Van  Kampen,  De  s'Gravenweert,  Hoevill,  and  others  .  368 

SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE. 
1.  Introduction.    The  Ancient  Scandinavians ;  their  Influence  on  the  English  Race.  — 

2.  The  Mythology.  —  3.  The  Scandinavian  Languages.  —  4.  Icelandic,  or  Old  Norse 
Literature  :  the  Poetic  Edda,  the  Prose  Edda,  the  Scalds,  the  Sagas,  the  "  Heim- 
skringla."    The  Folks-Sagas  and  Ballads  of  the  Middle  Ages.  — 5.  Danish  Litera- 
ture :  Saxo  Grammaticus  and  Theodoric ;  Arreboe,  Kingo,  Tycho  Brahe,  Holberg, 
Evald,  Baggesen,  Oehlenschlager,  Grundtvig,  Blicher,  Ingemann,  Heiberg,  Gyllen- 
bourg,  Winther,  Hertz,  Muller,  Hans  Andersen,  Ploug,  Goldschmidt,  Hastrup,  and 
others;  Malte  Brun,  Rask,  Rafn,  Magnusen,  the  brothers  Oersted. — 6.  Swedish 
Literature  :  Messenius,  Stjernhjelm,  Lucidor,  and  others.     The  Gallic  period :  Da- 
lin,  Nordenflycht,  Crutz  and  Gyllenborg,  Gustavus  III.,  Kellgren,  Leopold,  Oxen- 
stjerna.     The  New  Era  :  Bellman,  Hallman,  Kexel,  Wallenberg,  Lidner,  Thorild, 
Lengren,  Franzen,   Wallin.     The  Phosphorists :   Atterbom,  Hammarskold,   and 
Palmblad.    The  Gothic   School  :  Geijer,   Tegne>,   Stagnelius,   Almquist,  Vitalis, 
Runeberg,  and  others.    The  Romance  Writers :  Cederborg,  Bremer,  Garten,  Knor- 
ring.     Science  :  Swedenborg,  Linnaeus,  and  others 382 

GERMAN  LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION. —1.  German  Literature  and  its  Divisions. — 2.  The  Mythology. —3. 
The  Language 405 

PERIOD  FIRST. —  1.  Early  Literature  ;  Translation  of  the  Bible  by  Ulphflas  ;  the  Hilde- 
brand  Lied.  —  2.  The  Age  of  Charlemagne  ;  his  Successors ;  the  Ludwig's  Lied  ; 
Roswitha ;  the  Lombard  Cycle.  — 3.  The  Suabian  Age  ;  the  Crusades ;  the  Minne- 
singers ;  the  Romances  of  Chivalry ;  the  Heldenbuch  ;  the  Nibelungen  Lied.  — 


xii  CONTENTS. 

4.  The  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Centuries ;  the  Mastersingers ;  Satires  and  Fa- 
bles ;  Mysteries  and  Dramatic  Representations  ;  the  Mystics ;  the  Universities ; 
•  the  Invention  of  Printing 409 

PERIOD  SECOND.  —  From  1517  to  1700.  —  1.  The  Lutheran  Period  :  Luther,  Melanch- 
thon.  —  2.  Manuel,  Zwingle,  Fischart,  Franck,  Arnd,  Boehm.  —  3.  Poetry,  Satire, 
and  Demonology ;  Paracelsus  and  Agrippa ;  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  —  4.  The  Sev- 
enteenth Century  :  Opitz,  Leibnitz,  Puffendorf,  Kepler,  Wolf,  Thomasius,  Gerhard ; 
Silesian  Schools ;  Hoffmannswaldau,  Lohenstein  ....  .  418 

PERIOD  THIRD.  —  1.  The  Swiss  and  Saxon  Schools :  Gottsched,  Bodmer,  Rabener, 
Gellert,  Kastner,  and  others. —  2.  Klopstock,  Lessiug,  Wieland,  and  Herder. —  3. 
Goethe  and  Schiller.  —  4.  The  Gottingen  School :  Voss,  Stolberg,  Claudius,  Bur- 
ger, and  others.  —  5.  The  Romantic  School :  the  Schlegels,  Novalis  ;  Tieck,  Kor- 
ner,  Arndt,  Uhland,  Heine,  and  others.  —  6.  The  Drama :  Goethe  and  Schiller ; 
the  Power  Men;  MiiUner,  Werner,  Howald,  and  Grillparzer. — 7.  Pliilosophy: 
Kant,  Fichte,  Schelling,  Hegel,  Schopenhauer,  and  Hartmann.  Science :  Liebig, 
Du  Bois-Raymond,  Virchow,  Helmholst,  Hmckel.  —  8.  Miscellaneous  Writings  .  424 

ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION. — I.  English  Literature.    Its  Divisions. — 2.  The  Language       .        .448 

PERIOD  FIRST.  —  1.  Celtic  Literature.  Irish,  Scotch,  and  Cymric  Celts  ;  the  Chroni- 
cles of  Ireland  ;  Ossiau's  Poems  ;  Traditions  of  Arthur  ;  the  Triads  ;  Tales.  —  2. 
Latin  Literature.  Bede  ;  Alcuin;  Erigena.  —  3.  Anglo-Saxon  Literature.  Poetry; 
Prose  ;  Versions  of  Scripture ;  the  Saxon  Chronicle  ;  Alfred 460 

PERIOD  SECOND.  —  The  Norman  Age  and  the  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Centuries.  — 
1.  Literature  in  the  Latin  Tongue. — 2.  Literature  in  Norman-French.  Poetry; 
Romances  of  Chivalry.  — 3.  Saxon-English.  Metrical  Remains.  —  4.  Literature  fo 
the  Fourteenth  Century. —  Prose  Writers  :  Occam,  Duns  Scotus,  Wickliffe,  Mande- 
ville,  Chaucer.  Poetry;  Laugland,  Gower,  Chaucer.  —  5.  Literature  in  the  Fif- 
teenth Century.  Ballads.  —  6.  Poets  of  the  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Centuries  in 
Scotland.  Wyntoun,  Barbour,  and  others 463 

PERIOD  THIRD.  —  !.  Age  of  the  Reformation  (1509-1558).  Classical,  Theological,  and 
Miscellaneous  Literature  :  Sir  Thomas  More  and  others.  Poetry  :  Skelton,  Surrey, 
and  Sackville  ;  the  Drama.  —  2.  The  Age  of  Spenser,  Shakspeare,  Bacon,  and  Mil- 
ton (1558-1660).  Scholastic  and  Ecclesiastical  Literature.  Translations  of  the 
Bible  :  Hooker,  Andrews,  Donne,  Hall,  Taylor,  Baxter ;  other  Prose  Writers  :  Ful- 
ler, Cudworth,  Bacon,  Hobbes.  Raleigh,  Milton,  Sidney,  Selden,  Burton,  Browne, 
and  Cowley.  Dramatic  Poetry :  Marlowe  and  Greene,  Shakspeare,  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher,  Ben  Jonson,  and  others ;  Massinger,  Ford,  and  Shirley ;  Decline  of  the 
Drama.  Non-dramatic  Poetry :  Spenser  and  the  Minor  Poets.  Lyrical  Poets : 
Donne,  Cowley,  Denham,  Waller,  Milton. —  3.  The  Age  of  the  Restoration  and  Rev- 
olution (1660-1702).  Prose :  Leighton,  Tillotson,  Barrow,  Bunyan,  Locke,  and  oth- 
ers. The  Drama :  Dryden,  Otway.  Comedy  :  Didactic  Poetry  :  Roscommon,  Mar- 
veil,  Butler,  Pryor,  Dryden.  —  4.  The  Eighteenth  Century.  The  First  Generation 
(1702-1727) :  Pope,  Swift,  and  others ;  the  Periodical  Essayists :  Addison,  Steele. 
The  Second  Generation  (1727-1760) ;  Theology  :  Warburton,  Butler,  Watts,  Dod- 
dridge.  Philosophy  :  Hume.  Miscellaneous  Prose  :  Johnson  ;  the  Novelists  :  Rich- 
ardson, Fielding,  Smollett,  and  Sterne.  The  Drama ;  Non-dramatic  Poetry : 
Young,  Blair,  Akenside,  Thomson,  Gray,  and  Collins.  The  Third  Generation 
(1760-1800) ;  the  Historians  :  Hume,  Robertson,  and  Gibbon.  Miscellaneous  Prose : 
Johnson,  Goldsmith,  "  Junius,"  Pitt,  Fox,  Sheridan,  and  Burke.  Criticism  :  Burke, 
Reynolds,  Campbell,  Kames.  Political  Economy  :  Adam  Smith.  Ethics  :  Paley, 
Smith,  Tucker.  Metaphysics :  Reid.  Theological  and  Religious  Writers :  Camp- 
bell, Paley,  Watson,  Newton,  Hannah  More,  and  Wilberforce.  Poetry :  Comedies 
of  Goldsmith  and  Sheridan ;  Minor  Poets ;  Later  Poems ;  Beattie's  Minstrel ;  Cow- 
per  and  Burns.  5.  The  Nineteenth  Century.  The  Poets:  Campbell,  Southey, 
Scott,  Byron ;  Coleridge  and  Wordsworth  ;  Wilson,  Shelley,  Keats ;  Crabbe,  Moore, 
and  others ;  Tennyson,  Browning,  Procter,  and  others.  Fiction :  the  Waverley 


CONTENTS.  xiii 

and  other  Novels ;  Dickens,  Thackeray,  and  others.  History  :  Arnold,  Thirlwall, 
Grote,  Macaulay,  Alison,  Carlyle,  Freeman,  Buckle.  Criticism:  Hallam,  De 
Quincey,  Macaulay,  Carlyle,  Wilson,  Lamb,  and  others.  Theology :  Foster,  Hall, 
Chalmers.  Philosophy:  Stewart,  Brown,  Mackintosh,  Bentham,  Alison,  and 
others.  Political  Economy :  Mill,  Whewell,  Whately,  De  Morgan,  Hamilton. 
Periodical  Writings:  the  Edinburgh,  Quarterly,  and  Westminster  Reviews,  and 
Blackwood's  Magazine.  Physical  Science  :  Brewster,  Herschel,  Playfair,  Miller, 
Buckland,  Whewell.  —  Since  I860.  1.  Poets :  Matthew  Arnold,  Algernon  Swinburne, 
Dante  Eossetti,  Robert  Buchanan,  Edwin  Arnold,  "  Owen  Meredith,"  William 
Morris,  Jean  Ingelow,  Adelaide  Procter,  Christina  Rossetti,  Augusta  Webster,  Mary 
Robinson,  and  others.  2.  Fiction:  "George  Eliot,"  McDonald,  Collins,  Black, 
Blackmore,  Mrs.  Oliphant,  Yates,  McCarthy,  Trollope,  and  others.  3.  Scientific 
Writers  :  Herbert  Spencer,  Charles  Darwin,  Tyndall,  Huxley,  and  others.  4.  Mis- 
cellaneous    ........  472 

AMERICAN  LITERATURE. 

THE  COLONIAL  PEBIOD.  —  1.  The  Seventeenth  Century.  George  Sandys;  The  Bay 
Psalm  Book  ;  Anne  Bradstreet,  John  Eliot,  and  Cotton  Mather.  —  2.  From  1700  to 
1770.  Jonathan  Edwards,  Benjamin  Franklin,  Cadwallader  Golden  .  .  .  510 

FIEST  AMERICAN  PERIOD,  PROM  1771  TO  1820. — 1.  Statesmen  and  Political  Writers: 
Washington,  Jefferson,  Hamilton ;  The  Federalist ;  Jay,  Madison,  Marshall,  Fisher 
Ames,  and  others. — 2.  The  Poets  :  Freneau,  Trumbull,  Hopkinson,  Barlow,  Clif- 
ton, and  Dwight.  —  3.  Writers  in  other  Departments :  Bellamy,  Hopkins,  Dwight, 
and  Bishop  White.  Rush,  McClurg,  Lindley  Murray,  Charles  Brockden  Brown. 
Ramsay,  Graydon.  Count  Rumford,  Wirt,  Ledyard,  Pinkney,  and  Pike  .  .  512 

SECOND  AMERICAN  PERIOD,  FROM  1820  TO  1860.  —  1.  History,  Biography,  and  Travels : 
Bancroft,  Prescott,  Motley,  Godwin,  Ticknor,  Schoolcraft,  Hildreth,  Sparks,  Irv- 
ing, Headley,  Stephens,  Kane,  Squier,  Perry,  Lynch,  Taylor,  and  others. — 2.  Ora- 
tory :  Webster,  Clay,  Calhoun,  Benton,  Everett,  and  others.  —  3.  Fiction  :  Cooper, 
Irving,  Willis,  Hawthorne,  Poe,  Siuims,  Mrs.  Stowe,  and  others.  — 4.  Poetry  :  Bry- 
ant, Dana,  Halleck,  Longfellow,  Willis,  Lowell,  Allston,  Hillhouse,  Drake,  Whit- 
tier,  Hoffman,  and  others.  — 5.  The  Transcendental  Movement  in  New  England. — 
6.  Miscellaneous  Writings  :  Whipple,  Tuckerman,  Curtis,  Briggs,  Prentice,  and  oth- 
ers. —  7.  Encyclopaedias,  Dictionaries,  and  Educational  Books.  The  Encyclopaedia 
Americana.  The  New  American  Cyclopaedia.  Allibone,  Griswold,  Duyckinck, 
Webster,  Worcester,  Anthon,  Felton,  Barnard,  and  others.  —  8.  Theology,  Philoso- 
phy, Economy,  and  Jurisprudence  :  Stuart,  Robinson,  Wayland,  Barnes,  Channing, 
Parker.  Tappan,  Henry,  Hickok,  Haven.  Carey,  Kent,  Wheaton,  Story,  Living- 
ston, Lawrence,  Bouvier. —  9.  Natural  Sciences :  Franklin,  Morse,  Fulton,  Silliman, 
Dana,  Hitchcock,  Rogers,  Bowditch,  Peirce,  Bache,  Holbrook,  Audubon,  Morton, 
Gliddon,  Maury,  and  others.  — 10.  Foreign  Writers :  Paine,  Witherspoon,  Rowson, 
Priestley,  Wilson,  Agassiz,  Guyot,  Mrs.  Robinson,  Gurowski,  and  others.  — 11. 
Newspapers  and  Periodicals.  — 12.  Since  1860 516 

CONCLUSION 539 

INDEX    .  .  641 


LIST  OF  AUTHORITIES. 


THE  following  works  are  the  sources  from  which  this  book  is 
wholly  or  chiefly  derived  :  — 

^  Taylor's  History  of  the  Alphabet  ;  Dwight's  Philology;  Herder's 
Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry;  Lowth's  Hebrew  Poetry;  Asiatic  Researches; 
the  works  of  Gesenius,  Do  Wette,  Ewald,  Colebrooke,  Sir  William 
Jones,  Wilson,  Ward  ;  Schlegel's  Hindu  Language  and  Literature  ; 
Max  Miiller's  History  of  Sanskrit  Literature  ;  and  What  India  has 
taught  us;  Malcolm's  History  of  Persia;  Richardson  on  the  Language 
of  Eastern  Nations;  Adelung's  Mithridates;  Chodzko's  Specimens  of 
the  Popular  Poetry  of  Persia;  Costello's  Rose  Garden  of  Persia;  Re"- 
musat's  Memoire  sur  1'Ecriture  Chinoise;  Davis  on  the  Poetry  of  the 
Chinese;  Williams's  Middle  Kingdom;  The  Mikado's  Empire;  Rein's 
Travels  in  Japan;  Duhalde's  Description  de  la  Chine;  Champollion's 
Letters;  Wilkinson's  Extracts  from  Hieroglyphical  Subjects;  the 
works  of  Bunsen,  Muller,  and  Lane  ;  Midler's  History  of  the  Litera- 
ture of  Ancient  Greece,  continued  by  Donaldson  ;  Browne's  History 
of  Roman  Classical  Literature  ;  Fiske's  Manual  of  Classical  Litera- 
ture ;  Sismondi's  Literature  of  the  South  of  Europe ;  Goodrich's  Uni- 
versal History;  Sanford's  Rise  and  Progress  of  Literature;  Schlegel's 
Lectures  on  the  History  of  Literature ;  Schlegel's  History  of  Dramatic 
Art;  Tiraboschi's  History  of  Italian  Literature;  Maffei,  Corniani,  and 
Ugoni  on  the  same  subject  ;  Chambers's  Handbooks  of  Italian  and 
German  Literature;  Vilmar's  History  of  German  Literature;  Foster's 
Handbook  of  French  Literature  ;  Nisard's  Histoire  de  la  Litterature 
Frai^aise  ;  Demogeot's  Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Francaise  ;  Tick- 
nor's  History  of  Spanish  Literature  ;  Talvi's  (Mrs.  Robinson)  Liter- 
ature of  the  Slavic  Nations;  Mallet's  Northern  Antiquities  ;  Keyson's 
Religion  of  the  Northmen  ;  Pigott's  Northern  Mythology;  William 
and  Mary  Howitt's  Literature  and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe  ; 
De  s'Gravenweert's  Sur  la  Litterature  Neerlandaise  ;  Siegenbeck's 
Histoire  Litteraire  des  Pays-Bas;  Da  Pontes'  Poets  and  Poetry  of 
Germany;  Menzel's  German  Literature  ;  Spaulding's  History  of  Eng- 
lish Literature;  Chambers's  Cyclopaedia  of  English  Literature;  Shaw's 
English  Literature  ;  Stedman's  Victorian  Poets;  Triibner's  Guide  to 
American  Literature  ;  Duyckinck's  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Liter- 
ature; Griswold's  Poets  and  Prose  Writers  of  America;  Tuckerman's 
Sketch  of  American  Literature  ;  Frothingham's  Transcendental  Move- 
ment in  New  England.  French,  English,  and  American  Encyclopae- 
dias, Biographies,  Dictionaries,  and  numerous  other  works  of  refer- 
ence have  also  been  extensively  consulted. 


INTRODUCTION. 

THE  ALPHABET. 

1.  The  Origin  of  Letters. —2.  The  Phoenician  Alphabet  and  Inscriptions.  — 3.  The 
Greek  Alphabet.  ItsThree  Epochs.  —  4.  The  Mediaeval  Scripts.  The  Irish.  The  Anglo- 
Saxon.  The  Roman.  The  Gotliic.  The  Runic. 

1.  THE  ORIGIN  OF  LETTERS.  —  Alphabetic  writing  is  an  art 
easy  to  acquire,  but  its  invention  has  tasked  the  genius  of  the 
three  most  gifted  nations  of  the  ancient  world.     All  primitive 
people  have  begun  to  record  events  and  transmit  messages  by 
means  of  rude  pictures  of  objects,  intended  to  represent  things 
or  thoughts,  which  afterwards  became  the  symbols  of  sounds. 
For  instance,  the  letter  M  is  traced  down  from  the  convention- 
alized picture  of  an  owl  in  the  ancient  language  of  Egypt,  Midak. 
This  was  used  first  to  denote  the  bird  itself ;  then  it  stood  for 
the  name  of  the  bird ;  then  gradually  became  a  syllabic  sign  to 
express  the  sound  "  mu,"  the  first  syllable  of  the  name,  and  ul- 
timately to  denote  "  M,"  the  initial  sound  of  that  syllable. 

In  like  manner  A  can  be  shown  to  be  originally  the  picture 
of  an  eagle,  D  of  a  hand,  F  of  the  horned  asp,  R  of  the  mouth, 
and  so  on. 

Five  systems  of  picture-writing  have  been  independently  in- 
vented, — the  Egyptian,  the  Cuneiform,  the  Chinese,  the  Mexican, 
and  the  Hittite.  The  tradition  of  the  ancient  world,  which  as- 
signed to  the  Phoenicians  the  glory  of  the  invention  of  letters, 
declared  that  it  was  from  Egypt  that  they  originally  derived  the 
art  of  writing,  which  they  afterwards  carried  into  Greece,  and 
the  latest  investigations  have  confirmed  this  tradition. 

2.  THE  PHOENICIAN  ALPHABET.  —  Of  the  Phoenician  alphabet 
the    Samaritan  -  is   the    only  living  representative,  the    Sacred 
Script  of  the  few  families  who  still  worship  on  Mount  Gerizim. 
With  this  exception,  it  is  only  known  to  us  by  inscriptions,  of 
which  several  hundred  have  been  discovered.     They  form  two 
well-marked  varieties,  the  Moabite  and  the  Sidonian.    The  most 
important  monument  of  the  first  is  the  celebrated  Moabite  stone, 
discovered  in  1868  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  capital  of  the  land 
of  Moab,  portions  of  which  are  preserved  in  the  Louvre.     It 
gives  an  account  of  the  revolt  of  the  King  of  Moab  against 

1 


2  INTRODUCTION. 

Jehoram,  King  of  Israel,  890  B.-  c.  The  most  important  inscrip- 
tion of  the  Sidonian  type  is  that  on  the  magnificent  sarcophagus 
of  a  king  of  Sidon,  now  one  of  the  glories  of  the  Louvre. 

A  monument  of  the  early  Hebrew  alphabet,  another  offshoot 
of  the  Phoenician,  was  discovered  in  1880  in  an  inscription  in 
the  ancient  tunnel  which  conveys  water  to  the  pool  of  Siloain. 

3.  THE  GREEK  ALPHABET.  —  The  names,  number,  order,  and 
forms  of  the  primitive  Greek  alphabet  attest  its  Semitic  origin. 
Of  the  many  inscriptions  which  remain,  the  earliest  has  been 
discovered,  not  in  Greece,  but  upon  the  colossal  portrait  statues 
carved  by  Rameses  the  Great,  in  front  of  the  stupendous  cave 
temple  at  Abou-Simbel,  at  the  time  when  the  Hebrews  were  still 
in  Egyptian  bondage.  In  the  seventh  century  B.  (?.,  certain  Greek 
mercenaries  in  the  service  of  an  Egyptian  king  inscribed  a  rec- 
ord of  their  visit  in  five  precious  lines  of  writing,  which  the  dry 
Nubian  atmosphere  has  preserved  almost  in  their  pristine  sharp- 
ness. 

The  legend,  according  to  which  Cadmus  the  Tyrian  sailed 
for  Greece  in  search  of  Europa,  the  damsel  who  personified  the 
West,  designates  the  island  of  Thera  as  the  earliest  site  of  Phoe- 
nician colonization  in  the  .flCgean,  and  from  inscriptions  found 
there  this  may  be  regarded  as  the  first  spot  of  European  soil  on 
which  words  were  written,  and  they  exhibit  better  than  any 
others  the  progressive  form  of  the  Cadmean  alphabet.  The 
oldest  inscriptions  found  on  Hellenic  soil  bearing  a  definite  date 
are  those  cut  on  the  pedestals  of  the  statues  which  lined  the  sa- 
cred way  leading  to  the  temple  of  Apollo,  near  Miletus.  Sev- 
eral of  those,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  range  in  date  over  the 
sixth  century  B.  c.  They  belong,  not  to  the  primitive  alphabet, 
but  to  the  Ionian,  one  of  the  local  varieties  which  mark  the  sec- 
ond stage,  which  may  be  called  the  epoch  of  transition,  which  be- 
gan in  the  seventh  and  lasted  to  the  close  of  the  fifth  century 
B.  c.  It  is  not  till  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  that  we  have 
any  dated  monuments  belonging  to  iliO  V\  ustern  types.  Among 
these  are  the  names  of  the  allied  states  of  Hellas,  inscribed  on 
the  coils  of  the  three-headed  bronze  serpent  which  supported  the 
gold  tripod  dedicated  to  the  Delphian  Apollo,  476  B.  c.  This 
famous  monument  was  transported  to  Byzantium  by  Constantino 
the  Great,  and  still  stands  in  the  Hippodrome  at  Constantinople. 
Of  equal  interest  is  the  bronze  Etruscan  helmet  in  the  British 
Museum,  dedicated  to  the  Olympian  Zeus,  in  commemoration  of 
the  great  victory  off  Cumze,  which  destroyed  the  naval  suprem- 
acy of  the  Etruscans,  474  B.  c.,  and  is  celebrated  in  an  ode  by 
Pindar. 

The  third  epoch  witnessed  the  emergence  of  the  classical  al- 
phabets of  European  culture,  the  Ionian  and  the  Italic. 


INTRODUCTION.  3 

The  Ionian  has  been  the  source  of  the  Eastern  scripts,  Ex* 
maic,  Coptic,  Slavic,  and  others.  The  Italic  became  the  parent 
of  the  modern  alphabets  of  Western  Europe. 

4.  THE  MEDIAEVAL  SCRIPTS.  —  A  variety  of  national  scripts 
arose  in  the  establishment  of  the  Teutonic  kingdoms  upon  the/ 
ruins  of  the  Roman  Empire.  But  the  most  magnificent  of  all 
mediaeval  scripts  was  the  Irish,  which  exercised  a  profound  in- 
fluence on  the  later  alphabets  of  Europe.  From  a  combination 
of  the  Roman  and  Irish  arose  the  Anglo-Saxon  script,  the  precur- 
sor of  that  which  was  developed  in  the  ninth  century  by  Alcuin 
of  York,  the  friend  and  preceptor  of  Charlemagne.  This  was 
the  parent  of  the  Roman  alphabet,  in  which  our  books  are  now 
printed.  Among  other  deteriorations,  there  crept  in,  in  the  four- 
teenth century,  the  Gothic  or  black  letter  character,  and  these  bar- 
barous forms  are  still  essentially  retained  by  the  Teutonic  nations 
though  discarded  by  the  English  and  Latin  races  ;  but  from  its 
superior  excellences  the  Roman  alphabet  is  constantly  extend- 
ing its  range  and  bids  fair  to  become  the  sole  alphabet  of  the. 
future.  In  all  the  lands  that  were  settled  and  overrun  by  the. 
Scandinavians,  there  are  found  multitudes  of  inscriptions  in  the 
ancient  alphabet  of  the  Norsemen,  which  is  called  the  Runic. 
The  latest  modern  researches  seem  to  prove  that  this  was  de- 
rived from  the  Greek,  and  probably  dates  back  as  far  as  the 
sixth  century  B.  c.  The  Goths  were  early  in  occupation  of  the 
regions  south  of  the  Baltic  and  east  of  the  Vistula,  and  in  direct 
commercial  intercourse  with  the  Greek  traders,  from  whom  they 
doubtless  obtained  a  knowledge  of  the  Greek  alphabet,  as  the 
Greeks  themselves  had  gained  it  from  the  Phoenicians. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  LANGUAGES. 

Modern  philologists  have  made  different  classifications  of  the 
various  languages  of  the  world,  one  of  which  divides  them  into 
three  great  classes  :  the  Monosyllabic,  the  Agglutinated,  and  the 
Inflected. 

—  The  first,  or  Monosyllabic  class,  contains  those  languages 
which  consist  only  of  separate,  unvaried  monosyllables.  The 
words  have  no  organization  that  adapts  them  for  mutual  affilia- 
tion, and  there  is  in  them,  accordingly,  an  utter  absence  of  all 
scientific  forms  and  principles  of  grammar.  The  Chinese  and 
a  few  languages  in  its  vicinity,  doubtless  originally  identical 
with  it,  are  all  that  belong  to  this  class.  The  languages  of  the 
North  American  Indians,  though  differing  in  many  respects, 
have  the  same  general  grade  of  character. 

The  second  class  consists  of  those  languages  which  are  formed 


4  INTRODUCTION. 

by  agglutination.  The  words  combine  only  in  a  mechanical 
way;  they  have  no  elective  affinity,  and  exhibit  toward  each 
other  none  of  the  active  or  sensitive  capabilities  of  living  organ- 
isms. Prepositions  are  joined  to  substantives,  and  pronouns  to 
verbs,  but  never  so  as  to  make  a  new  form  of  the  original  word, 
as  in  the  inflected  languages,  and  words  thus  placed  in  juxtapo- 
sition retain  their  personal  identity  unimpaired. 

The  agglutinative  languages  are  known  also  as  the  Turanian, 
from  Turan,  a  name  of  Central  Asia,  and  the  principal  varieties 
of  this  family  are  the  Tartar,  Finnish,  Lappish,  Hungarian,  and 
Caucasian.  They  are  classed  together  almost  exclusively  on  the 
ground  of  correspondence  in  their  grammatical  structure,  but 
they  are  bound  together  by  ties  of  far  less  strength  than  those 
which  connect  the  inflected  languages.  The  race  by  whom  they 
are  spoken  has,  from  the  first,  occupied  more  of  the  surface  of 
the  earth  than  either  of  the  others,  stretching  westward  from  the 
shores  of  the  Japan  Sea  to  the  neighborhood  of  Vienna,  and 
southward  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  Affghanistan  and  the  south- 
ern coast  of  Asia  Minor. 

The  inflected  languages  form  the  third  great  division.  They 
have  all  a  complete  interior  organization,  complicated  with  many 
mutual  relations  and  adaptations,  and  are  thoroughly  systematic 
in  all  their  parts.  Between  this  class  and  the  monosyllabic  there 
is  all  the  difference  that  there  is  between  organic  and  inorganic 
forms  of  matter ;  and  between  them  and  the  agglutinative  lan- 
guages there  is  the  same  difference  that  exists  in  nature  be- 
tween mineral  accretions  and  vegetable  growths.  The  bounda- 
ries of  this  class  of  languages  are  the  boundaries  of  cultivated 
humanity,  and  in  their  history  lies  embosomed  that  of  the  civil- 
ized portions  of  the  world. 

Two  great  races  speaking  inflected  languages,  the  Semitic  and 
the  Indo-European,  have  shared  between  them  the  peopling  of 
the  historic  portions  of  the  earth ;  and  on  this  account  these  two 
languages  have  sometimes  been  called  political  or  state  lan- 
guages, in  contrast  with  the  appellation  of  the  Turanian  as  no- 
madic. 

The  term  Semitic  is  applied  to  that  family  of  languages  which 
are  native  in  Southwestern  Asia,  and  which  are  supposed  to  have 
been  spoken  by  the  descendants  of  Shem,  the  son  of  Noah.  They 
are  the  Hebrew,  Aranueic,  Arabic,  the  ancient  Egyptian  or 
Coptic,  the  Chaldaic,  and  Phffinician.  Of  these  the  only  living 
language  of  note  is  the  Arabic,  which  has  supplanted  all  the 
others,  and  wonderfully  diffused  its  elements  among  the  con- 
stituents of  many  of  the  Asiatic  tongues.  In  Europe  the 
Arabic  has  left  a  deep  impress  on  the  Spanish  language,  and  is 
•still  represented  in  the  Maltese,  which  is  one  of  its  dialects. 


INTRODUCTION.  5 

The  Semitic  languages  differ  widely  from  the  Indo-European 
in  reference  to  their  grammar,  vocabulary,  and  idioms.  On 
account  of  the  great  preponderance  of  the  pictorial  element  in 
them,  they  may  be  called  the  metaphorical  languages,  while  the 
Indo-European,  from  the  prevailing  style  of  their  higher  litera- 
ture, may  be  called  the  philosophical  languages.  The  Semitic 
nations  also  differ  from  the  Indo-European  in  their  national 
characteristics  ;  while  they  have  lived  with  remarkable  uniform- 
ity on  the  vast  open  plains,  or  wandered  over  the  wide  and 
dreary  deserts  of  their  native  region,  the  Indo-Europeans  have 
spread  themselves  over  both  hemispheres,  and  carried  civiliza- 
tion to  its  highest  development.  But  the  Semitic  mind  has  not 
been  without  influence  on  human  progress.  It  early  recorded 
its  thoughts,  its  wants,  and  achievements  in  the  hieroglyphs 
of  ancient  Egypt ;  the  Phoenicians,  foremost  in  their  day  in 
commerce  and  the  arts,  introduced  from  Egypt  alphabetic  let- 
ters, of  which  all  the  world  has  since  made  use.  The  Jewish 
portion  of  the  race,  long  in  communication  with  Egypt,  Phreni- 
cia,  Babylonia,  and  Persia,  could  not  fail  to  impart  to  these  na- 
tions some  knowledge  of  their  religion  and  literature,  and  it 
cannot  be  doubted  that  many  new  ideas  and  quickening  influ- 
ences were  thus  set  in  motion,  and  communicated  to  the  more 
remote  countries  both  of  the  East  and  West. 

The  most  ancient  languages  of  the  Indo-European  stock  may 
be  grouped  in  two  distinct  family  pairs  :  the  Aryan,  which  com- 
prises two  leading  families,  the  Indian  and  Iranian,  and  the 
Grjeco-Italic  or  Pelasgic,  which  comprises  the  Greek  family  and 
its  various  dialects,  and  the  Italic  family,  the  chief-subdivisions 
of  which  are  the  Etruscan,  the  Latin,  and  the  modern  languages 
derived  from  the  Latin.  The  other  Indo-European  families  are 
the  Lettic,  Slavic,  Gothic,  and  Celtic,  with  their  various  sub- 
divisions. 

The  word  Aryan  (Sanskrit,  Arya),  the  oldest  known  name  of 
the  entire  Indo-European  family,  signifies  well-born,  and  was 
applied  by  the  ancient  Hindus  to  themselves  in  contradistinction 
to  the  rest  of  the  world,  whom  they  considered  base-born  and 
contemptible. 

In  the  country  called  Aryavarta,  lying  between  the  Himalaya 
and  the  Vindhya  Mountains,  the  high  table-land  of  Central  Asia, 
more  than  two  thousand  years  before  Christ,  our  Hindu  ances- 
tors had  their  early  home.  From  this  source  there  have  been, 
historically,  two  great  streams  of  Aryan  migration.  One,  towards 
the  south,  stagnated  in  the  fertile  valleys,  where  they  were  walled 
in  from  all  danger  of  invasion  by  the  Himalaya  Mountains  on 
the  north,  the  Indian  Ocean  on  the  south,  and  the  deserts  of 
Bactria  on  the  west,  and  where  the  people  sunk  into  a  life  of 


6  INTRODUCTION. 

inglorious  ease,  or  wasted  their  powers  in  the  regions  of  dreamy 
mysticism.  The  other  migration,  at  first  northern,  and  then 
western,  includes  the  great  families  of  nations  in  Northwestern 
Asia  and  in  Europe.  Forced  by  circumstances  into  a  more  ob- 
jective life,  and  under  the  stimulus  of  more  favorable  influences, 
these  nations  have  been  brought  into  a  marvelous  state  of  in- 
dividual and  social  progress,  and  to  this  branch  of  the  human 
family  belongs  all  the  civilization  of  the  present,  and  most  of 
that  which  distinguishes  the  past. 

The  Indo-European  family  of  languages  far  surpasses  the 
Semitic  in  variety,  flexibility,  beauty,  and  strength.  It  is  re- 
markable for  its  vitality,  and  has  the  power  of  continually  re- 
generating itself  and  bringing  forth  new  linguistic  creations.  It 
renders  most  faithfully  the  various  workings  of  the  human  mind, 
its  wants,  its  aspirations,  its  passion,  imagination,  and  reasoning 
power,  and  is  most  in  harmony  with  the  ever  progressive  spirit 
of  man.  In  its  varied  scientific  and  artistic  development  it 
forms  the  most  perfect  family  of  languages  on  the  globe,  and 
modern  civilization,  by  a  chain  reaching  through  thousands  of 
years,  ascends  to  this  primitive  source. 


HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 


CHINESE    LITERATURE. 

1.  Chinese  Literature.  —  2.  The  Language. — 3.  The  Writing.  —  4.  The  five  Classics  and 
four  Books. — 5.  Chinese  Religion  and  Philosophy.  Lao-tse1.  Confucius.  Meng-tsiS  or 
Mencius. — 6.  Buddhism. —  7.  Social  Constitution  of  China.  —  8.  Invention  of  Printing. 
—  9.  Science,  History,  and  Geography.  Encyclopaedias.  — 10.  Poetry.  — 11.  Dramatic 
Literature  and  Fiction.  — 12.  Education  in  China. 

1.  CHINESE  LITERATURE.  —  The  Chinese  literature  is  one  of 
the  most  voluminous  of  all  literatures,  and  among  the  most  im- 
portant of  those  of  Asia.     Originating  in  a  vast  empire,  it  is  dif- 
fused among  a  population  numbering  nearly  half  the  inhabitants 
of  the  globe.     It  is  expressed  by  an  original  language  differing 
from  all  others,  it  refers  to  a  nation  whose  history  may  be  traced 
back  nearly  five  thousand  years  in  an  almost  unbroken  series  of 
annals,  and  it  illustrates  the  peculiar  character  of  a  people  long 
unknown  to  the  Western  world. 

2.  THE  LANGUAGE. — The  date  of  the  origin  of  this  language 
is  lost  in  antiquity,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  the  most  an- 
cient now  spoken,  and  probably  the  oldest  written  language  used 
by  man.      It  has  undergone    few  alterations  during  successive 
ages,  and  this  fact  has  served  to  deepen  the  lines  of  demarkation 
between  the  Chinese  and  other  branches  of  the  race  and  has  re- 
sulted in  a  marked  national  life.     It  belongs  to  the  monosyllabic 
family ;  its  radical  words  number  450,  but  as  many  of  these,  by 
being   pronounced  with  a  different   accent   convey  a  different 
meaning,  in  reality  they  amount  to  1,203.     Its   pronunciation 
varies  in  different  provinces,  but  that  of  Nanking,  the  ancient 
capital  of  the   Empire,  is  the  most  pure.     Many  dialects  are 
spoken  in  the  different  provinces,  but  the  Chinese  proper  is  the 
literary  tongue  of  the  nation,  the  language  of  the  court  and  of 
polite  society,  and  it  is  vernacular  in  that  portion  of  China  called 
the  Middle  Kingdom. 

3.  THE  WRITING.  —  There  is  an  essential  difference  between 
the  Chinese  language  as  spoken  and  written,  and  the  poverty  of 
the  former  presents  a  striking  contrast  with  the  exuberance  of 
the  latter.     Chinese  writing,  generally  speaking,  does  not  ex- 
press the  sounds  of  the  words,  but  it  represents  the  ideas  or  the 
objects  indicated  by  them.    Its  alphabetical  characters  are  there- 


8  HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

fore  ideographic,  and  not  phonetic.  They  were  originally  rude 
representations  of  the  thing  signified  ;  but  they  have  undergone 
various  changes  from  picture-writing  to  the  present  more  sym- 
bolical and  more  complete  system. 

As  the  alphabetic  signs  represent  objects  or  ideas,  it  would 
follow  that  there  must  be  in  writing  as  many  characters  as 
words  in  the  spoken  language.  Yet  many  words,  which  have 
the  same  sound,  represent  different  ideas ;  and  these  must  be 
represented  also  in  the  written  language.  Thus  the  number  of 
the  written  words  far  surpasses  that  of  the  spoken  language.  As 
far  as  they  are  used  in  the  common  writing,  they  amount  to 
2,425.  The  number  of  characters  in  the  Chinese  dictionary  is 
40,000,  of  which,  however,  only  10,000  are  required  for  the  gen- 
eral purposes  of  literature.  They  are  disposed  under  214  signs, 
which  serve  as  keys,  and  which  correspond  to  our  alphabetic 
order. 

The  Chinese  language  is  written  from  right  to  left,  in  vertical 
columns  or  in  horizontal  lines. 

4.  THE  CLASSICS. — The  first  five  canonical  books  are  "The 
Book  of  Transformations,"  "  The  Book  of  History,"  "  The  Book 
of  Rites,"  "  The  Spring  and  Autumn  Annals,"  and  "  The  Book 
of  Odes." 

"  The  Book  of  Transformations  "  consists  of  sixty-four  short 
essays  on  important  themes,  symbolically  and  enigmatically  ex- 
pressed, based  on  linear  figures  and  diagrams.  These  cabala 
are  held  in  high  esteem  by  the  learned,  and  the  hundreds  of 
fortune-tellers  in  the  streets  of  Chinese  towns  practice  their  art 
on  the  basis  of  these  mysteries. 

"  The  Book  of  History  "  was  compiled  by  Confucius,  551-470 
B.  c.,  from  the  earliest  records  of  the  Empire,  and  in  the  estima- 
tion of  the  Chinese  it  contains  the  seeds  of  all  that  is  valuable 
in  their  political  system,  their  history,  and  their  religious  rites, 
and  is  the  basis  of  their  tactics,  music,  and  astronomy.  It  con- 
sists mainly  of  conversations  between  kings  and  their  ministers, 
in  which  are  traced  the  same  patriarchal  principles  of  govern- 
ment that  guide  the  rulers  of  the  present  day. 

"  The  Book  of  Rites  "  is  still  the  rule  by  which  the  Chinese 
regulate  all  the  relations  of  life.  No  every-day  ceremony  is  too 
insignificant  to  escape  notice,  and  no  social  or  domestic  duty  is 
beyond  its  scope.  No  work  of  the  classics  has  left  such  an  im- 
pression on  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  people.  Its  rules 
are  still  minutely  observed,  and  the  office  of  the  Board  of  Rites, 
one  of  the  six  governing  boards  of  Peking,  is  to  see  that  its  pre- 
cepts are  carried  out  throughout  the  Empire.  According  to  this 
system,  all  the  relations  of  man  to  the  family,  society,  the  state, 
to  morals,  and  to  religion,  are  reduced  to  ceremonial,  but  this 


CHINESE  LITERATURE.  9 

includes  not  only  the  external  conduct,  but  it  involves  those  right 
principles  from  which  all  true  politeness  and  etiquette  spring. 

The  "  Book  of  Odes  "  consists  of  national  airs,  chants,  and 
sacrificial  odes  of  great  antiquity,  some  of  them  remarkable  for 
their  sublimity.  It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  power  they  have 
exerted  over  all  subsequent  generations  of  Chinese  scholars. 
They  are  valuable  for  their  religious  character  and  for  their 
illustration  of  early  Chinese  customs  and  feelings  ;  but  they  are 
crude  in  measure,  and  wanting  in  that  harmony  which  comes 
from  study  and  cultivation. 

The  "  Spring  and  Autumn  Annals  "  consist  of  bald  statements 
of  historical  facts.  Of  the  Four  Books,  the  first  three  —  the 
"  Great  Learning,"  the  "  Just  Medium,"  and  the  "  Confucian 
Analects "  —  are  by  the  pupils  and  followers  of  Confucius. 
The  last  of  the  four  books  consists  entirely  of  the  writings  of 
Mencius  (371-288  B.  c.).  In  originality  and  breadth  of  view 
he  is  superior  to  Confucius,  and  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the 
greatest  men  Asiatic  nations  have  produced. 

The  Five  Classics  and  Four  Books  would  scarcely  be  considered 
more  than  curiosities  in  literature  were  it  not  for  the  incompar- 
able influence,  free  from  any  debasing  character,  which  they  have 
exerted  over  so  many  millions  of  minds. 

5.  CHINESE  RELIGION  AND  PHILOSOPHY. — Three  periods  may 
be  distinguished  in  the  history  of  the  religious  and  philosophical 
progress  of  China.  The  first  relates  to  ancient  tradition,  to  the 
idea  of  one  supreme  God,  to  the  patriarchal  institutions,  which 
were  the  foundation  of  the  social  organization  of  the  Empire,  and 
to  the  primitive  customs  and  moral  doctrines.  It  appears  that 
this  religion  at  length  degenerated  into  that  mingled  idolatry 
and  indifference  which  still  characterizes  the  people  of  China. 

In  the  sixth  century  B.  c.,  the  corruption  of  the  ancient  religion 
having  reached  its  height,  a  reaction  took  place  which  gave  birth 
to  the  second,  or  philosophical  period,  which  produced  three  sys- 
tems. Lao-tse,  born  604  B.  c.,  was  the  founder  of  the  religion 
of  the  Tao,  or  of  the  external  and  supreme  reason.  The  Tao  is 
the  primitive  existence  and  intelligence,  the  great  principle  of 
the  spiritual  and  material  world,  which  must  be  worshiped 
through  the  purification  of  the  soul,  by  retirement,  abnegation, 
contemplation,  and  metempsychosis.  This  school  gave  rise  to  a 
sect  of  mystics  similar  to  those  of  India. 

Later  writers  have  debased  the  system  of  Lao-tse,  and  cast 
aside  his  profound  speculations  for  superstitious  rituals  and  the 
multiplication  of  gods  and  goddesses. 

Confucius  was  the  founder  of  the  second  school,  which  has 
exerted  a  far  more  extensive  and  beneficial  influence  on  the 
political  and  social  institutions  of  China.  Confucius  is  a  Latin 


10          HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

name,  corresponding  to  the  original  Kung-fu-tse",  Kung  being  the 
proper  name,  and  Fu-tse  signifying  reverend  teacher  or  doctor. 
He  was  horn  551  B.  c.,  and  educated  by  his  mother,  who  im- 
pressed upon  him  a  strong  sense  of  morality.  After  a  careful 
study  of  the  ancient  writings  he  decided  to  undertake  the  moral 
reform  of  his  country,  and  giving  up  his  high  position  of  prime 
minister,  he  traveled  extensively  in  China,  preaching  justice 
and  virtue  wherever  he  went.  His  doctrines,  founded  on  the 
unity  of  God  and  the  necessities  of  human  nature,  bore  essen- 
tially a  moral  character,  and  being  of  a  practical  tendency,  they 
exerted  a  great  influence  not  only  on  the  morals  of  the  people, 
but  also  on  their  legislation,  and  the  authority  of  Confucius  be- 
came supreme.  He  died  479  B.  c.,  at  the  age  of  seventy-two, 
eleven  years  before  the  birth  of  Socrates.  He  left  a  grandson, 
through  whom  the  succession  has  been  transmitted  to  the  pres- 
ent day,  and  his  descendants  constitute  .a  distinct  class  in  Chinese 
society. 

At  the  close  of  the  fourth  century  B.  c.,  another  philosopher 
appeared  by  the  name  of  Meng-tse,  or  Mencius  (eminent  and 
venerable  teacher),  whose  method  of  instruction  bore  a  strong 
similarity  to  that  of  Socrates.  His  books  rank  among  the  clas- 
sics, and  breathe  a  spirit  of  freedom  and  independence  ;  they 
are  full  of  irony  on  petty  sovereigns  and  on  their  vices ;  they  es- 
tablish moral  goodness  above  social  position,  and  the  will  of  the 
people  above  the  arbitrary  power  of  their  rulers.  He  was  much 
revered,  and  considered  bolder  and  more  eloquent  than  Con- 
fucius. 

6.  The  third  period  of  the  intellectual   development  of  the 
Chinese  dates  from  the  introduction  of  Buddhism  into  the  coun- 
try, under  the  name  of  the  religion  of  Fo,  70  A.  D.     The  em- 
peror himself  professes  this  religion,  and  its  followers  have  the 
largest  number  of  temples.     The  great  bulk  of  Buddhist  litera- 
ture is  of  Indian  origin.     Buddhism,  however,  has  lost  in  China 
much  of  its  originality,  and  for  the  mass  it  has  sunk  into  a  low 
and  debasing  idolatry.     Recently  a  new  religion  has  sprung  up 
in  China,  a  mixture  of  ancient  Chinese  and  Christian  doctrines, 
which  apparently  finds  great  favor  in  some  portions  of  the  coun- 
try. 

7.  SOCIAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  CHINA. — The  social  constitution 
of  China  rests  on  the  ancient  traditions  preserved  in  the  canon- 
ical and  classic  books.     The  Chinese  empire  is  founded  on  the 
patriarchal  system,  in  which  all  authority  over  the  family  be- 
longs to  the  pater  familias.     The  emperor  represents  the  great 
father  of  the   nation,  and  is  the  supreme  master  of  the  state 
and  the  head  of  religion.     All  his  subjects  being  consid«red  as 
his  children,  they  are  all  equal  before  him,  and  according  to 


CHINESE  LITERATURE.  11 

their  capacity  are  admitted  to  the  public  offices.  Hence  no  dis- 
tinction of  castes,  no  privileged  classes,  no  nobility  of  birth  ;  but 
a  general  equality  under  an  absolute  chief.  The  public  admin- 
istration is  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  emperor,  who  is  assisted 
by  his  mandarins,  both  military  and  civil.  They  are  admitted 
to  this  rank  only  after  severe  examinations,  and  from  them  the 
members  of  the  different  councils  of  the  empire  are  selected. 
Among  these  the  Board  of  Control,  or  the  all-examining  Court, 
and  the  Court  of  History  and  Literature  deserve  particular 
mention,  as  being  more  closely  related  to  the  subject  of  this 
work.  The  duty  of  this  board  consists  in  examining  all  the 
official  acts  of  the  government,  and  in  preventing  the  enacting 
of  those  measures  which  they  may  deem  detrimental  to  the  best 
interests  of  the  country.  They  can  even  reprove  the  personal 
acts  of  the  emperor,  an  office  which  has  afforded  many  occasions 
for  the  display  of  eloquence.  The  courage  of  some  of  the  mem- 
bers of  this  board  has  been  indeed  sublime,  giving  to  their  words 
wonderful  power. 

The  Court  of  History  and  Literature  superintends  public  edu- 
cation, examines  those  who  aspire  to  the  degree  of  mandarins, 
and  decides  on  the  pecuniary  subsidies,  which  the  government 
usually  grants  for  defraying  the  expenses  of  the  publication  of 
great  works  on  history  and  science. 

8.  INVENTION  OF  PRINTING.  —  At  the  close  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury B.  c.  it  was  ordained  that  various  texts  in  circulation  should 
be  engraved  on  wood  to  be  printed  and  published.     At  first 
comparatively  little  use  seems  to  have  been  made  of  the  inven- 
tion, which  only  reached  its  full  development  in  the   eleventh 
century,  when  movable  types  were  first  invented  by  a  Chinese 
blacksmith,  who  printed  books  with  them  nearly  five  hundred 
years  before  Gutenberg  appeared. 

In  the  third  century  B.  c.,  one  of  the  emperors  conceived  the 
mad  scheme  of  destroying  all  existing  records,  and  writing  a 
new  set  of  annals  in  his  own  name,  in  order  that  posterity  might 
consider  him  the  founder  of  the  empire.  Sixty  years  after  this 
barbarous  decree  had  been  carried  into  execution,  one  of  his 
successors,  who  desired  as  far  as  possible  to  repair  the  injury, 
caused  these  books  to  be  re-written  from  a  copy  which  had  es- 
caped destruction. 

9.  SCIENCE,   HISTORY,   AND   GEOGRAPHY.  —  Comparing  the 
scientific  development  of  the  Chinese  with  that  of  the  Western 
world,  it  may  be  said  that  they  have  made  little  progress  in  any 
branch  of  science.     There  are,  however,  to  be  found  in  almost 
every  department  some  works  of  no  indifferent  merit.     In  math- 
ematics they  begin  only  now  to  make  some  progress,  since  the 
mathematical  works  of  Europe  have  been  introduced  into  their 


12         HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

country.  Astrology  still  takes  the  place  of  astronomy,  and  the 
almanacs  prepared  at  the  observatory  of  Peking  are  made  chiefly 
by  foreigners.  Books  on  natural  philosophy  abound,  some  of 
which  are  written  by  the  emperors  themselves.  Medicine  is 
imperfectly  understood.  They  possess  several  valuable  works 
on  Chinese  jurisprudence,  on  agriculture,  economy,  mechanics, 
trades,  many  cyclopaedias  and  compendia,  and  several  dictiona- 
ries, composed  with  extraordinary  skill  and  patience. 

To  this  department  may  be  referred  all  educational  books, 
the  most  of  them  written  in  rhyme,  and  according  to  a  system 
of  intellectual  gradation. 

The  historical  and  geographical  works  of  China  are  the  most 
valuable  and  interesting  department  of  its  literature.  Each 
dynasty  has  its  official  chronicle,  and  the  celebrated  collection 
of  twenty-one  histories  forms  an  almost  unbroken  record  of  the 
annals  from  the  third  century  B.  c.  to  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  and  contains  a  vast  amount  of  information  to 
European  readers.  The  edition  o£  this  huge  work,  in  sixty-six 
folio  volumes,  is  to  be  found  in  the  British  Museum.  This  and 
many  similar  works  of  a  general  and  of  a  local  character  unite 
in  rendering  this  department  rich  and  important  for  those  who 
are  interested  in  the  history  of  Asiatic  civilization.  "  The  Gen- 
eral Geography  of  the  Chinese  Empire  "  is  a  collection  of  the 
statistics  of  the  country,  with  maps  and  tables,  in  two  hundred 
and  sixty  volumes.  The  "  Statutes  of  the  Reigning  Dynasty," 
from  the  year  1818,  form  more  than  one  thousand  volumes. 
Chinese  topographical  works  are  characterized  by  a  minuteness 
of  detail  rarely  equaled. 

Historical  and  literary  encyclopaedias  form  a  very  notable  fea- 
ture in  all  Chinese  libraries.  These  works  show  great  research, 
clearness,  and  precision,  and  are  largely  drawn  upon  by  Euro- 
pean scholars.  Early  in  the  last  century  one  of  the  emperors 
appointed  a  commission  to  reprint  in  one  great  collection  all  the 
works  they  might  think  worthy  of  preservation.  The  result  was 
a  compilation  of  6,109  volumes,  arranged  under  thirty-two  heads, 
embracing  works  on  every  subject  contained  in  the  national 
literature.  This  work  is  unique  of  its  kind,  and  the  largest  in 
the  world. 

10.  POETRY.  —  The  first  development  of  literary  talent  in 
China,  as  elsewhere,  is  found  in  poetry,  and  in  the  earliest  days 
songs  and  ballads  were  brought  as  offerings  from  the  various 
principalities  to  the  heads  of  government.  At  the  time  of  Con- 
fucius there  existed  a  collection  of  three  thousand  songs,  from 
which  he  selected  those  contained  in  the  "  Book  of  Odes." 
There  is  not  much  sublimity  or  depth  of  thought  in  these  odes, 
but  they  abound  in  touches  of  nature,  and  are  exceedingly  in- 


CHINESE  LITERATURE.  13 

teresting  and  curious,  as  showing  how  little  change  time  has 
effected  in  the  manners  and  customs  of  this  singular  people. 
Similar  in  character  are  the  poems  of  the  Tshian-teng-shi,  an- 
other collection  of  lyrics  published  at  the  expense  of  the  emperor, 
in  several  thousand  volumes.  Among  modern  poets  may  be 
mentioned  the  Emperor  Khian-lung,  who  died  at  the  close  of  the 
last  century. 

After  the  time  of  Confucius  the  change  in  Chinese  poetry 
became  very  marked,  and,  instead  of  the  peaceful  tone  of  his 
day,  it  reflected  the  unsettled  condition  of  social  and  political 
affairs.  The  simple,  monotheistic  faith  was  exchanged  for  a 
superstitious  belief  in  a  host  of  gods  and  goddesses,  a  contempt 
for  life,  and  an  uncertainty  of  all  beyond  it.  The  period  be- 
tween 620  and  907  A.  D.,  was  one  of  great  prosperity,  and  is 
looked  upon  as  the  golden  age. 

11.  DRAMATIC  LITERATURE  AND  FICTION.  —  Chinese  litera- 
ture affords  no  instance  of  real  dramatic  poetry  or  sustained 
effort  of  the  imagination.  The  "  Hundred  Plays  of  the  Yuen 
Dynasty  "  is  the  most  celebrated  collection,  and  many  have  been 
translated  into  European  languages.  One  of  them,  "  The  Orphan 
of  China,"  served  as  the  groundwork  of  Voltaire's  tragedy  of 
that  name.  The  drama,  however,  constitutes  a  large  depart- 
ment in  Chinese  literature,  though  there  are,  properly  speaking, 
no  theatres  in  China.  A  platform  in  the  open  air  is  the  ordi- 
nary stage,  the  decorations  are  hangings  of  cotton  supported  by 
a  few  poles  of  bamboo,  and  the  action  is  frequently  of  the  coars- 
est kind.  When  an  actor  comes  on  the  stage,  he  says,  "  I  am 
the  mandarin  so-and-so."  If  the  drama  requires  the  actor  to 
enter  a  house,  he  takes  some  steps  and  says,  "  I  have  entered  ; " 
and  if  he  is  supposed  to  travel,  he  does  so  by  rapid  running  on 
the  stage,  cracking  his  whip,  and  saying  afterwards,  "  I  have 
arrived."  The  dialogue  is  written  partly  in  verse  and  partly  in 
prose,  and  the  poetry  is  sometimes  sung  and  sometimes  recited. 
Many  of  their  dramas  are  full  of  bustle  and  abound  in  incident. 
They  often  contain  the  life  and  adventures  of  an  individual, 
some  great  sovereign  or  general,  a  history,  in  fact,  thrown  into 
action.  Two  thousand  volumes  of  dramatic  compositions  are 
known,  and  the  best  of  these  amount  to  five  hundred  pieces. 
Among  them  may  be  mentioned  the  "  Orphan  of  the  House  of 
Tacho,"  and  the  "  Heir  in  Old  Age,"  which  have  much  force 
and  character,  and  vividly  describe  the  habits  of  the  people. 

The  Chinese  are  fond  of  historical  and  moral  romances, 
which,  however,  are  founded  on  reason  and  not  on  imagination, 
as  are  the  Hindu  and  Persian  tales.  Their  subjects  are  not 
submarine  abysses,  enchanted  palaces,  giants  and  genii,  but  man 
as  he  is  in  his  actual  life,  as  he  lives  with  his  fellow-men,  with 


14         HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

all  his  virtues  and  vices,  sufferings  and  joys.  But  the  Chinese 
novelists  show  more  skill  in  the  details  than  in  the  conception  of 
their  works ;  the  characters  are  finished  and  developed  in  every 
respect.  The  pictures  with  which  they  adorn  their  works  are 
minute  and  the  descriptions  poetical,  though  they  often  sacrifice 
to  these  qualities  the  unity  of  the  subject.  The  characters  of 
their  novels  are  principally  drawn  from  the  middle  class,  as 
governors,  literary  men,  etc.  The  episodes  are,  generally  speak- 
ing, ordinary  actions  of  common  life  —  all  the  quiet  incidents  of 
the  phlegmatic  life  of  the  Chinese,  coupled  with  the  regular  and 
mechanical  movements  which  distinguish  that  people.  Among 
the  numberless  Chinese  romances  there  are  several  which  are 
considered  classic.  Such  are  the  "  Four  Great  Marvels'  Books," 
and  the  "  Stories  of  the  Pirates  on  the  Coast  of  Kiangnan." 

12.  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA.  Most  of  the  Chinese  people  have 
a  knowledge  of  the  rudiments  of  education.  There  is  scarcely 
a  man  who  does  not  know  how  to  read  the  books  of  his  profes- 
sion. Public  schools  are  everywhere  established  ;  in  the  cities 
there  are  colleges,  in  which  pupils  are  taught  the  Chinese  litera- 
ture ;  and  in  Peking  there  is  an  imperial  college  for  the  educa- 
tion of  the  mandarins.  The  offices  of  the  empire  are  only  at- 
tained by  scholarship.  There  are  four  literary  degrees,  which 
give  title  to  different  positions  in  the  country.  The  government 
fosters  the  higher  branches  of  education  and  patronizes  the  publi- 
cation of  literary  works,  which  are  distributed  among  the  libra- 
ries, colleges,  and  functionaries.  The  press  is  restricted  only 
from  publishing  licentious  and  revolutionary  books. 

The  future  h'terature  of  China  in  many  branches  will  be 
greatly  modified  by  the  introduction  of  foreign  knowledge  and 
influences. 


JAPANESE  LITERATURE. 

1.  The  Language.  —  2.  The  Religion.  —  3.  The  Literature.  Influence  of  Women.  — 
4.  History.  —  5.  The  Drama  and  Poetry.  —  6.  Geography.  Newspapers.  Novels.  Medi- 
cal Science.  —  7.  Position  of  Woman. 

1.  THE  LANGUAGE.  —  The  Japanese  is  considered  as  be- 
longing to  the  isolated  languages,  as  philologists  have  thus  far 
failed  to  classify  it.  It  is  agglutinative  in  its  syntax,  each 
word  consisting  of  an  unchangeable  root  and  one  or  several  suf- 
fixes. Before  the  art  of  writing  was  known,  poems,  odes  to 
the  gods,  and  other  fragments  which  still  exist  had  been  com- 
posed in  this  tongue,  and  it  is  probable  that  a  much  larger  liter- 
ature existed.  During  the  first  centuries  of  writing  in  Japan, 
the  spoken  and  written  language  was  identical,  but  with  the 
study  of  the  Chinese  literature  and  the  composition  of  native 
works  almost  exclusively  in  that  language,  there  grew  up  differ- 
ences between  the  colloquial  and  literary  idiom,  and  the  infusion 
of  Chinese  words  steadily  increased.  In  writing,  the  Chinese 
characters  occupy  the  most  important  place.  But  all  those 
words  which  express  the  wants,  feelings,  and  concerns  of  every- 
day life,  all  that  is  deepest  in  the  human  heart,  are  for  the  most 
part  native.  If  we  would  trace  the  fountains  of  the  musical  and 
beautiful  language  of  Japan,  we  must  seek  them  in  the  hearts 
and  hear  them  flow  from  the  lips  of  the  mothers  of  the  Island 
Empire.  Among  the  anomalies  with  which  Japan  has  surprised 
and  delighted  the  world  may  be  claimed  that  of  woman's 
achievements  in  the  domain  of  letters.  It  was  woman's  services, 
not  man's,  that  made  the  Japanese  a  literary  language,  and  un- 
der her  influence  the  mobile  forms  of  speech  crystallized  into 
perennial  beauty. 

The  written  language  has  heretofore  consisted  mainly  of  char- 
acters borrowed  from  the  Chinese,  each  character  representing 
an  idea  of  its  own,  so  that  in  order  to  read  and  write  the  student 
must  make  himself  acquainted  with  several  thousand  characters, 
and  years  are  required  to  gain  proficiency  in  these  elementary 
arts.  There  also  exists  in  Japan  a  syllabary  alphabet  of  forty- 
seven  characters,  used  at  present  as  an  auxiliary  to  the  Chinese. 
Within  a  very  recent  period,  since  the  acquisition  of  knowledge 
has  become  a  necessity  in  Japan,  a  society  has  been  formed  by 


16         HANDBOOK   OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

the  most  prominent  men  of  the  empire,  for  the  purpose  of  assim- 
ilating the  spoken  and  written  language,  taking  the  forty-seven 
native  characters  as  the  hasis. 

2.  RELIGION.  —  The  two  great  religions  of  Japan  are  Shinto- 
ism  and  Buddhism.     The  chief  characteristic  of  the  Shinto  re- 
ligion is  the  worship  of  ancestors,  the  deification  of  emperors, 
heroes,  and  scholars,  and  the  adoration  of  the  personified  forces 
of  nature.     It  lays  down  no  precepts,  teaches  no  morals  or  doc- 
trines, and  prescribes  no  ritual. 

The  number  of  Shinto  deities  is  enormous.  In  its  higher  form 
the  chief  object  of  the  Shinto  faith  is  to  enjoy  this  life  ;  in  its 
lower  forms  it  consists  in  a  blind  obedience  to  governmental  and 
priestly  dictates. 

On  the  recent  accession  of  the  Mikado  to  his  former  supreme 
power,  an  attempt  was  made  to  restore  this  ancient  faith,  but  it 
failed,  and  Japan  continues  as  it  has  been  for  ten  centuries  in 
the  Buddhist  faith. 

The  religion  of  Buddha  was  introduced  into  Japan  581  A.  D., 
and  has  exerted  a  most  potent  influence  in  forming  the  Japanese 
character. 

The  Protestants  of  Japanese  Buddhism  are  the  followers  of 
Shinran,  1262  A.  D.,  who  have  wielded  a  vast  influence  in  the 
religious  development  of  the  people  both  for  good  and  evil.  In 
this  creed  prayer,  purity,  and  earnestness  of  life  are  insisted 
upon.  The  Scriptures  of  other  sects  are  written  in  Sanskrit  and 
Chinese  which  only  the  learned  are  able  to  read,  those  of  the 
Shin  sect  are  in  the  vernacular  Japanese  idiom.  After  the  death 
of  Shinran,  Rennio,  who  died  in  1500  A.  D.,  produced  sacred 
writings  now  daily  read  by  the  disciples  of  this  denomination. 

Though  greatly  persecuted,  the  Shin  sect  have  continually  in- 
creased in  numbers,  wealth,  and  power,  and  now  lead  all  in  in- 
telligence and  influence.  Of  late  they  have  organized  their 
theological  schools  on  the  model  of  foreign  countries  that  their 
young  men  may  be  trained  to  resist  the  Shinto  and  Christian 
faiths. 

3.  THE  LITERATURE.     INFLUENCE  OF  WOMEN.  —  Previous 
to  the  fourteenth  century  learning  in  Japan  was  confined  to  the 
court  circle.     The  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  and  sixteenth  centuries 
are  the  dark  ages  when  military  domination  put  a  stop  to  all 
learning  except  with  a  few  priests.     With  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury begins  the  modern  period  of  general  culture.     The  people 
are  all  fond  of  reading,  and  it  is  very  common  to  see  circulating 
libraries  carried  from  house  to  house  on  the  backs  of  men. 

As  early  as  the  tenth  century,  while  the  learned  affected  a 
pedantic  style  so  interlarded  with  Chinese  as  to  be  unintelligible, 


JAPANESE  LITERATURE.  17 

the  cultivation  of  the  native  tongue  was  left  to  the  ladies  of  the 
court,  a  task  which  they  nobly  discharged.  It  is  a  remarkable 
fact,  without  parallel  in  the  history  of  letters,  that  a  very  large 
proportion  of  the  best  writings  of  the  best  ages  was  the  work  of 
women,  and  their  achievement  in  the  domain  of  letters  is  one  of 
the  anomalies  with  which  Japan  has  surprised  and  delighted  the 
world.  It  was  their  genius  that  made  the  Japanese  a  literary 
language.  The  names  and  works  of  these  authoresses  are  quoted 
at  the  present  day. 

4.  HISTORY.  —  The  earliest  extant  Japanese  record  is  a  work 
entitled  "  Kojiki,"  or  book  of  ancient  traditions.     It  treats  of 
the  creation,  the  gods  and  goddesses  of  the  mythological  period, 
and  gives  the  history  of  the  Mikados  from  the  accession  of  Jim- 
mu,  year  1  (660  B.  c.),  to  1288  of  the  Japanese  year.     It  was 
supposed  to  date  from  the  first  half  of  the  eighth  century,  and 
another  work  "  Nihonghi,"  a  little  later,  also  treats  of  the  mytho- 
logical period.    It  abounds  in  traces  of  Chinese  influence,  and  in 
a  measure  supersedes  the  "  Kojiki."     These  are  the  oldest  books 
in  the   language.     They  are  the  chief  exponents  of  the  Shinto 
faith,  and  form  the  bases  of  many  commentaries  and  subsequent 
works. 

The  "History  of  Great  Japan,"  composed  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  by  the  Lord  of  Mito  (died  1700),  is  the 
standard  history  of  the  present  day.  The  external  history  of 
Japan,  in  twenty-two  volumes,  by  Rai  Sanyo  (died  1832),  com- 
posed in  classical  Chinese,  is  most  widely  read  by  men  of  educa- 
tion. 

The  Japanese  are  intensely  proud  of  their  history  and  take 
great  care  in  making  and  preserving  records.  Memorial  stones 
are  among  the  most  striking  sights  on  the  highways  and  in  the 
towns,  villages,  and  temple  yards,  in  honor  of  some  noted 
scholar,  ruler,  or  benefactor.  Few  people  are  more  thoroughly 
informed  as  to  their  own  history.  Every  city,  town,  and  village 
has  its  annals.  Family  records  are  faithfully  copied  from  gener- 
ation to  generation.  Almost  every  province  has  its  encyclopaedic 
•history,  and  every  high-road  its  itineraries  and  guide-books,  in 
which  famous  places  and  events  are  noted.  In  the  large  cities 
professional  story-tellers  and  readers  gain  a  lucrative  livelihood 
by  narrating  both  legendary  and  classical  history,  and  the  theatre 
is  often  the  most  faithful  mirror  of  actual  history.  There  are 
hundreds  of  child's  histories  in  Japan.  Many  of  the  standard 
works  are  profusely  illustrated,  are  models  of  style  and  eloquence, 
and  parents  delight  to  instruct  their  children  in  the  national  laws 
and  traditions. 

5.  THE  DRAMA.  —  The  theatre  is  a  favorite  amusement,  es- 

2 


18          HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

pecially  among  the  lower  classes  ;  the  pieces  represented  are  of 
a  popular  character  and  written  in  colloquial  language,  and  gen- 
erally founded  on  national  history  and  tradition,  or  on  the  lives 
and  adventures  of  the  heroes  and  gods ;  and  the  scene  is  always 
laid  in  Japan.  The  play  begins  in  the  morning  and  lasts  all 
day,  spectators  bringing  their  food  with  them.  No  classical 
dramatic  author  is  known. 

Poetry  has  always  been  a  favorite  study  with  the  Japanese. 
The  most  ancient  poetical  fragment,  called  a  "  Collection  of 
Myriad  Leaves,"  dates  from  the  eighth  century.  The  collec- 
tion of  "  One  Hundred  Persons  "  is  much  later,  and  contains 
many  poems  written  by  the  emperors  themselves.  The  Japan- 
ese possess  no  great  epic  or  didactic  poems,  although  some  of 
their  lyrics  are  happy  examples  of  quaint  modes  of  thought 
and  expression.  It  is  difficult  to  translate  them  into  a  foreign 
tongue. 

6.  GEOGRAPHY.     NEWSPAPERS  AND  NOVELS.  —  The  largest 
section  of  Japanese  literature  is  that  treating  of  the  local  geogra- 
phy of  the  country  itself.     These  works  are  minute  in  detail  and 
of  great  length,  describing  events  and  monuments  of  historic  in- 
terest. 

Before  the  recent  revolution  but  one  newspaper  existed  in 
Japan,  but  at  present  the  list  numbers  several  hundred.  Free- 
dom of  the  press  is  unknown,  and  fines  and  imprisonment  for 
violation  of  the  stringent  laws  are  very  frequent. 

Novels  constitute  a  large  section  of  Japanese  litesature.  Fairy 
tales  and  story  books  abound.  Many  of  them  are  translated  into 
English ;  "  The  Royal  Ronans  "  and  other  works  have  recently 
been  published  in  New  York. 

Medical  science  was  borrowed  from  China,  but  upon  this,  as 
upon  other  matters,  the  Japanese  improved.  Acupuncture,  or 
the  introduction  of  needles  into  the  living  tissues  for  remedial 
purposes,  was  invented  by  the  Japanese,  as  was  the  moxa,  or  the 
burning  of  the  flesh  for  the  same  purpose. 

7.  POSITION  OF  WOMAN.  — Women  in  Japan  are  treated  with 
far  more  respect  and  consideration  than  elsewhere  in  the  East. 
According  to  Japanese  history  the  women  of  the  early  centuries 
were  possessed  of  more  intellectual  and  physical  vigor,  filling  the 
offices  of  state  and  religion,  and  reaching  a  high  plane  of  social 
dignity  and  honor.     Of  the  one  hundred 'and  twenty-three  Jap- 
anese sovereigns,  nine  have  been  women.     The  great  heroine  of 
Japanese  history   and   tradition   was   the  Empress   Jingu,   re- 
nowned  for  her  beauty,  piety,  intelligence,  and  martial  valor, 
who,  about  200  A.  D.,  invaded  and  conquered  Corea. 

The  female  children  of  the  lower  classes  receive  tuition  in  pri- 


JAPANESE  LITERATURE.  Itf 

vate  schools  so  generally  established  during  the  last  two  centu- 
ries throughout  the  country,  and  those  of  the  higher  classes  at 
the  hands  of  private  tutors  or  governesses ;  and  in  every  house- 
hold may  be  found  a  great  number  of  books  exclusively  on  the 
duties  of  women. 


SANSKRIT   LITERATURE. 

1.  The  Language. — 2.  The  Social  Constitution  of  India.  Brahmanism. — 3.  Charac- 
teristics of  the  Literature  and  its  Divisions.  —  4.  The  Vedas  aud  other  Sacred  Books.  — 
5.  Sanskrit  Poetry  ;  Epic ;  The  Ramayana  and  Mahabharata.  Lyric  Poetry.  Didactic 
Poetry  ;  the  Hitopadesa.  Dramatic  Poetry.  —  6.  History  and  Science.  —  7.  Philosophy. 
8.  Buddhism.  —  9.  Moral  Philosophy.  The  Code  of  Manu.  — 10.  Modern  Literatures  of 
India. — 11.  Education.  The  Brahmo  Somaj. 

1.  THE  LANGUAGE.  —  Sanskrit  is  the  literary  language  of  the 
Hindus,  and  for  two  thousand  years  has  served  as  the  means  of 
learned  intercourse  and  composition.  The  name  denotes  culti- 
vated or  perfected,  in  distinction  to  the  Prakrit  or  uncultivated, 
which  sprang  from  it  and  was  contemporary  with  it. 

The  study  of  Sanskrit  by  European  scholars  dates  less  than  a 
century  back,  and  it  is  important  as  the  vehicle  of  an  immense 
literature  which  lays  open  the  outward  and  inner  life  of  a  re- 
markable people  from  a  remote  epoch  nearly  to  the  present  day, 
and  as  being  the  most  ancient  and  original  of  the  Indo-Euro- 
pean languages,  throwing  light  upon  them  all.  The  Aryan  or 
Indo-European  race  had  its  ancient  home  in  Central  Asia.  Col- 
onies migrated  to  the  west  and  founded  the  Persian,  Greek,  and 
Roman  civilization,  and  settled  in  Spain  and  England.  Other 
branches  found  their  way  through  the  passes  of  the  Himalayas 
and  spread  themselves  over  India.  Wherever  they  went  they 
asserted  their  superiority  over  the  earlier  people  whom  they 
found  in  possession  of  the  soil,  and  the  history  of  civilization  is 
everywhere  the  history  of  the  Aryan  race.  The  forefathers  of 
the  Greek  and  Roman,  of  the  Englishman  and  the  Hindu,  dwelt 
together  in  India,  spoke  the  same  language,  and  worshiped  the 
same  gods.  The  languages  of  Europe  and  India  are  merely 
different  forms  of  the  original  Aryan  speech.  This  is  especially 
true  of  the  words  of  common  family  life.  Father,  mother, 
brother,  sister,  and  widow,  are  substantially  the  same  in  most 
of  the  Aryan  languages,  whether  spoken  on  the  banks  of  the 
Ganges,  the  Tiber,  or  the  Thames.  The  word  daughter,  which 
occurs  in  nearly  all  of  them,  is  derived  from  the  Sanskrit  word 
signifying  to  draw  milk,  and  preserves  the  memory  of  the  time 
when  the  daughter  was  the  little  milkmaid  in  the  primitive 
Aryan  household. 

It  is  probable  that  as  late  as  the  third  or  fourth  century  B.  c. 
it  was  still  spoken.  New  dialects  were  engrafted  upon  it  which 


SANSKRIT  LITERATURE.  21 

at  length  superseded  it,  though  it  has  continued  to  be  revered  as 
the  sacred  and  literary  language  of  the  country.  Among  the 
modern  tongues  of  India,  the  Hindui  and  the  Hindustani  may 
be  mentioned  ;  the  former,  the  language  of  the  pure  Hindu  pop- 
ulation, is  written  in  Sanskrit  characters  ;  the  latter  is  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Mohammedan  Hindus,  in  which  Arabic  letters  are 
used.  Many  of  the  other  dialects  spoken  and  written  in  North- 
ern India  are  derived  from  the  Sanskrit.  Of  the  more  impor- 
tant among  them  there  are  English  grammars  and  dictionaries. 
2.  SOCIAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  INDIA.  —  Hindu  literature  takes 
its  character  both  from  the  social  and  the  religious  institutions 
of  the  country.  The  social  constitution  is  based  on  the  distinc- 
tion of  classes  into  which  the  people,  from  the  earliest  times, 
have  been  divided,  and  which  were  the  natural  effect  of  the 
long  struggle  between  the  aboriginal  tribes  and  the  new  race 
which  had  invaded  India.  These  castes  are  four  :  1st.  The 
Brahmins  or  priests ;  2d.  The  warriors  and  princes  ;  3d.  The 
husbandmen ;  4th.  The  laborers.  There  are,  besides,  several 
impure  classes,  the  result  of  an  intermingling  of  the  different 
castes.  Of  these  lower  classes  some  are  considered  utterly 
abominable  —  as  that  of  the  Pariahs.  The  different  castes  are 
kept  distinct  from  each  other  by  the  most  rigorous  laws  ;  though 
in  modern  times  the  system  has  been  somewhat  modified. 

THE   RELIGION. 

In  the  period  of  the  Vedas  the  religion  of  the  Hindus  was 
founded  on  the  simple  worship  of  Nature.  But  the  Pantheism 
of  this  age  was  gradually  superseded  by  the  worship  of  the  one 
Brahm,  from  which,  according  to  this  belief,  the  soul  emanated, 
and  to  which  it  seeks  to  return.  Brahm  is  an  impersonality, 
the  sum  of  all  nature,  the  germ  of  all  that  is.  Existence  has  no 
purpose,  the  world  is  wholly  evil,  and  all  good  persons  should 
desire  to  be  taken  out  of  it  and  to  return  to  Brahm.  This  end 
is  to  be  attained  only  by  transmigration  of  the  soul  through  all 
previous  stages  of  life,  migrating  into  the  body  of  a  higher  or 
lower  being  according  to  the  sins  or  merits  of  its  former  exist- 
ence, either  to  finish  or  begin  anew  its  purification.  This  re- 
ligion of  the  Hindus  led  to  the  growth  of  a  philosophy  the  pre- 
cursor of  that  of  Greece,  whose  aims  were  loftier  and  whose 
methods  more  ingenious. 

From  Brahm,  the  impersonal  soul  of  the  universe,  emanated 
the  personal  and  active  Brahma,  who  "with  Siva  and  Vishnu  con- 
stitute the  Trimurti  or  god  under  three  forms. 

Siva  is  the  second  of  the  Hindu  deities,  and  represents  the 


22         HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

primitive  animating  and  destroying  forces  of  nature.  His  sym- 
bols relate  to  these  powers,  and  are  worshiped  more  especially 
by  the  Sivaites  —  a  numerous  sect  of  this  religion.  The  wor- 
shipers of  Vishnu,  called  the  Preserver,  the  first-born  of 
Brahma,  constitute  the  most  extensive  sect  of  India,  and  their 
ideas  relating  to  this  form  of  the  Divinity  are  represented  by 
tradition  and  poetry,  and  are  particularly  developed  in  the  great 
monuments  of  Sanskrit  literature.  The  myths  connected  with 
Vishnu  refer  especially  to  his  incarnations  or  corporeal  appari- 
tions both  in  men  and  animals,  which  he  submits  to  in  order  to 
conquer  the  spirit  of  evil. 

These  incarnations  are  called  Avatars,  or  descendings,  and 
form  an  important  part  of  Hindu  epic  poetry.  Of  the  ten  Ava- 
tars which  are  attributed  to  Vishnu,  nine  have  already  taken 
place ;  the  last  is  yet  to  come,  when  the  god  shall  descend  again 
from  heaven,  to  destroy  the  present  world,  and  to  restore  peace 
and  purity.  The  three  forms  of  the  Deity,  emanating  mutually 
from  each  other,  are  expressed  by  the  three  symbols,  A  U  M, 
three  letters  in  Sanskrit  having  but  one  sound,  forming  the  mys- 
tical name  Om,  which  never  escapes  the  lips  of  the  Hindus,  but 
is  meditated  on  in  silence.  The  predominant  worship  of  one  or 
the  other  of  these  forms  constitutes  the  peculiarities  of  the  nu- 
merous sects  of  this  religion. 

There  are  other  inferior  divinities,  symbols  of  the  forces  of 
nature,  guardians  of  the  world,  demi-gods,  demons,  and  heroes, 
whose  worship,  however,  is  considered  as  a  mode  of  reaching 
that  divine  rest,  immersion  and  absorption  in  Brahm.  To  this 
end  are  directed  the  sacrifices,  the  prayers,  the  ablutions,  the 
pilgrimages,  and  the  penances,  which  occupy  so  large  a  place  in 
the  Hindu  worship. 

3.  CHARACTEBISTICS  OF  THE  LITERATURE  AND  ITS  DIVIS- 
IONS. —  A  greater  part  of  the  Sanskrit  literature,  which  counts 
its  works  by  thousands,  still  remains  in  manuscript.  It  was 
nearly  all  composed  in  metre,  even  works  of  law,  morality,  and 
science.  Every  department  of  knowledge  and  every  branch  of 
inquiry  is  represented,  with  the  single  exception  of  history,  and 
this  forms  the  most  striking  general  characteristic  of  the  litera- 
ture, and  one  which  robs  it  of  a  great  share  of  worth  and  inter- 
est. Its  place  is  in  the  intellectual  rather  than  in  the  political 
history  of  the  world. 

The  literary  monuments  of  the  Sanskrit  language  correspond 
to  the  great  eras  in  the  history  of  India.  The  first  period 
reaches  back  to  that  remote  age,  when  those  tribes  of  the  Aryan 
race  speaking  Sanskrit  emigrated  to  the  northwestern  portion  of 
the  Indian  Peninsula,  and  established  themselves  there,  an  agri- 
cultural and  pastoral  people.  That  was  the  age  in  which  were 


SANSKRIT  LITERATURE.  23 

composed  the  prayers,  hymns,  and  precepts  afterwards  col- 
lected in  the  form  of  the  Vedas,  the  sacred  books  of  the  coun- 
try. In  the  second  period,  the  people,  incited  by  the  desire  of 
conquest,  penetrated  into  the  fertile  valleys  lying  between  the 
Indus  and  the  Ganges ;  and  the  struggle  with  the  aboriginal  in- 
habitants, which  followed  their  invasion,  gave  birth  to  epic  po- 
etry, in  which  the  wars  of  the  different  races  were  celebrated  and 
the  extension  of  Hindu  civilization  related.  The  third  period 
embraces  the  successive  ages  of  the  formation  and  development 
of  a  learned  and  artistic  literature.  It  contains  collections  of 
the  ancient  traditions,  expositions  of  the  Vedas,  works  on  gram- 
mar, lexicography,  and  science ;  and  its  conclusion  forms  the 
golden  age  of  Sanskrit  literature,  when,  the  country  being  ruled 
by  liberal  princes,  poetry,  and  especially  the  drama,  reached  its 
highest  degree  of  perfection. 

The  chronology  of  these  periods  varies  according  to  the  sys- 
tems of  different  orientalists.  It  is,  however,  admitted  that  the 
Vedas  are  the  first  literary  productions  of  India,  and  that  their 
origin  cannot  be  later  than  the  fifteenth  century  B.  c.  The  pe- 
riod of  the  Vedas  embraces  the  other  sacred  books,  or  commen- 
taries founded  upon  them,  though  written  several  centuries  after- 
wards. The  second  period,  to  which  belong  the  two  great  epic 
poems,  the  "  Ramayana  "  and  the  "  Mahabharata,"  according  to 
the  best  authorities  ends  with  the  sixth  or  seventh  century  B.  c. 
The  third  period  embraces  all  the  poetical  and  scientific  works 
written  from  that  time  to  the  third  or  fourth  century  B.  c.,  when 
the  language,  having  been  progressively  refined,  became  fixed  in 
the  writings  of  Kalidasa,  Jayadeva,  and  other  poets.  A  fourth 
period,  including  the  tenth  century  A.  D.,  may  be  added,  distin- 
guished by  its  erudition,  grammatical,  rhetorical,  and  scientific 
disquisitions,  which,  however,  is  not  considered  as  belonging  to 
the  classical  age.  From  the  Hindu  languages,  originating  in 
the  Sanskrit,  new  literatures  have  sprung ;  but  they  are  essen- 
tially founded  on  the  ancient  literature,  which  far  surpasses 
them  in  extent  and  importance,  and  is  the  great  model  of  them 
all.  Indeed,  its  influence  has  not  been  limited  to  India ;  all  the 
poetical  and  scientific  works  of  Asia,  China,  and  Japan  included, 
have  borrowed  largely  from  it,  and  in  Southern  Russia  the 
scanty  literature  of  the  Kalmucks  is  derived  entirely  from  Hindu 
sources.  The  Sanskrit  literature,  known  to  Europe  only  re- 
cently, through  the  researches  of  the  English  and  German  ori- 
entalists, has  now  become  the  auxiliary  and  foundation  of  all 
philological  studies. 

4.  THE  VEDAS  AXD  OTHER  SACRED  BOOKS.  —  The  Vedas 
(knowledge  or  science)  are  the  Bible  of  the  Hindus,  the  most 
ancient  book  of  the  Aryan  family,  and  contain  the  revelation  of 


24          HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

Brahra  which  was  preserved  by  tradition  and  collected  by 
Vyasa,  a  name  which  means  compiler.  The  word  Veda,  how- 
ever, should  be  taken  as  a  collective  name  for  the  sacred  litera- 
ture of  the  Vedic  age  which  forms  the  background  of  the  whole 
Indian  world.  Many  works  belonging  to  that  age  are  lost, 
though  a  large  number  still  exists. 

The  most  important  of  the  Vedas  are  three  in  number.  First, 
The  "  Rig-Veda,"  which  is  the  great  literary  memorial  of  the 
settlement  of  the  Aryans  in  the  Punjaub,  and  of  their  religious 
hymns  and  songs.  Second,  The  "  Yajur-Veda."  Third,  The 
"  Sama-Veda." 

Each  Veda  is  divided  into  two  parts  :  the  first  contains  prayers 
and  invocations,  most  of  which  are  of  a  rhythmical  character ; 
the  second  records  the  precepts  relative  to  those  prayers  and 
to  the  ceremonies  of  the  sacrifices,  and  describes  the  religious 
myths  and  symbols. 

There  are  many  commentaries  on  the  Vedas  of  an  ancient 
date,  which  are  considered  as  sacred  books,  and  relate  to  medi- 
cine, music,  astronomy,  astrology,  grammar,  philosophy,  juris- 
prudence, and,  indeed,  to  the  whole  circle  of  Hindu  science. 

They  represent  a  period  of  unknown  antiquity,  when  the  Ar- 
yans were  divided  into  tribes  of  which  the  chieftain  was  the 
father  and  priest,  and  when  women  held  a  high  position.  Some 
of  the  most  beautiful  hymns  of  this  age  were  composed  by  la- 
dies and  queens.  The  morals  of  Avyan,  a  woman  of*  an  early 
age,  are  still  taught  in  the  Hindu  schools  as  the  golden  rule  of 
life. 

India  to-day  acknowledges  no  higher  authority  in  matters  of 
religion,  ceremonial,  customs,  and  law  than  the  Vedas,  and  the 
spirit  of  Vedantism,  which  is  breathed  by  every  Hindu  from  his 
earliest  youth,  pervades  the  prayers  of  the  idolater,  the  specula- 
tions of  the  philosopher,  and  the  proverbs  of  the  beggar. 

The  "  Puranas  "  (ancient  writings)  hold  an  eminent  rank  in 
the  religion  and  literature  of  the  Hindus.  Though  of  a  more 
recent  date  than  the  Vedas,  they  possess  the  credit  of  an  ancient 
and  divine  origin,  and  exercise  an  extensive  and  practical  influ- 
ence upon  the  people.  They  comprise  vast  collections  of  ancient 
traditions  relating  to  theology,  cosmology,  and  to  the  genealogy 
of  gods  and  heroes.  There  are  eighteen  acknowledged  Puranas, 
which  altogether  contain  400,000  stanzas.  The  "  Upapuranas," 
also  eighteen  in  number,  are  commentaries  on  the  Puranas.  Fi- 
nally, to  the  sacred  books,  and  next  to  the  Vedas  both  in  antiq- 
uity and  authority,  belong  the  "  Manavadharmasastra,"  or  the 
ordinances  of  Manu,  spoken  of  hereafter. 

5.  SANSKRIT  POETRY.  —  This  poetry,  springing  from  the 
lively  and  powerful  imagination  of  the  Hindus,  is  inspired  by 


SANSKRIT  LITERATURE.  25 

their  religious  doctrines,  and  embodied  in  the  most  harmonious 
language.  Exalted  by  their  peculiar  belief  in  pantheism  and 
metempsychosis,  they  consider  the  universe  and  themselves  as 
directly  emanating  from  Brahm,  and  they  strive  to  lose  their 
own  individuality  in  its  infinite  essence.  Yet,  as  impure  beings, 
they  feel  their  incapacity  to  obtain  the  highest  moral  perfection, 
except  through  a  continual  atonement,  to  which  all  nature  is  con- 
demned. Hence  Hindu  poetry  expresses  a  profound  melancholy, 
which  pervades  the  character  as  well  as  the  literature  of  that 
people.  This  poetry  breathes  a  spirit  of  perpetual  sacrifice  of 
the  individual  self,  as  the  ideal  of  human  life.  The  bards  of 
India,  inspired  by  this  predominant  feeling,  have  given  to  poetry 
nearly  every  form  it  has  assumed  in  the  Western  world,  and  in 
each  and  all  they  have  excelled. 

Sanskrit  poetry  is  both  metrical  and  rhythmical,  equally  free 
from  the  confused  strains  of  unmoulded  genius  and  from  the  ser- 
vile pedantry  of  conventional  rules.  The  verse  of  eight  sylla- 
bles is  the  source  of  all  other  metres,  and  the  sloka  or  double 
distich  is  the  stanza  most  frequently  used.  Though  this  poetry 
presents  too  often  extravagance  of  ideas,  incumbrance  of  epi- 
sodes, and  monstrosity  of  images,  as  a  general  rule  it  is  endowed 
with  simplicity  of  style,  pure  coloring,  sublime  ideas,  rare  fig- 
ures, and  chaste  epithets.  Its  exuberance  must  be  attributed  to 
the  strange  mythology  of  the  Hindus,  to  the  immensity  of  the 
fables  which  constitute  the  groundwork  of  their  poems,  and  to 
the  gigantic  strength  of  their  poetical  imaginations.  A  striking 
peculiarity  of  Sanskrit  poetry  is  its  extensive  use  in  treating  of 
those  subjects  apparently  the  most  difficult  to  reduce  to  a  metri- 
cal form — not  only  the  Vedas  and  Manu's  code  are  composed 
in  verse,  but  the  sciences  are  expressed  in  this  form.  Even  in 
the  few  works  which  may  be  called  prose,  the  style  is  so  modu- 
lated and  bears  so  great  a  resemblance  to  the  language  of  poetry 
as  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  it.  The  history  of  San- 
skrit poetry  is,  in  reality,  the  history  of  Sanskrit  literature. 

The  subjects  of  the  epic  poems  of  the  Hindus  are  derived 
chiefly  from  their  religious  tenets,  and  relate  to  the  incarnations 
of  the  gods,  who,  in  their  human  forms,  become  the  heroes  of  this 
poetry.  The  idea  of  an  Almighty  power  warring  against  the 
spirit  of  evil  destroys  the  possibility  of  struggle,  and  impairs  the 
character  of  epic  poetry ;  but  the  Hindu  poets,  by  submitting 
their  gods  both  to  fate  and  to  the  condition  of  men,  diminish 
their  power  and  give  them  the  character  of  epic  heroes. 

The  Hindu  mythology,  however,  is  the  great  obstacle  which 
must  ever  prevent  this  poetry  from  becoming  popular  in  the 
Western  world.  The  great  personifications  of  the  Deity  have 
not  been  softened  down,  as  in  the  mythology  of  the  Greeks,  to 


26         HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

the  perfection  of  human  symmetry,  but  are  here  exhibited  in 
their  original  gigantic  forms.  Majesty  is  often  expressed  by 
enormous  stature  ;  power,  by  multitudinous  hands  ;  providence, 
by  countless  eyes  ;  and  omnipresence,  by  innumerable  bodies. 

In  addition  to  this,  Hindu  epic  poetry  departs  so  far  from 
what  may  be  called  the  vernacular  idiom  of  thought  and  feeling, 
and  refers  to  a  people  whose  political  and  religious  institutions, 
as  well  as  moral  habits,  are  so  much  at  variance  with  our  own, 
that  no  labor  or  skill  could  render  its  associations  familiar. 

The  Ramayana  and  the  Mahabharata  are  the  most  important 
and  sublime  creations  of  Hindu  literature,  and  the  most  colos- 
sal epic  poems  to  be  found  in  the  literature  of  the  world.  They 
surpass  in  magnitude  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey,  the  Jerusalem  De- 
livered and  the  Lusiad,  as  the  pyramids  of  Egypt  tower  above 
the  temples  of  Greece. 

The  Ramayana  (Rama,  and  yana  expedition)  describes  the 
exploits  of  Rama,  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu,  and  the  son  of 
Dasaratha,  king  of  Oude.  Ravana,  the  prince  of  demons,  had 
stolen  from  the  gods  the  privilege  of  being  invulnerable,  and  had 
thus  acquired  an*  equality  with  them.  He  could  not  be  over- 
come except  by  a  man,  and  the  gods  implored  Vishnu  to  become 
incarnate  in  order  that  Ravana  might  be  conquered.  The 
origin  and  the  development  of  this  Avatar,  the  departing  of 
Rama  for  the  battlefield,  the  divine  signs  of  his  mission,  his 
love  and  marriage  with  Sita,  the  daughter  of  the  king  Janaka, 
the  persecution  of  his  step-mother,  by  which  the  hero  is  sent  into 
exile,  his  penance  in  the  desert,  the  abduction  of  his  bride  by 
Ravana,  the  gigantic  battles  that  ensue,  the  rescue  of  Sita,  and 
the  triumph  of  Rama  constitute  the  principal  plot  of  this  won- 
derful poem,  full  of  incidents  and  episodes  of  the  most  singular 
and  beautiful  character.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the 
descent  of  the  goddess  Ganga,  which  relates  to  the  mythological 
origin  of  the  river  Ganges,  and  the  story  of  Yajnadatta,  a  young 
penitent,  who  through  mistake  was  killed  by  Dasaratha ;  the 
former  splendid  for  its  rich  imagery,  the  latter  incomparable  for 
its  elegiac  character,  and  for  its  expression  of  the  passionate 
sorrow  of  parental  affection. 

The  Ramayana  was  written  by  Valmiki,  a  poet  belonging  to 
an  unknown  period.  It  consists  of  seven  cantos,  and  contains 
twenty-five  thousand  verses.  The  original,  with  its  translation 
into  Italian,  was  published  in  Paris  by  the  government  of  Sar- 
dinia about  the  middle  of  this  century. 

The  Mahabharata  (the  great  Bharata)  has  nearly  the  same 
antiquity  as  the  Ramayana.  It  describes  the  greatest  Avatar 
of  Vishnu,  the  incarnation  of  the  god  in  Krishna,  and  it  pre- 
sents a  vast  picture  of  the  Hindu  religion.  It  relates  to  the  leg 


SANSKRIT  LITERATURE.  27 

endary  history  of  the  Bharata  dynasty,  especially  to  the  wars  be- 
tween the  Panclus  and  Kurus,  two  branches  of  a  princely  family 
of  ancient  India.  Five  sons  of  Pandu,  having  been  unjustly 
exiled  by  their  uncle,  return,  after  many  wonderful  adventures, 
with  a  powerful  army  to  oppose  the  Kurus,  and  being  aided  by 
Krishna,  the  incarnated  Vishnu,  defeat  their  enemies  and  be- 
come lords  of  all  the  country.  The  poem  describes  the  birth  of 
Krishna,  his  escape  from  the  dangers  which  surrounded  his 
cradle,  his  miracles,  his  pastoral  life,  his  rescue  of  sixteen  thou- 
sand young  girls  who  had  become  prisoners  of  a  giant,  his  heroic 
deeds  in  the  war  of  the  Pandus,  and  finally  his  ascent  to  heaven, 
where  he  still  leads  the  round  dances,  of  the  spheres.  This  work 
is  not  more  remarkable  for  the  grandeur  of  its  conceptions  than 
for  the  information  it  affords  respecting  the  social  and  religious 
systems  of  the  ancient  Hindus,  which  are  here  revealed  with  ma- 
jestic and  sublime  eloquence.  Five  of  its  most  esteemed  epi- 
sodes are  called  the  Five  Precious  Stones.  First  among  these 
may  be  mentioned  the  "  Bhagavad-Gita,"  or  the  Divine  Song, 
containing  the  revelation  of  Krishna,  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue 
between  the  god  and  his  pupil  Arjuna.  Schlegel  calls  this  epi- 
sode the  most  beautiful,  and  perhaps  the  most  truly  philosophical, 
poem  that  the  whole  range  of  literature  has  produced. 

The  Mahabharata  is  divided  into  eighteen  cantos,  and  it  con- 
tains two  hundred  thousand  verses.  It  is  attributed  to  Vyasa, 
the  compiler  of  the  Vedas,  but  it  appears  that  it  was  the  result 
of  a  period  of  literature  rather  than  the  work  of  a  single  poet. 
Its  different  incidents  and  episodes  were  probably  separate 
poems,  which  from  the  earliest  age  were  sung  by  the  people,  and 
later,  by  degrees,  collected  in  one  complete  work.  Of  the  Ma- 
habharata we  possess  only  a  few  episodes  translated  into  Eng- 
lish, such  as  the  Bhagavad-Gita,  by  Wilkins. 

At  a  later  period  other  epic  poems  were  written,  either  as 
abridgments  of  the  Ramayana  and  the  Mahabharata,  or  founded 
on  episodes  contained  in  them.  These,  however,  belong  to  a 
lower  order  of  composition,  and  cannot  .be  compared  with  the 
great  works  of  Valmiki  and  Vyasa. 

In  the  development  of  lyric  poetry  the  Hindu  bards,  partic- 
ularly those  of  the  third  period,  have  been  eminently  successful; 
their  power  is  great  in  the  sublime  and  the  pathetic,  and  mani- 
fests itself  more  particularly  in  awakening  the  tender  sympathies 
of  our  nature.  Here  we  find  many  poems  full  of  grace  and 
delicacy,  and  splendid  for  their  charming  descriptions  of  nature. 
Such  are  the  "  Meghaduta  "  and  the  "  Ritusanhara  "  of  Kali- 
dasa,  the  "  Madhava  and  Radha "  of  Jayadeva,  and  especially 
the  "  Gita-Govinda "  of  the  same  poet,  or  the  adventures  of 
Krishna  as  a  shepherd,  a  poem  in  which  the  soft  languors  of  love 


28         HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

are  depicted  in  enchanting  colors,  arid  which  is  adorned  with  all 
the  magnificence  of  language  and  sentiment. 

Hindu  poetry  has  a  particular  tendency  to  the  didactic  style 
and  to  embody  religious  and  historical  knowledge ;  every  sub- 
ject is  treated  in  the  form  of  verse,  such  as  inscriptions,  deeds, 
and  dictionaries.  Splendid  examples  of  didactic  poetry  may  be 
found  in  the  episodes  of  the  epic  poems,  and  more  particularly 
in  the  collections  of  fables  and  apologues  in  which  the  Sanskrit 
literature  abounds.  Among  these  the  Hitopadesa  is  the  most 
celebrated,  in  which  Vishnu-saima  instructs  the  sons  of  a  king 
committed  to  his  care.  Perhaps  there  is  no  book,  except  the 
Bible,  which  has  been  translated  into  so  many  languages  as 
these  fables.  They  have  spread  in  two  branches  over  nearly  the 
whole  civilized  world.  The  one,  under  the  original  name  of  the 
Hitopadesa,  remains  almost  confined  to  India,  while  the  other, 
under  the  title  of  "  Calila  and  Dimna,"  has  become  famous  over 
all  western  Asia  and  in  all  the  countries  of  Europe,  and  has 
served  as  the  model  of  the  fables  of  all  languages.  To  this  de- 
partment belong  also  the  "Adventures  of  the  Ten  Princes,"  by 
Dandin,  which,  in  an  artistic  point  of  view,  is  far  superior  to 
any  other  didactic  writings  of  Hindu  literature. 

The  drama  is  the  most  interesting  branch  of  Hindu  literature. 
No  other  ancient  people,  except  the  Greeks,  has  brought  forth 
anything  so  admirable  in  this  department.  It  had  its  most 
flourishing  period  probably  in  the  third  or  fourth  century  B.  c. 
Its  origin  is  attributed  to  Brahm,  and  its  subjects  are  selected 
from  the  mythology.  Whether  the  drama  represents  the  leg- 
ends of  the  gods,  or  the  simple  circumstances  of  ordinary  life  ; 
whether  it  describes  allegorical  or  historical  subjects,  it  bears 
always  the  same  character  of  its  origin  and  of  its  tendency.  Sim- 
plicity of  plot,  unity  of  episodes,  and  purity  of  language,  unite 
in  the  formation  of  the  Hindu  dramas.  Prose  and  verse,  the 
serious  and  the  comic,  pantomime  and  music  are  intermingled 
in  their  representations.  Only  the  principal  characters,  the 
gods,  the  Brahmins,  and  the  kings,  speak  Sanskrit ;  women  and 
the  less  important  characters  speak  Prakrit,  more  or  less  refined 
according  to  their  rank.  Whatever  may  offend  propriety,  what- 
ever may  produce  an  unwholesome  excitement,  is  excluded ;  for 
the  hilarity  of  the  audience,  there  is  an  occasional  introduction 
on  the  stage  of  a  parasite  or  a  buffoon.  The  representation  is 
usually  opened  by  an  apologue  and  always  concluded  with  a 
prayer. 

Kalidasa,  the  Hindu  Shakespeare,  has  been  called  by  his  coun- 
trymen the  Bridegroom  of  Poetry.  His  language  is  harmonious 
and  elevated,  and  in  his  compositions  he  unites  grace  and  ten- 
derness with  grandeur  and  sublimity.  Many  of  his  dramas  con- 


SANSKRIT  LITERATURE.  29 

tain  episodes  selected  from  the  epic  poems,  and  are  founded  on 
the  principles  of  Brahmanism.  The  "  Messenger  Cloud  "  of  this 
author,  a  monologue  rather  than  a  drama,  is  unsurpassed  in 
beauty  of  sentiment  by  any  European  poet.  "  Sakuntala,"  or 
the  Fatal  Ring,  is  considered  one  of  the  best  dramas  of  Kalidasa. 
It  has  been  translated  into  English  by  Sir  W.  Jones. 

Bhavabhuti,  a  Brahmin  by  birth,  was  called  by  his  contem- 
poraries the  Sweet  Speaking.  He  was  the  author  of  many 
dramas  of  distinguished  merit,  which  rank  next  to  those  of  Ka- 
lidasa. 

6.  HISTORY  AND  SCEEXCE.  —  History,  considered  as  the  de- 
velopment of  mankind  in  relation  to  its  ideal,  is  unknown  to 
Sanskrit  literature.     Indeed,  the   only  historical  work  thus  far 
discovered  is  the  "  History  of  Cashmere,"  a  series  of  poetical 
compositions,  written  by  different  authors  at  different  periods, 
the  last  of  which  brings  down  the  annals  to  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury A.  D.,  when  Cashmere  became  a  province  of  the  Mogul 
empire. 

In  the  scientific  department,  the  works  on  Sanskrit  grammar 
and  lexicography  are  models  of  logical  and  analytical  research. 
There  are  also  valuable  works  on  jurisprudence,  on  rhetoric, 
poetry,  music,  and  other  arts.  The  Hindu  system  of  decimal  no- 
tation made  its  way  through  the  Arabs  to  modern  nations,  our 
usual  figures  being,  in  their  origin,  letters  of  the  Sanskrit  alpha- 
bet. Their  medical  and  surgical  knowledge  is  deserving  of 
study. 

7.  PHILOSOPHY.  —  The  object  of  Hindu  philosophy  consists  in 
obtaining  emancipation  from  metempsychosis,  through  the  ab- 
sorption of  the  soul  into  Brahm,  or  the  universal  being.     Ac- 
cording to  the  different  principles  which  philosophers  adopt  in 
attaining  this  supreme  object,  their  doctrines  are  divided  into 
the  four  following  systems  :  1st,  Sensualism  ;  2d,  Idealism  ;  3d, 
Mysticism  ;  4th,  Eclecticism. 

Sensualism  is  represented  in  the  school  of  Kapila,  according 
to  whose  doctrine  the  purification  of  the  soul  must  be  effected 
through  knowledge,  the  only  souro^  of  which  lies  in  sensual 
perception.  In  this  system,  nature,  eternal  and  universal,  is 
considered  as  the  first  cause,  which  produces  intelligence  and  all 
the  other  principles  of  knowledge  and  existence.  This  philoso- 
phy of  nature  leads  some  of  its  followers  to  seek  their  purifica- 
tion in  the  sensual  pleasures  of  this  life,  and  in  the  loss  of  their 
own  individuality  in  nature  itself,  in  which  they  strive  to  be 
absorbed.  Materialism,  fatalism,  and  atheism  are  the  natural 
consequences  of  the  system  of  Kapila. 

Idealism  is  the  foundation  of  three  philosophical  schools :  the 


30         HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

Dialectic,  the  Atomic,  and  the  Vedanta.  The  Dialectic  school 
considers  the  principles  of  knowledge  as  entirely  distinct  from 
nature  ;  it  admits  the  existence  of  universal  ideas  in  the  human 
mind  ;  it  establishes  the  syllogistic  form  as  the  complete  method 
of  reasoning,  and  finally,  it  holds  as  fundamental  the  duality  of 
intelligence  and  nature.  In  this  theory,  the  soul  is  considered 
as  distinct  from  Brahm  and  also  from  the  body.  Man  can  ap- 
proach Brahm,  can  unite  himself  to  the  universal  soul,  but  can 
never  lose  his  own  individuality. 

The  Atomic  doctrine  explains  the  origin  of  the  world  through 
the  combination  of  eternal,  simple  atoms.  It  belongs  to  Ideal- 
ism, for  the  predominance  which  it  gives  to  ideas  over  sensation, 
and  for  the  individuality  and  consciousness  which  it  recognizes 
in  man. 

The  Vedanta  is  the  true  ideal  pantheistic  philosophy  of  India. 
It  considers  Brahm  in  two  different  states:  first,  as  a  pure, 
simple,  abstract,  and  inert  essence ;  secondly,  as  an  active  indi- 
viduality. Nature  in  this  system  is  only  a  special  quality  or 
quantity  of  Brahm,  having  no  actual  reality,  and  he  who  turns 
away  from  all  that  is  unreal  and  changeable  and  contemplates 
Brahm  unceasingly,  becomes  one  with  it,  and  attains  liberation. 

Mysticism  comprehends  all  doctrines  which  deny  authority  to 
reason,  and  admit  no  other  principles  of  knowledge  or  rule  of 
life  than  supernatural  or  direct  revelation.  To  this  system 
belong  the  doctrines  of  Patanjali,  which  teach  that  man  must 
emancipate  himself  from  metempsychosis  through  contemplation 
and  ecstasy  to  be  attained  by  the  calm  of  the  senses,  by  corpo- 
real penance,  suspension  of  breath,  and  immobility  of  position. 
The  followers  of  this  school  pass  their  lives  in  solitude,  absorbed 
in  this  mystic  contemplation.  The  forests,  the  deserts,  and  the 
environs  of  the  temples  are  filled  with  these  mystics,  who,  thus 
separated  from  external  life,  believe  themselves  the  subjects  of 
supernatural  illumination  and  power.  The  Bhagavad-Gita,  al- 
ready spoken  of,  is  the  best  exposition  of  this  doctrine. 

The  Eclectic  school  comprises  all  theories  which  deny  the 
authority  of  the  Vedas,  and  admit  rational  principles  borrowed 
both  from  sensualism  and  idealism.  Among  these  doctrines 
Buddhism  is  the  principal. 

8.  BUDDHISM.  —  Buddhism  is  so  called  from  Buddha,  a  name 
meaning  deified  teacher,  which  was  given  to  Sakyamuni,  or 
Saint  Sakya,  a  reformer  of  Brahmanism,  who  introduced  into 
the  Hindu  religion  a  more  simple  creed,  and  a  milder  and  more 
humane  code  of  morality.  The  date  of  the  origin  of  this  re- 
form is  uncertain.  It  is  probably  not  earlier  than  the  sixth  cen- 
tury B.  C.  Buddhism,  essentially  a  proselyting  religion,  spread 
over  Central  Asia  and  through  the  island  of  Ceylon.  Its  fol- 


SANSKRIT  LITERATURE.  31 

lowers  in  India  being  persecuted  and  expelled  from  the  country, 
penetrated  into  Thibet,  and  pushing  forward  into  the  wilderness 
of  the  Kalmucks  and  Mongols,  entered  China  and  Japan,  where 
they  introduced  their  worship  under  the  name  of  the  religion  of 
Fo.  Buddhism  is  more  extensively  diffused  than  any  other 
form  of  religion  in  the  world.  Though  it  has  never  extended 
beyond  the  limits  of  Asia,  its  followers  number  over  four  hun- 
dred millions. 

As  a  philosophical  school,  Buddhism  partakes  both  of  sen- 
sualism and  idealism ;  it  admits  sensual  perception  as  the  source 
of  knowledge,  but  it  grants  to  nature  only  an  apparent  exist- 
ence. On  this  universal  illusion,  Buddhism  founded  a  gigantic 
system  of  cosmogony,  establishing  an  infinity  of  degrees  in  the 
scale  of  existences  from  that  of  pure  being  without  form  or  qual- 
ity to  the  lowest  emanations.  According  to  Buddha,  the  object 
of  philosophy,  as  well  as  of  religion,  is  the  deliverance  of  the 
soul  from  metempsychosis,  and  therefore  from  all  pain  and  il- 
lusion. He  teaches  that  to  break  the  endless  rotation  of  trans- 
migration the  soul  must  be  prevented  from  being  born  again, 
by  purifying  it  even  from  the  desire  of  existence.  He  denied 
the  authority  of  the  Vedas,  and  abolished  or  ignored  the  divis- 
ion of  the  people  into  castes,  admitting  whoever  desired  it  to 
the  priesthood.  Notwithstanding  the  doctrine  of  metempsycho- 
sis, and  the  belief  that  life  is  only  an  endless  round  of  birth  and 
death,  sin  and  suffering,  the  most  sacred  Buddhistic  books  teach 
a  pure  and  elevated  morality,  and  that  the  highest  happiness  is 
only  to  be  reached  through  self-abnegation,  universal  benevo- 
lence, humility,  patience,  courage,  self-knowledge,  and  contem- 
plation. Much  has  been  added  to  the  original  doctrines  of 
Buddha  in  the  way  of  mythology,  sacrifices,  penances,  mysti- 
cism, and  hierarchy. 

Buddhism  possesses  a  literature  of  its  own  ;  its  language  and 
style  are  simple  and  intelligible  to*  the  common  people,  to  whom 
it  is  particularly  addressed.  For  this  reason  the  priests  of  this 
religion  prefer  to  write  in  the  dialects  used  by  the  people,  and 
indeed  some  of  their  principal  works  are  written  in  Prakrit  or 
in  Pali.  Among  these  are  many  legends,  and  chronicles,  and 
books  on  theology  and  jurisprudence.  The  literary  men  of 
Buddhism  are  generally  the  priests,  who  receive  different  names 
in  different  countries.  A  complete  collection  of  the  sacred 
books  of  Buddhism  forms  a  theological  body  of  one  hundred  and 
eight  volumes. 

9.  MORAL  PHILOSOPHY.  —  The  moral  philosophy  of  India  is 
contained  in  the  Sacred  Book  of  Manavadharmasastra.  or  Code 
of  Manu.  This  embraces  a  poetical  account  of  Brahma  and 
other  gods,  of  the  origin  of  the  world  and  man,  and  of  the 


32         HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

duties  arising  from  the  relation  of  man  towards  Brahma  and 
towards  his  fellow-men.  Whether  regarded  for  its  great  antiq- 
uity and  classic  beauty,  or  for  its  importance  as  being  con- 
sidered of  divine  revelation  by  the  Hindu  people,  this  Code 
must  ever  claim  the  attention  of  those  who  devote  themselves 
to  the  study  of  the  Sanskrit  literature.  Though  inferior  to  the 
Vedas  in  antiquity,  it  is  held  to  be  equally  sacred  ;  and  being 
more  closely  connected  with  the  business  of  life,  it  has  done  so 
much  towards  moulding  the  opinions  of  the  Hindus  that  it  would 
be  impossible  to  comprehend  the  literature  or  local  usages  of 
India  without  being  master  of  its  contents. 

It  is  believed  by  the  Hindus  that  Brahma  taught  his  laws  to 
Manu  in  one  hundred  thousand  verses,  and  that  they  were  after- 
wards abridged  for  the  use  of  mankind  to  four  thousand.  It  is 
most  probable  that  the  work  attributed  to  Manu  is  a  collection 
made  from  various  sources  and  at  different  periods. 

Among  the  duties  prescribed  by  the  laws  of  Manu  man  is 
enjoined  to  exert  a  full  dominion  over  his  senses,  to  study  sacred 
science,  to  keep  his  heart  pure,  without  which  sacrifices  are  use- 
less, to  speak  only  when  necessity  requires,  and  to  despise  worldly 
honors.  His  principal  duties  toward  his  neighbor  are  to  honor 
old  age,  to  respect  parents,  the  mother  more  than  a  thousand 
fathers,  and  the  Brahmins  more  than  father  or  mother,  to  in- 
jure no  one,  even  in  wish.  Woman  is  taught  that  she  cannot 
aspire  to  freedom,  a  girl  is  to  depend  on  her  father,  a  wife  on 
her  husband,  and  a  widow  on  her  son.  The  law  forbids  her  to 
marry  a  second  time. 

The  Code  of  Manu  is  divided  into  twelve  books  or  chapters, 
in  which  are  treated  separately  the  subjects  of  creation,  educa- 
tion, marriage,  domestic  economy,  the  art  of  living,  penal  and 
civil  laws,  of  punishments  and  atonements,  of  transmigration, 
and  of  the  final  blessed  state.  These  ordinances  or  institutes 
contain  much  to  be  admired  and  much  to  be  condemned.  They 
form  a  system  of  despotism  and  priestcraft,  both  limited  by  law, 
but  artfully  conspiring  to  give  mutual  support,  though  with  mut- 
ual checks.  A  spirit  of  sublime  elevation  and  amiable  benevo- 
lence pervades  the  whole  work,  sufficient  to  prove  the  author 
to  have  adored  not  the  visible  sun,  but  the  incomparably  greater 
light,  according  to  the  Vedas,  which  illuminates  all,  delights  all, 
from  which  all  proceed,  to  which  all  must  return,  and  which 
alone  can  irradiate  our  souls. 

10.  MODERN  LITERATURES  OF  INDIA.  —  The  literature  of  the 
modern  tongues  of  the  Hindus  consists  chiefly  of  imitations  and 
translations  from  the  Sanskrit,  Persian,  Arabic,  and  from  Euro- 
pean languages.  There  is,  however,  an  original  epic  poem,  writ- 
ten in  Hindui  by  Tshand,  under  the  title  of  the  "  Adventures  of 


SANSKRIT  LITERATURE.  33 

Prithivi  Raja,"  which  is  second  only  to  the  great  Sanskrit  poems. 
This  work,  which  relates  to  the  twelfth  century  A.  D.,  describes 
the  struggle  of  the  Hindus  against  their  Mohammedan  con- 
querors. The  poem  of  "  Ramayana,"  by  Tulsi-Das,  and  that  of 
the  "  Ocean  of  Love,"  are  extremely  popular  in  India.  The 
modern  dialects  contain  many  religious  and  national  songs  of 
exquisite  beauty  and  delicacy.  Among  the  poets  of  India,  who 
have  written  in  these  dialects,  Sauday,  Mir-Mohammed  Taqui, 
Wali,  and  Azad  are  the  principal. 

The  Hindi,  which  dates  from  the  eleventh  century  A.  D.,  is 
one  of  the  languages  of  Aryan  stock  still  spoken  in  Northern 
India.  One  of  its  principal  dialects  is  the  Hindustani,  which  is 
employed  in  the  literature  of  the  northern  country.  Its  two 
divisions  are  the  Hindi  and  Urdu,  which  represent  the  popular 
side  of  the  national  culture,  and  are  almost  exclusively  used  at 
the  present  day ;  the  first  chiefly  by  writers  not  belonging  to  the 
Brahminical  order,  while  those  of  the  Urdu  dialect  follow  Per- 
sian models.  The  writings  in  each,  though  numerous,  and  not 
without  pretension,  have  little  interest  for  the  European  reader. 

11.  EDUCATION  IN  INDIA.  —  For  the  education  of  the  Brah- 
mins and  of  the  higher  classes,  there  was  founded,  in  1792,  a 
Sanskrit  College  at  Benares,  the  Hindu  capital.  The  course  of 
instruction  embraces  Persian,  English,  and  Hindu  law,  and  gen- 
eral literature.  In  1854  universities  were  established  at  Cal- 
cutta, Madras,  and  Bombay.  Of  late  public  instruction  has  be- 
come a  department  of  the  government,  and  schools  and  colleges 
for  higher  instruction  have  been  established  in  various  parts  of 
the  country,  and  books  and  newspapers  in  English  and  in  the 
vernacular  are  everywhere  increasing.  As  far  back  as  1824  the 
American  and  English  missionaries  were  the  pioneers  of  female 
education.  The  recent  report  of  the  Indian  Commission  of  Edu- 
cation deals  particularly  with  this  question,  and  attributes  the 
wide  difference  between  the  extent  of  male  and  female  acquire- 
ments to  no  inferiority  in  the  mental  capacities  of  women  ;  on 
the  contrary,  they  find  their  intellectual  activity  very  keen, 
and  often  outlasting  the  mental  energies  of  men.  According  to 
the  traditions  of  pre-historic  times,  women  occupied  a  high  place 
in  the  early  civilization  of  India,  and  their  capacity  to  govern 
is  shown  by  the  fact,  that  at  the  present  day  one  of  the  best  ad- 
ministered States  has  been  ruled  by  native  ladies  during  two 
generations,  and  that  the  most  ably  managed  of  the  great  landed 
properties  are  entirely  in  the  hands  of  women.  The  chief  causes 
which  retard  their  education  are  to  be  found  in  the  social  cus- 
toms of  the  country,  the  seclusion  in  which  women  live,  the  ap- 
propriation of  the  educational  fund  to  the  schools  for  boys,  and 
the  need  of  trained  teachers. 


34         HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

Notwithstanding  all  these  disadvantages,  the  first  Asiatic 
writer  in  the  languages  of  the  West  who  has  made  a  literary 
fame  in  Europe  is  a  young  Hindu  girl,  Toru  Dutt  (1856-1877), 
whose  writings  in  prose  and  verse  in  English,  as  well  as  in 
French,  have  called  forth  admiration  and  astonishment  from 
the  critics,  and  a  sincere  lament  for  her  early  death. 

12.  THE  BRAMO-SOMAJ.  —  In  1830,  under  this  name  (Wor- 
shiping Assembly),  Rammohun  Roy  founded  a  religious  soci- 
ety in  India,  of  which;  after  him,  Keshub  Chunder  Sen  (died 
1884)  was  the  most  eminent  member.  Their  aim  is  to  es- 
tablish a  new  religion  for  India  and  the  world,  founded  on  a 
belief  in  one  God,  which  shall  be  freed  from  all  the  errors 
and  corruptions  of  the  past.  They  propose  many  important 
reforms,  such  as  the  abolition  of  caste,  the  remodeling  of  mar- 
riage customs,  the  emancipation  and  education  of  women,  the 
abolition  of  infanticide  and  the  worship  of  ancestors,  and  a  gen- 
eral moral  regeneration.  Their  chief  aid  to  spiritual  growth 
may  be  summed  up  in  four  words,  self-culture,  meditation,  per- 
sonal purity,  and  universal  beneficence.  Their  influence  has 
been  already  felt  in  the  legislative  affairs  of  India. 


BABYLONIAN  AND  ASSYRIAN  LITERATURE. 

1.  The  Accadians  and  Babylonians.  —  2.  The  Cuneiform  Letters. — 3.  Babylonian  and 
Assyrian  Remains. 

1.  ACCADIANS  AND  BABYLONIANS.  —  Geographically,  as  well 
as  historically  and  ethnographically,  the  district  lying  between 
the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  forms  but  one  country,  though  the 
rival  kingdoms  of  Assyria  and  Babylonia  became,  each  in  turn, 
superior  to  the  other.     The  primitive  inhabitants  of  this  dis- 
trict were   called  Accadians,  or  Chaldeans,  but  little  or  noth- 
ing was  known  of  them  until  within  the  last  fifteen  or  twenty 
years.     Their  language  was  agglutinative,  and  they  were  the 
inventors  of  the  cuneiform  system  of  writing.     The  Babylonians 
conquered  this  people,  borrowed  their  signs,  and  incorporated 
their  literature.     Soon  after  their  conquest  by  the  Babylonians, 
they  established  priestly  caste  in  the  state  and  assumed  the  wor- 
ship, laws,  and  manners  of  their  conquerors.     They  were  de- 
voted to  the  science  of  the  stars,  and  determined  the  equinoctial 
and  solstitial  points,  divided  the  ecliptic  into  twelve  parts  and 
the  day  into  hours.    The  signs,  names,  and  figures  of  the  Zodiac, 
and  the  invention  of  the  dial  are  some  of  the  improvements  in 
astronomy  attributed  to  this  people.     With  the  decline  of  Baby- 
lon their  influence  declined,  and  they  were  afterwards  known  to 
the   Greeks  and   Romans  only  as  astrologers,  magicians,  and 
soothsayers. 

2.  THE  CUNEIFORM  LETTERS.  —  These  characters,  borrowed 
by  the  Semitic  conquerors  of  the  Accadians,  the  Babylonians, 
and  Assyrians,  were  originally  hieroglyphics,  each  denoting  an 
object  or  an  idea,  but  they  were  gradually  corrupted  into  the 
forms  we  see  on  Assyrian  monuments.     They  underwent  many 
changes,  and  the  various  periods  are  distinguished  as  Archaic, 
hieratic,  Assyrian,  and  later  Babylonian. 

3.  BABYLONIAN  AND  ASSYRIAN  REMAINS.  —  The  origin  and 
history  of  this  civilization  have  only  been  made  known  to  us  by 
the  very  recent  decipherment  of   native  monuments.     Before 
these  discoveries  the  principal  source  of  information  was  found 
in  the  writings  of  Berosus,  a  priest  of  Babylon,  who  lived  about 
300  B.  c.,  and  who  translated  the  records  of  astronomy  into 
Greek.     Though  his  works  have  perished,  we  have  quotations 
from  them  in  Eusebius  and  other  writers,  which  have  been  strik- 


36         HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

ingly  verified  by  the  inscriptions.  The  chief  work  on  astron- 
omy, compiled  for  Sargon,  one  of  the  earliest  Babylonian  mon- 
archs,  is  inscribed  on  seventy  tablets,  a  copy  of  which  is  in  the 
British  Museum.  The  Babylonians  understood  the  movements 
of  the  heavenly  bodies,  and  Calisthenes,  who  accompanied  Alex- 
ander on  his  eastern  expedition,  brought  with  him  on  his  return 
the  observations  of  1903  years.  The  main  purpose  of  all 
Babylonian  astronomical  observation,  however,  was  astrological, 
to  cast  horoscopes,  or  to  predict  the  weather.  Babylon  retained 
for  a  long  time  its  ancient  splendor  after  the  conquest  by  Cyrus 
and  the  final  fall  of  the  empire,  and  in  the  first  period  of  the 
Macedonian  sway.  But  soon  after  that  time  its  fame  was  ex- 
tinguished, and  its  monuments,  arts,  and  sciences  perished. 

Assyria  was  a  land  of  soldiers  and  possessed  little  native  lit- 
erature. The  more  peaceful  pursuits  had  their  home  in  Baby- 
lonia, where  the  universities  of  Erech  and  Borsippa  were  re- 
nowned down  to  classical  times.  The  larger  part  of  this  literature 
was  stamped  in  clay  tablets  and  baked,  and  these  were  numbered 
and  arranged  in  order.  Papyrus  was  also  used,  but  none  of 
this  fragile  material  has  been  preserved. 

In  the  reign  of  Sardanapalus  (660-647  B.  c.)  Assyrian  art  and 
literature  reached  their  highest  point.  In  the  ruins  of  his  palace 
have  been  found  three  chambers  the  floors  of  which  were  covered 
a  foot  deep  with  tablets  of  all  sizes,  from  an  inch  to  nine  inches 
long,  bearing  inscriptions  many  of  them  so  minute  as  to  be  read 
only  by  the  aid  of  a  magnifying  glass.  Though  broken  they 
have  been  partially  restored  and  are  among  the  most  precious 
cuneiform  inscriptions.  They  have  only  been  deciphered  within 
the  present  century,  and  thousands  of  inscriptions  are  yet  buried 
among  the  ruins  of  Assyria.  The  most  interesting  of  these  re- 
mains yet  discovered  are  the  hymns  to  the  gods,  some  of  which 
strikingly  resemble  the  Hebrew  Psalms.  Of  older  date  is  the 
collection  of  formulas  which  consists  of  omens  and  hymns  and 
tablets  relating  to  astronomy.  Later  than  the  hymns  are  the 
mythological  poems,  two  of  which  are  preserved  intact.  They 
are  "  The  Deluge "  and  "  The  Descent  of  Istar  into  Hades." 
They  form  part  of  a  very  remarkable  epic  which  centred  round 
the  adventures  of  a  solar  hero,  and  into  which  older  and  inde- 
pendent lays  were  woven  as  episodes.  Copies  are  preserved  in 
the  British  Museum.  The  literature  on  the  subject  of  these  re- 
mains is  very  extensive  and  rapidly  increasing. 


PHOENICIAN  LITERATURE. 

The  Language.  —  The  Remains. 

THE  Phoenician  language  bore  a  strong  affinity  to  the  Hebrew, 
through  which  alone  the  inscriptions  on  coins  and  monuments 
can  be  interpreted,  and  these  constitute  the  entire  literary  re- 
mains, though  the  Phoenicians  had  doubtless  their  archives  and 
written  laws.  The  inscriptions  engraved  on  stone  or  metal  are 
found  chiefly  in  places  once  colonies,  remote  from  Phoenicia 
itself.  The  Phoenician  alphabet  forms  the  basis  of  the  Semitic 
and  Indo-European  graphic  systems,  and  was  itself  doubtless 
based  on  the  Egyptian  hieratic  writing.  Sanchuniathon  is  the 
name  given  as  that  of  the  author  of  a  history  of  Phoenicia  which 
was  translated  into  Greek  and  published  by  Philo,  a  grammarian 
of  the  second  century  A.  D.  A  considerable  fragment  of  this 
work  is  preserved  in  Eusebius,  but  after  much  learned  contro- 
versy it  is  now  believed  that  it  was  the  work  of  Philo  himself. 


SYKIAC  LITERATURE. 

The  Language.  — Influence  of  the  Literature  in  the  Eighth  and  Ninth  Century. 

THE  LANGUAGE.  —  The  Aramaic  language,  early  spoken  in 
Syria  and  Mesopotamia,  is  a  branch  of  the  Semitic,  and  of  this 
tongue  the  Chaldaic  and  Syriac  were  dialects.  Chaldaic  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  language  of  Babylonia  at  the  time  of  the  captiv- 
ity, and  the  earliest  remains  are  a  part  of  the  Books  of  Daniel 
and  Ezra,  and  the  paraphrases  or  free  translations  of  the  Old 
Testament.  The  Hebrews  having  learned  this  language  during 
the  Babylonian  exile,  it  continued  in  use  for  some  time  after  their 
return,  though  the  Hebrew  remained  the  written  and  sacred 
tongue.  Gradually,  however,  it  lost  this  prerogative,  and  in  the 
second  century  A.  D.  the  Chaldaic  was  the  only  spoken  language 
of  Palestine.  It  is  still  used  by  the  Nestorians  and  Maronites 
in  their  religious  services  and  in  their  literary  works.  The 
spoken  language  of  Syria  has  undergone  many  changes  corre- 
sponding to  the  political  changes  of  the  country. 

The  most  prominent  Syriac  author  is  St.  Ephraem,  or  Ephraem 
Syrus  (350  A.  D.),  with  whom  begins  the  best  period  of  Syriac 
literature,  which  continued  until  the  ninth  century.  A  great 
part  of  this  literature  has  been  lost,  and  what  remains  is  only  par- 
tially accessible.  Its  principal  work  was  in  the  eighth  and  ninth 
centuries  in  introducing  classical  learning  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
Arabs.  In  the  seventh  century,  Jacob  of  Edessa  gave  the  clas- 
sical and  sacred  dialect  its  final  form,  and  from  this  time  the 
series  of  native  grammarians  and  lexicographers  continued  un- 
broken to  the  time  of  its  decline.  The  study  of  Syriac  was 
introduced  into  Europe  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Valuable  col- 
lections of  MSS.,  in  this  language,  are  to  be  found  in  the  British 
Museum,  and  grammars  and  dictionaries  have  been  published  in 
Germany  and  in  New  York. 


PERSIAN  LITERATURE. 

1.  The  Persian  Language  and  its  Divisions. — 2.  Zendic  Literature:  The  Zenda vesta. — 
3.  Pehlvi  and  Parsee  Literatures.  —  4.  The  Ancient  Religion  of  Persia  ;  Zoroaster.  — 
5.  Modern  Literature.  —  6.  The  Sufis.  —  7.  Persian  Poetry.  —  8.  Persian  Poets ;  Ferdusi ; 
Essedi  of  Tus  ;  Togray,  etc.  —9.  History  and  Philosophy.  —10.  Education  hi  Persia. 

1.  THE  PERSIAN   LANGUAGE   AND   ITS   DIVISIONS.  —  The 
Persian  language  and  its  varieties,  as  far  as  they  are  known,  be- 
long to  the  great  Indo-European  family,  and  this  common  origin 
explains  the  affinities  that  exist  between  them  and  those  of  the 
ancient  and  modern  languages  of  Europe.     During  successive 
ages,  four  idioms  have  prevailed  in  Persia,  and  Persian  literature 
may  be  divided  into  four  corresponding  periods. 

First.  The  period  of  the  Zend  (living),  the  most  ancient  of 
the  Persian  languages ;  it  was  from  a  remote,  unknown  age 
spoken  in  Media,  Bactria,  and  in  the  northern  part  of  Persia. 
This  language  partakes  of  the  character  both  of  the  Sanskrit  and 
of  the  Chaldaic.  It  is  written  from  right  to  left,  and  it  possesses, 
in  its  grammatical  construction  and  its  radical  words,  many 
elements  in  common  with  the  Sanskrit  and  the  German  lan- 
guages. 

Second.  The  period  of  the  Pehlvi,  or  language  of  heroes, 
anciently  spoken  in  the  western  part  of  the  country.  Its  alpha- 
bet is  closely  allied  with  the  Zendic,  to  which  it  bears  a  great 
resemblance.  It  attained  a  high  degree  of  perfection  under  the 
Parthian  kings,  246  B.  c.  to  229  A.  D. 

Third.  The  period  of  the  Parsee  or  the  dialect  of  the  south- 
western part  of  the  country.  It  reached  its  perfection  under 
the  dynasty  of  the  Sassanides,  229-636  A.  D.  It  has  great  anal- 
ogy with  the  Zend,  Pehlvi,  and  Sanskrit,  and  is  endowed  with 
peculiar  grace  and  sweetness. 

Fourth.  The  period  of  the  modern  Persian.  After  the  con- 
quest of  Persia,  and  the  introduction  of  the  Mohammedan  faith 
in  the  seventh  century  A.  D.,  the  ancient  Parsee  language  became 
greatly  modified  by  the  Arabic.  It  adopted  its  alphabet,  add- 
ing to  it,  however,  four  letters  and  three  points,  and  borrowed 
from  it  not  only  words  but  whole  phrases,  and  thus  from  the 
union  of  the  Parsee  and  the  Arabic  was  formed  the  modern 
Persian.  Of  its  various  dialects,  the  Deri  is  the  language  of  the 
court  and  of  literature. 

2.  ZENDIC  LITERATURE.  —  To  the  first  period  belong  the  an- 


40         HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

cient  sacred  books  of  Persia,  collected  under  the  name  of  Zend- 
avesta  (living  word),  which  contain  the  doctrines  of  Zoroaster, 
the  prophet  and  lawgiver  of  ancient  Persia.  The  Zendavesta 
is  divided  into  two  parts,  one  written  in  Zend,  the  other  in 
Pehlvi ;  it  contains  traditions  relating  to  the  primitive  condition 
and  colonization  of  Persia,  moral  precepts,  theological  dogmas, 
prayers,  and  astronomical  observations.  The  collection  orig- 
inally consisted  of  twenty-one  chapters  or  treatises,  of  which  only 
three  have  been  preserved.  Besides  the  Zendavesta  there  are 
two  other  sacred  books,  one  containing  prayers  and  hymns,  and 
the  other  prayers  to  the  Genii  who  preside  over  the  days  of  the 
month.  To  this  first  period  some  writers  refer  the  fables  of 
Lokman,  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  tenth  century  B. 
c.,  and  to  have  been  a  slave  of  Ethiopic  origin  ;  his  apologues 
have  been  considered  the  model  on  which  Greek  fable  was  con- 
structed. The  work  of  Lokman,  however,  existing  now  only  in 
the  Arabic  language,  is  believed  by  other  writers  to  be  of  Ara- 
bic origin.  It  has  been  translated  into  the  European  languages, 
and  is  still  read  in  the  Persian  schools.  Among  the  Zendic 
books  preserved  in  Arabic  translations  may  also  be  mentioned 
the  "  Giavidan  Kird,"  or  the  Eternal  Reason,  the  work  of  Hu- 
shang,  an  ancient  priest  of  Persia,  a  book  full  of  beautiful  and 
sublime  maxims. 

3.  PEHLVI  AND  PAKSEE  LITERATURES.  —  The  second  period 
of  Persian  literature  includes  all  the  books  written  in  Pehlvic, 
and  especially  all  the  translations  and  paraphrases  of  the  works 
of  the  first  period.     There  are  also  in  this  language  a  manual  of 
the  religion  of  Zoroaster,  dictionaries  of  Pehlvi  explained, by  the 
Parsee,  inscriptions,  and  legends. 

When  the  seat  of  the  Persian  empire  was  transferred  to  the 
southern  states  under  the  Sassanides,  the  Pehlvi  gave  way  to 
the  Parsee,  which  became  the  prevailing  language  of  Persia  hi 
the  third  period  of  its  literature.  The  sacred  books  were  trans- 
lated into  this  tongue,  in  which  many  records,  annals,  and  trea- 
tises on  astronomy  and  medicine  were  also  written.  But  all 
these  monuments  of  Persian  literature  were  destroyed  by  the 
conquest  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  by  the  fury  of  the  Mon- 
gols and  Arabs.  This  language,  however,  has  been  immortal- 
ized by  Ferdusi,  whose  poems  contain  little  of  that  admixture  of 
Arabic  which  characterizes  the  writings  of  the  modern  poets  of 
Persia. 

4.  THE  ANCIENT  RELIGION  or  PERSIA.  —  The  ancient  litera- 
ture of  Persia  is  mainly  the  exposition  of  its  religion.     Persia, 
Media,  and  Bactria  acknowledged  as  their  first  religious  prophet 
Honover,  or  Horn,  symbolized  in  the  star  Sirius,  and  himself  the 
symbol  of  the  first  eternal  word,  and  of  the  tree  of  knowledge. 


PERSIAN  LITERATURE.  41 

In  the  numberless  astronomical  and  mystic  personifications  under 
which  Horn  was  represented,  his  individuality  was  lost,  and  little 
is  known  of  his  history  or  of  his  doctrines.  It  appears,  how- 
ever, that  he  was  the  founder  of  the  magi  (priests),  the  conser- 
vators and  teachers  of  his  doctrine,  who  formed  a  particular 
order,  like  that  of  the  Levites  of  Israel  and  of  the  Chaldeans  of 
Assyria.  They  did  not  constitute  a  hereditary  caste  like  the 
Brahmins  of  India,  but  they  were  chosen  from  among  the  peo- 
ple. They  claimed  to  foretell  future  events.  They  worshiped 
fire  and  the  stars,  and  believed  in  two  principles  of  good  and 
evil,  of  which  light  and  darkness  were  the  symbols. 

Zoroaster,  one  of  these  magi,  who  probably  lived  in  the  eighth 
century  B.  c.,  undertook  to  elevate  and  reform  this  religion, 
which  had  then  fallen  from  its  primitive  purity.  Availing  him- 
self of  the  doctrines  of  the  Chaldeans  and  of  the  Hebrews,  Zo- 
roaster, endowed  by  nature  with  extraordinary  powers,  sustained 
by  popular  enthusiasm,  and  aided  by  the  favor  of  powerful 
princes,  extended  his  reform  throughout  the  country,  and 
founded  a  new  religion  on  the  ancient  worship.  According  to 
this  religion  the  two  great  principles  of  the  world  were  repre- 
sented by  Ormuzd  and  Ahriman,  both  born  from  eternity,  and 
both  contending  for  the  dominion  of  the  world.  Ormuzd,  the 
principle  of  good,  is  represented  by  light,  and  Ahriman,  the 
principle  of  evil,  by  darkness.  Light,  then,  being  the  body  or 
symbol  of  Ormuzd,  is  worshiped  in  the  sun  and  stars,  in  fire, 
and  wherever  it  is  found.  Men  are  either  the  servants  of  Or- 
muzd, through  virtue  and  wisdom,  or  the  slaves  of  Ahriman, 
through  folly  and  vice.  Zoroaster  explained  the  history  of  the 
world  as  the  long  contest  of  these  two  principles,  which  was  to 
close  with  the  conquest  of  Ormuzd  over  Ahriman. 

The  moral  code  of  Zoroaster  is  pure  and  elevated.  It  aims 
to  assimilate  the  character  of  man  to  light,  to  dissipate  the  dark- 
ness of  ignorance  ;  it  acknowledges  Ormuzd  as  the  ruler  of  the 
universe  ;  it  seeks  to  extend  the  triumph  of  virtue  over  the  mate- 
rial and  spiritual  world. 

The  religion  of  Zoroaster  prevailed  for  many  centuries  in 
Persia.  The  Greeks  adopted  some  of  its  ideas  into  their  philos- 
ophy, and  through  the  schools  of  the  Gnostics  and  Neo-Platon- 
ists,  its  influence  extended  over  Europe.  After  the  conquest  of 
Persia  by  the  Mohammedans,  the  Fire-worshipers  were  driven 
to  the  deserts  of  Kerman,  or  took  refuge  in  India,  where,  under 
the  name  of  Parsees  or  Guebers,  they  still  keep  alive  the  sacred 
fire,  and  preserve  the  code  of  Zoroaster. 

5.  MODERN  LITERATURE.  —  Some  traces  of  the  modern  lit- 
erature of  Persia  appeared  shortly  after  the  conquest  of  the 
country  by  the  Arabians  in  the  seventh  century  A.  D. ;  but  the 


42         HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

true  era  dates  from  the  ninth  or  tenth  century.     It  may  be  di- 
vided into  the  departments  of  Poetry,  History,  and  Philosophy. 

6.  THE  SUFIS.  —  After  the  introduction  of  Mohammedanism 
into  Persia,  there  arose  a  sect  of  pantheistic  mystics  called  Sufis, 
to  which  most  of   the  Persian  poets   belong.     They  teach  their 
doctrine   under  the  images  of  love,  wine,  intoxication,  etc.,  by 
which,  with  them,  a   divine    sentiment   is    always    understood. 
The  doctrines   of  the   Sufis  are  undoubtedly  of  Hindu  origin. 
Their  fundamental  tenets  are,  that  nothing  exists  absolutely  but 
God ;  that  the  human  soul  is  an  emanation  from  his  essence  and 
will  finally  be  restored  to  him  ;  that  the  great  object  of  life 
should  be  a  constant  approach  to  the  eternal  spirit,  to  form  as 
perfect  a  union  with  the  divine  nature  as  possible.     Hence   all 
worldly  attachments  should  be  avoided,  and  in  all  that  we  do  a 
spiritual  object  should  be  kept  in  view.     The  great  end  with 
these  philosophers  is  to  attain  to  a  state  of  perfection  in  spirit- 
uality and  to  be  absorbed  in  holy  contemplation,  to  the  exclusion 
of  all  worldly  recollections  or  interests. 

7.  PERSIAN   POETRY. —  The   Persian   tongue   is   peculiarly 
adapted  to  the  purposes  of  poetry,  which  in  that  language  is 
rich  in  forcible  expressions,  in  bold  metaphors,  in  ardent  senti- 
ments, and  in  descriptions  animated  with  the  most  lively  color- 
ing.    In  poetical  composition  there  is  much  art  exercised  by  the 
Persian  poets,  and  the  arrangement  of  their  language  is  a  work 
of  great  care.     One  favorite  measure  which  frequently  ends  a 
poem  is  called  the  Suja,  literally  the  cooing  of  doves. 

The  poetical  compositions  of  the  Persians  are  of  several  kinds  ; 
the  gazel  or  ode  usually  treats  of  love,  beauty,  or  friendship. 
The  poet  generally  introduces  his  name  in  the  last  couplet.  The 
idyl  resembles  the  gazel,  except  that  it  is  longer.  Poetry  enters 
as  a  universal  element  into  all  compositions ;  physics,  mathemat- 
ics, medicine,  ethics,  natural  history,  astronomy,  grammar  —  all 
lend  themselves  to  verse  in  Persia. 

The  works  of  favorite  poets  are  generally  written  on  fine, 
silky  paper,  the  ground  of  which  is  often  powdered  with  gold 
or  silver  dust,  the  margins  illuminated,  and  the  whole  perfumed 
with  some  costly  essence.  The  magnificent  volume  containing 
the  poem  of  Yussuf  and  Zuleika  in  the  public  library  at  Oxford 
affords  a  proof  of  the  honors  accorded  to  poetical  composition. 
One  of  the  finest  specimens  of  caligraphy  and  illumination  is 
the  exordium  to  the  life  of  Shah  Jehan,  for  which  the  writer, 
besides  the  stipulated  remuneration,  had  his  mouth  stuffed  with 
pearls. 

There  are  three  principal  love  stories  in  Persia  which,  from 
the  earliest  times,  have  been  the  themes  of  every  poet.  Scarcely 
one  of  the  great  masters  of  Persian  literature  but  has  adopted 


PERSIAN  LITERATURE.  43 

and  added  celebrity  to  these  beautiful  and  interesting  legends, 
which  can  never  be  too  often  repeated  to  an  Oriental  ear.  They 
are,  the  "  History  of  Khosru  and  Shireen,"  the  "  Loves  of  Yus- 
suf  and  Zuleika,"  and  the  ''  Misfortunes  of  Mejnoun  and  Leila." 
So  powerful  is  the  charm  attached  to  these  stories,  that  it  ap- 
pears to  have  been  considered  almost  the  imperative  duty  of  all 
the  poets  to  compose  a  new  version  of  the  old,  familiar,  and  be- 
loved traditions.  Even  down  to  a  modern  date,  the  Persians 
have  not  deserted  their  favorites,  and  these  celebrated  themes 
of  verse  reappear,  from  time  to  time,  under  new  auspices.  Each 
of  these  poems  is  expressive  of  a  peculiar  character.  That  of 
Khosru  and  Sliireen  may  be  considered  exclusively  the  Persian 
romance  ;  that  of  Mejnoun  the  Arabian ;  and  that  of  Yussuf 
and  Zuleika  the  sacred.  The  first  presents  a  picture  of  happy 
love  and  female  excellence  in  Shireen ;  Mejnoun  is  a  represen- 
tation of  unfortunate  love  carried  to  madness  ;  the  third  ro- 
mance contains  the  ideal  of  perfection  in  Yussuf  (Joseph)  and 
the  most  passionate  and  imprudent  love  in  Zuleika  (the  wife  of 
Potiphar),  and  exhibits  in  strong  relief  the  power  of  love  and 
beauty,  the  mastery  of  mind,  the  weakness  of  overwhelming 
passion,  and  the  victorious  spirit  of  holiness. 

8.  PERSIAN  POETS.  —  The  first  of  Persian  poets,  the  Homer 
of  his  country,  is  Abul  Kasim  Mansur,  called  Ferdusi  or  "  Par- 
adise," from  the  exquisite  beauty  of  his  compositions.  He  flour- 
ished in  the  reign  of  the  Shah  Mahmud  (940-1020  A.  D.). 
Mahmud  commissioned  him  to  write  in  his  faultless  verse  a  his- 
tory of  the  monarchs  of  Persia,  promising  that  for  every  thou- 
sand couplets  he  should  receive  a  thousand  pieces  of  gold.  For 
thirty  years  he  studied  and  labored  on  his  epic  poem, "  the  Shah 
Namah,"  or  Book  of  Kings,  and  when  it  was  completed  he  sent 
a  copy  of  it,  exquisitely  written,  to  the  sultan,  who  received  it 
coldly,  and  treated  the  work  of  the  aged  poet  with  contempt. 
Disappointed  at  the  ingratitude  of  the  Shah,  Ferdusi  wrote  some 
satirical  lines,  which  soon  reached  the  ear  of  Mahmud,  who, 
piqued  and  offended  at  the  freedom  of  the  poet,  ordered  sixty 
thousand  small  pieces  of  money  to  be  sent  to  him,  instead  of  the 
gold  which  he  had  promised.  Ferdusi  was  in  the  public  bath 
when  the  money  was  given  to  him,  and  his  rage  and  amazement 
exceeded  all  bounds  when  he  found  himself  thus  insulted.  He 
distributed  the  paltry  sum  among  the  attendants  of  the  bath  and 
the  slaves  who  brought  it. 

He  soon  after  avenged  himself  by  writing  a  satire  full  of 
stinging  invective,  which  he  caused  to  be  transmitted  to  the  fa- 
vorite vizier  who  had  instigated  the  sultan  against  him.  It  was 
carefully  sealed  up,  with  directions  that  it  should  be  read  to 
Mahmud  on  some  occasion  when  his  mind  was  perturbed  with 


44         HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

affairs  of  state,  and  his  temper  ruffled,  as  it  was  a  poem  likely 
to  afford  him  entertainment.  Ferdusi  having  thus  prepared  his 
vengeance,  quitted  the  ungrateful  court  without  leave-taking, 
and  was  at  a  safe  distance  when  news  reached  him  that  his  lines 
had  fully  answered  their  intended  purpose.  Mahmud  had  heard 
and  trembled,  and  too  late  discovered  that  he  had  ruined  his 
own  reputation  forever.  After  the  satire  had  been  read  by  Shah 
Mahmud,  the  poet  sought  shelter  in  the  court  of  the  caliph  of 
Bagdad,  in  whose  honor  he  added  a  thousand  couplets  to  the 
poem  of  the  Shah  Namah,  and  who  rewarded  him  with  the  sixty 
thousand  gold  pieces,  which  had  been  withheld  by  Mahmud. 
Meantime,  Ferdusi's  poem  of  Yussuf,  and  his  magnificent  verses 
on  several  subjects,  had  received  the  fame  they  deserved.  Shah 
Mahmud's  late  remorse  awoke.  Thinking  by  a  tardy  act  of  lib- 
erality to  repair  his  former  meanness,  he  dispatched  to  the  author 
of  the  Shah  Namah  the  sixty  thousand  pieces  he  had  promised,  a 
robe  of  state,  and  many  apologies  and  expressions  of  friendship 
and  admiration,  requesting  his  return,  and  professing  great  sor- 
row for  the  past.  But  when  the  message  arrived,  Ferdusi  was 
dead,  and  his  family  devoted  the  whole  sum  to  the  benevolent 
purpose  he  had  intended,  —  the  erection  of  public  buildings,  and 
the  general  improvement  of  his  native  village,  Tus.  He  died  at 
the  age  of  eighty.  The  Shah  Namah  contains  the  history  of  the 
kings  of  Persia  down  to  the  death  of  the  last  of  the  Sassanide 
race,  who  was  deprived  of  his  kingdom  by  the  invasion  of  the 
Arabs  during  the  caliphat  of  Omar,  636  A.  D.  The  language  of 
Ferdusi  may  be  considered  as  the  purest  specimen  of  the  ancient 
Parsee :  Arabic  words  are  seldom  introduced.  There  are 
many  episodes  in  the  Shah  Namah  of  great  beauty,  and  the 
power  and  elegance  of  its  verse  are  unrivaled. 

Essedi  of  Tus  is  distinguished  as  having  been  the  master  of 
Ferdusi,  and  as  having  aided  his  illustrious  pupil  in  the  comple- 
tion of  his  great  work.  Among  many  poems  which  he  wrote, 
the  "  Dispute  between  Day  and  Night "  is  the  most  celebrated. 

Togray  was  a  native  of  Ispahan  and  contemporary  with  Fer- 
dusi. He  became  so  celebrated  as  a  writer,  that  the  title  of 
Honor  of  Writers  was  given  him.  He  was  an  alchemist,  and 
wrote  a  treatise  on  the  philosopher's  stone. 

Moasi,  called  King  of  Poets,  lived  about  the  middle  of  the 
eleventh  century.  He  obtained  his  title  at  the  court  of  Ispahan, 
and  rose  to  high  dignity  and  honor.  So  renowned  were  his 
odes,  that  more  than  a  hundred  poets  endeavored  to  imitate  his 
style. 

Omar  Kheyam,  who  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  the 
poets  of  Persia,  lived  toward  the  close  of  the  eleventh  century. 
He  was  remarkable  for  the  freedom  of  his  religious  opinions, 


PERSIAN  LITERATURE.  45 

and  the  boldness  with  which  he  denounced  hypocrisy  and  intol- 
erance. He  particularly  directed  his  satire  against  the  mystic 
poets. 

Nizami,  the  first  of  the  romantic  poets,  flourished  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  twelfth  century  A.  D.  His  principal  works  are  called 
the  "  Five  Treasures,"  of  which  the  "  Loves  of  Khosru  and  Shi- 
reen  "  is  the  most  celebrated,  and  in  the  treatment  of  which  he 
has  succeeded  beyond  all  other  poets. 

.  Sadi  (1194—1282)  is  esteemed  among  the  Persians  as  a  mas- 
ter in  poetry  and  in  morality.  He  is  better  known  in  Europe 
than  any  other  Eastern  author,  except  Hafiz,  and  has  been  more 
frequently  translated.  Jami  calls  him  the  nightingale  of  the 
groves  of  Shiraz,  of  which  city  he  was  a  native.  He  spent  a 
part  of  his  long  life  in  travel  and  in  the  acquisition  of  knowl- 
edge, and  the  remainder  in  retirement  and  devotion.  His  works 
are  termed  the  salt-mine  of  poets,  being  revered  as  unrivaled 
models  of  the  first  genius  in  the  world.  His  philosophy  enabled 
him  to  support  all  the  ills  of  life  with  patience  and  fortitude, 
and  one  of  his  remarks,  arising  from  the  destitute  condition  in 
which  he  once  found  himself,  deserves  preservation :  "I  never 
complained  of  my  condition  but  once,  when  my  feet  were  bare, 
and  I  had  not  money  to  buy  shoes ;  but  I  met  a  man  without 
feet,  and  I  became  contented  with  my  lot."  The  works  of  Sadi 
are  very  numerous,  and  are  popular  and  familiar  everywhere  in 
the  East.  His  two  greatest  works  are  the  "  Bostan "  and 
"  Gulistan  "  (Bostan,  the  rose  garden,  and  Gulistan,  the  fruit 
garden).  They  abound  in  striking  beauties,  and  show  great 
knowledge  of  human  nature. 

Attar  (1119-1233)  was  one  of  the  great  Sufi  masters,  and 
spent  his  life  in  devotion  and  contemplation.  He  died  at  the 
advanced  age  of  114.  It  would  seem  that  poetry  in  the  East 
was  favorable  to  human  life,  so  many  of  its  professors  attained 
to  a  great  age,  particularly  those  who  professed  the  Sufi  doc- 
trine. The  great  work  of  Attar  is  a  poem  containing  useful 
moral  maxims. 

Roumi  (1203—1272),  usually  called  the  Mulah,  was  an  en- 
thusiastic follower  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Sufis.  His  son  suc- 
ceeded him  at  the  head  of  the  sect,  and  surpassed  his  father  not 
only  in  the  virtues  and  attainments  of  the  Sufis,  but  by  his 
splendid  poetical  genius.  His  poems  are  regarded  as  the  most 
perfect  models  of  the  mystic  style.  Sir  William  Jones  says, 
"  There  is  a  depth  and  solemnity  in  his  works  unequaled  by 
any  poet  of  this  class  ;  even  Hafiz  must  be  considered  inferior  to 
him." 

Among  the  poets  of  Persia  the  name  of  Hafiz  (d.  1389),  the 
prince  of  Persian  lyric  poets,  is  most  familiar  to  the  English 


46         HANDBOOK   OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

reader.  He  was  born  at  Shiraz.  Leading  a  life  of  poverty,  of 
which  he  was  proud,  for  he  considered  poverty  the  companion 
of  genius,  he  constantly  refused  the  invitation  of  monarchs  to 
visit  their  courts.  There  is  endless  variety  in  the  poems  of 
Hafiz,  and  they  are  replete  with  surpassing  beauty  of  thought, 
feeling,  and  expression.  The  grace,  ease,  and  fancy  of  his  num- 
bers are  inimitable,  and  there  is  a  magic  in  his  lays  which  few 
even  of  his  professed  enemies  have  been  able  to  resist.  To  the 
young,  the  gay,  and  the  enthusiastic  his  verses  are  ever  welcome, 
and  the  sage  discovers  in  them  a  hidden  mystery  which  recon- 
ciles him  to  their  subjects.  His  tomb,  near  Shiraz,  \s  visited  as 
a  sacred  spot  by  pilgrims  of  all  ages.  The  place  of  his  birth  is 
held  in  veneration,  and  there  is  not  a  Persian  whose  heart  does 
not  echo  his  strains. 

Jami  (d.  1492)"  was  born  in  Khorassan,  in  the  village  of  Jam, 
from  whence  he  is  named,  —  his  proper  appellation  being  Abd 
Arahman.  He  was  a  Sufi,  and  preferred,  like  many  of  his  fel- 
low-poets, the  meditations  and  ecstasies  of  mysticism  to  the  pleas- 
ures of  a  court.  His  writings  are  very  voluminous  ;  he  com- 
posed nearly  forty  volumes,  all  of  great  length,  of  which  twenty- 
two  are  preserved  at  Oxford.  The  greater  part  of  them  treat  of 
Mohammedan  theology,  and  are  written  in  the  mystic  style. 
He  collected  the  most  interesting  under  the  name  of  the  "  Seven 
Stars  of  the  Bear,"  or  the  "  Seven  Brothers,"  and  among  these 
is  the  famous  poem  of  Yussuf  and  Zuleika.  This  favorite  sub- 
ject, which  every  Persian  poet  has  touched  with  more  or  less 
success,  has  never  been  so  beautifully  rendered  as  by  Jami. 
Nothing  can  exceed  the  admiration  which  this  poem  inspires  in 
the  East. 

Hatifi  (d.  1520)  was  the  nephew  of  the  great  poet  Jami.  It 
was  his  ambition  to  enter  the  lists  with  his  uncle,  by  composing 
poems  on  similar  subjects.  Opinions  are  divided  as  to  whether 
he  succeeded  as  well  as  his  master,  but  none  can  exceed  him  in 
sweetness  and  pathos.  His  version  of  the  sad  tale  of  Mejnoun 
and  Leila,  the  Romeo  and  Juliet  of  the  East,  is  confessedly 
superior  to  that  of  Nizami. 

The  lyrical  compositions  of  Sheik  Feizi  (d.  1575)  are  highly 
valued.  In  his  mystic  poems  he  approaches  to  the  sublimity  of 
Attar.  His  ideas  are  tinged  with  the  belief  of  the  Hindus,  in 
which  he  was  educated.  When  a  boy  he  was  introduced  to  the 
Brahmins  by  the  Sultan  Mohammed  Akbar,  as  an  orphan  of 
their  tribe,  in  order  that  he  might  learn  their  language  and 
obtain  possession  of  their  religious  secrets.  He  became  attached 
to  the  daughter  of  the  Brahmin  who  protected  him,  and  she  was 
offered  to  him  in  marriage  by  the  unsuspecting  parent.  After 
a  struggle  between  inclination  and  honor,  the  latter  prevailed, 


PERSIAN  LITERATURE.  47 

and  he  confessed  the  fraud.  The  Brahmin,  struck  with  horror, 
attempted  to  put  an  end  to  his  own  existence,  fearing  that  he 
had  betrayed  his  oath  and  brought  danger  and  disgrace  on  his 
sect.  Feizi,  with  tears  and  protestations,  besought  him  to  for- 
bear, promising  to  submit  to  any  command  he  might  impose  on 
him.  The  Brahmin  consented  to  live,  on  condition  that  Feizi 
should  take  an  oath  never  to  translate  the  Vedas  nor  to  repeat 
to  any  one  the  creed  of  the  Hindus.  Feizi  entered  into  the 
desired  obligations,  parted  with  his  adopted  father,  bade  adieu 
to  his  love,  and  with  a  sinking  heart  returned  home.  Among 
his  works  the  most  important  is  the  "  Mahabarit,"  which  con- 
tains the  chronicles  of  the  Hindu  princes,  and  abounds  in  ro- 
mantic episodes. 

The  most  celebrated  recent  Persian  poet  is  Blab  Phelair 
(1729—1825).  He  left  many  astronomical,  moral,  political,  and 
literary  works.  He  is  called  the  Persian  Voltaire. 

Among  the  collections  of  novels  and  fables,  the  "  Lights  of 
Canope "  may  be  mentioned,  imitated  from  the  Hitopadesa. 
Persian  literature  is  also  enriched  by  translations  of  the  standard 
works  in  Sanskrit,  among  which  are  the  epic  poems  of  Valmiki 
and  Vyasa. 

9.  HISTORY  AND  PHILOSOPHY.  —  Among  the  most  celebrated 
of  the  Persian  historians  is  Mirkhond,  who  lived  in  the  middle 
of  the  fifteenth  century.  His  great  work  on  universal  history 
contains  an  account  of  the  origin  of  the  world,  the  life  of  the 
patriarchs,  prophets,  and  philosophers  of  Persia,  and  affords 
valuable  materials,  especially  for  the  history  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
His  son,  Khondemir,  distinguished  himself  in  the  same  branch 
of  literature,  and  wrote  two  works  which,  for  their  historical 
correctness  and  elegance  of  style,  are  in  great  favor  among  the 
Persians.  Ferischta,  who  flourished  in  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  is  the  author  of  a  valuable  history  of  India. 
Mirgholah,  a  historian  of  the  eighteenth  century,  gives  a  con- 
temporary histoiy  of  Hindustan  and  of  his  own  country,  under 
the  title  of  "  A  Glance  at  Recent  Affairs,"  and  in  another  work 
he  treats  of  the  causes  which,  at  some  future  time,  will  probably 
lead  to  the  fall  of  the  British  power  in  India.  The  "  History  of 
the  Reigning  Dynasty  "  is  among  the  principal  modern  historical 
works  of  Persia. 

The  Persians  possess  numerous  works  on  rhetoric,  geography, 
medicine,  mathematics,  and  astronomy,  few  of  which  are  entitled 
to  much  consideration.  In  philosophy  may  be  mentioned  the 
"Essence  of  Logic,"  an  exposition  in  the  Arabic  language  of  the 
doctrines  of  Aristotle  on  logic  ;  and  the  "  Moral  System  of  Na- 
sir,"  published  in  the  thirteenth  century  A.  D.,  a  valuable  trea- 
tise on  morals,  economy,  and  politics. 


48         HANDBOOK   OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

10.  EDUCATION  INT  PERSIA.  —  There  are  established,  in  every 
town  and  city,  schools  in  which  the  poorer  children  can  be  in- 
structed in  the  rudiments  of  the  Persian  and  Arabic  languages. 
The  pupil,  after  he  has  learned  the  alphabet,  reads  the  Koran 
in  Arabic ;  next,  fables  in  Persian  ;  and  lastly  is  taught  to 
write  a  beautiful  hand,  which  is  considered  a  great  accomplish- 
ment. The  Persians  are  fond  of  poetry,  and  the  lowest  artisans 
can  read  or  repeat  the  finest  passages  of  their  most  admired 
poets.  For  the  education  of  the  higher  classes  there  are  in 
Persia  many  colleges  and  universities  where  the  pupils  are 
taught  grammar,  the  Turkish  and  Arabic  languages,  rhetoric, 
philosophy,  and  poetry.  The  literary  men  are  numerous  ;  they 
pursue  their  studies  till  they  are  entitled  to  the  honors  of  the 
colleges  ;  afterwards  they  devote  themselves  to  copying  and 
illuminating  manuscripts. 

Of  late  many  celebrated  European  works  have  been  translated 
and  published  in  Persia. 


HEBREW  LITERATURE. 

1.  Hebrew  Literature  ;  its  Divisions.  — 2.  The  Language  ;  its  Alphabet;  its  Struc- 
ture ;  Peculiarities,  Formation,  and  Phases.  —  3.  The  Old  Testament.  —  4.  Hebrew  Edu- 
cation. —  5.  Fundamental  Idea  of  Hebrew  Literature.  —  6.  Hebrew  Poetry.  —  7.  Lyric 
Poetry ;  Songs  ;  the  Psalms  ;  the  Prophets.  —  8.  Pastoral  Poetry  and  Didactic  Poetry  ;  the 
Proverbs  and  Ecclesiastes.  —  9.  Epic  and  Dramatic  Poetry  ;  the  Book  of  Job.  —  10.  He- 
brew History  ;  the  Pentateuch  and  other  Historical  Books.  —  11.  Hebrew  Philosophy.  — 
12.  Restoration  of  the  Sacred  Books.  —  13.  Manuscripts  and  Translations.  — 14.  Rabbin- 
ical Literature.  — 15.  The  New  Revision  of  the  Bible,  and  the  New  Biblical  Manuscript. 

1.  HEBREW  LITERATURE.  —  In  the  Hebrew  literature  we 
find  expressed  the  national  character  of  that  ancient  people  who, 
for  a  period  of  four  thousand  years,  through  captivity,  disper- 
sion, and  persecution  of  every  kind,  present  the  wonderful  spec- 
tacle of  a  race  preserving  its  nationality,  its  peculiarities  of  wor- 
ship, of  doctrine,  and  of  literature.  '  Its  history  reaches  back  to 
an  early  period  of  the  world,  its  code  of  laws  has  been  studied 
and  imitated  by  the  legislators  of  all  ages  and  countries,  and  its 
literary  monuments  surpass  in  originality,  poetic  strength,  and 
religious  importance  those  of  any  other  nation  before  the  Chris- 
tian era. 

The  literature  of  the  Hebrews  may  be  divided  into  the  four 
following  periods  :  — 

The  first,  extending  from  remote  antiquity  to  the  time  of  Da- 
vid, 1010  B.  c.,  includes  all  the  records  of  patriarchal  civiliza- 
tion transmitted  by  tradition  previous  to  the  age  of  Moses,  and 
contained  in  the  Pentateuch  or  five  books  attributed  to  him 
after  he  had  delivered  the  people  from  the  bondage  of  Egypt. 

The  second  period  extends  from  the  time  of  David  to  the 
death  of  Solomon,  1010-940  B.  c.,  and  to  this  are  referred  some 
of  the  Psalms,  Joshua,  the  Judges,  and  the  Chronicles. 

The  third  period  extends  from  the  death  of  Solomon  to  the 
return  from  the  Babylonian  captivity,  940-532  B.  c.,  and  to  this 
age  belong  the  writings  of  most  of  the  Prophets,  The  Song  of 
Solomon,  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  the  books  of  Samuel,  of  Kings, 
and  of  Ruth. 

The  fourth  period  extends  from  their  return  from  the  Baby- 
lonian Captivity  to  the  present  time,  and  to  this  belong  some  of 
the  Prophets,  the  Chronicles,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  Esther,  the  final 
completion  of  the  Psalms,  the  Septuagint  translation  of  the 
Bible,  the  writings  of  Josephus,  of  Philo  of  Alexandria,  and  the 
rabbinical  literature. 
4 


50         HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

2.  THE  LANGUAGE.  —  The  Hebrew  language  is  of  Semitic 
origin  ;  its  alphabet  consists  of  twenty-two  letters.  The  number 
of  accents  is  nearly  forty,  some  of  which  distinguish  the  sen- 
tences like  the  punctuation  of  our  language,  and  others  serve  to 
determine  the  number  of  syllables,  or  to  mark  the  tone  with 
which  they  are  to  be  sung  or  spoken. 

The  Hebrew  character  is  of  two  kinds,  the  ancient  or  square, 
and  the  modern  or  rabbinical.  In  the  first  of  these  the  Scrip- 
tures were  originally  written.  The  last  is  deprived  of  most  of 
its  angles,  and  is  more  easy  and  flowing.  The  Hebrew  words  as 
well  as  letters  are  written  from  right  to  left  in  common  with  the 
Semitic  tongues  generally,  and  the  language  is  regular,  particu- 
larly in  its  conjugations.  Indeed,  it  has  but  one  conjugation, 
but  with  seven  or  eight  variations,  having  the  effect  of  as  many 
different  conjugations,  and  giving  great  variety  of  expression. 
The  predominance  of  these  modifications  over  the  noun,  the  idea 
of  time  contained  in  the  roots  of  almost  all  its  verbs,  so  expres- 
sive and  so  picturesque,  and  even  the  scarcity  of  its  prepositions, 
adjectives,  and  adverbs,  make  this  language  in  its  organic  struc- 
ture breathe  life,  vigor,  and  emotion.  If  it  lacks  the  flowery  and 
luxuriant  elements  of  the  other  oriental  idioms,  no  one  of  these 
can  be  compared  with  the  Hebrew  tongue  for  the  richness  of  its 
figures  and  imagery,  for  its  depth,  and  for  its  majestic  and  im- 
posing features. 

In  the  formation,  development,  and  decay  of  this  language, 
the  following  periods  may  be  distinguished  :  — 

First.  From  Abraham  to  Moses,  when  the  old  stock  was 
changed  by  the  infusion  of  the  Egyptian  and  Arabic.  Abraham, 
residing  in  Chaldea,  spoke  the  Chaldaic  language,  then  travel- 
ing through  Egypt,  and  establishing  himself  in  Canaan  or  Pales- 
tine, his  language  mingled  its  elements  with  the  tongues  spoken 
Jby  those  nations,  and  perhaps  also  with  that  of  the  Phoenicians, 
who  early  established  commercial  intercourse  with  him  and  his 
descendants.  It  is  probable  that  the  Hebrew  language  sprung 
from  the  mixture  of  these  elements. 

Second.  From  Moses  and  the  composition  of  the  Pentateuch 
to  Solomon,  when  it  attained  its  perfection,  not  without  being 
influenced  by  the  Phoenician.  This  is  the  Golden  Age  of  the 
Hebrew  language. 

Third.  From  Solomon  to  Ezra,  when,  although  increasing  in 
beauty  and  sweetness,  it  became  less  pure  by  the  adoption  of  for- 
eign ideas  and  idioms. 

Fourth.  From  Ezra  to  the  end  of  the  reign  of  the  Macca- 
bees, when  it  was  gradually  lost  in  the  Aramaean  or  Chaldaic 
tongue,  and  became  a  dead  language. 

The  Jews  of  the  Middle  Ages,  incited  by  the  learning  of  the 


HEBREW  LITERATURE.  51 

Arabs  in  Spain,  among  whom  they  received  the  protection  de- 
nied them  by  Christian  nations,  endeavored  to  restore  their  lan- 
guage to  something  of  its  original  purity,  and  to  render  the 
Biblical  Hebrew  again  a  written  language  t  but  the  Chaldaic 
idioms  had  taken  too  deep  root  to  be  eradicated,  and  besides, 
the  ancient  language  was  found  insufficient  for  the  necessities  of 
an  advancing  civilization.  Hence  arose  a  new  form  of  written 
Hebrew,  called  rabbinical  from  its  origin  and  use  among  the 
rabbins.  It  borrowed  largely  from  many  contemporary  lan- 
guages, and  though  it  became  richer  and  more  regular  in  its 
structure,  it  retained  little  of  the  strength  and  purity  of  the 
ancient  Hebrew. 

3.  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  —  The  literary  productions  of  the 
Hebrews  are  collected  in  the  sacred  books  of  the  Old  Testament, 
in  which,  according  to  the  celebrated  orientalist,  Sir  William 
Jones,  we   can  find  more  eloquence,  more  historical  and  moral 
truth,  more  poetry,  —  in  a  word,  more  beauties  than  we  could 
gather  from  all  other  books  together,  of  whatever  country  or  lan- 
guage.    Aside  from  its  supernatural  claims,   this  book  stands 
alone  among  the  literary  monuments  of  other  nations,  for  the 
sublimity  of  its  doctrine,  as  well  as  for  the  simplicity  of  its  style. 

It  is  the  book  of  all  centuries,  countries,  and  conditions,  and 
affords  the  best  solution  of  the  most  mysterious  problems  con- 
cerning God  and  the  world..  It  cultivates  the  taste,  it  elevates 
the  mind,  it  nurses  the  soul  with  the  word  of  life,  and  it  has  in- 
spired the  best  productions  of  human  genius. 

4.  HEBREW  EDUCATION.  — Religion,  morals,  legislation,  his- 
tory, poetry,  and  music  were  the  special  objects  to  which  the  at- 
tention of  the  Levites  and  Prophets  was  particularly  directed. 
The  general  education  of  the  people,  however,  was  rather  simple 
and  domestic.    They  were  trained  in  husbandry,  and  in  military 
and  gymnastic   exercises,  and  they  applied  their  minds  almost 
exclusively  to  religious  and  moral  doctrines  and  to  divine  wor- 
ship ;  they  learned  to  read  and  write  their  own  language  cor- 
rectly, but  they  seldom  learned  foreign  languages  or  read  foreign 
books,  and  they  carefully  prevented  strangers  from  obtaining  a 
knowledge  of  their  own. 

5.  FUNDAMENTAL  IDEA  OF  HEBREW  LITERATURE.  —  Mono- 
theism was  the  fundamental  idea  of  the  Hebrew  literature,  as 
well  as  of  the  Hebrew  religion,  legislation,  morals,  politics,  and 
philosophy.     The  idea  of  the  unity  of  God  constitutes  the  most 
striking   characteristic    of   Hebrew  poetry,   and    chiefly  distin- 
guishes it  from  that  of  all  mythological  nations.     Other  ancient 
literatures  have  created  their  divinities,  endowed  them  with  hu- 
man passions,  and  painted  their  achievements  in  the  glowing 
colors  of  poetry.     The  Hebrew  poetry,  on  the  contrary,  makes 


52         HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

no  attempt  to  portray  the  Deity  by  the  instruments  of  sensuous 
representation,  but  simple,  majestic,  and  severe,  it  pours  forth  a 
perpetual  anthem  of  praise  and  thanksgiving.  The  attributes  of 
God,  his  power,  his  paternal  love  and  wisdom,  are  described  in 
the  most  sublime  language  of  any  age  or  nation.  His  seat  is  the 
heavens,  the  earth  is  his  footstool,  the  heavenly  hosts  his  ser- 
vants ;  the  sea  is  his,  and  he  made  it,  and  his  hands  prepared 
the  dry  land. 

Placed  under  the  immediate  government  of  Jehovah,  having 
with  Him  common  objects  of  aversion  and  love,  the  Hebrews 
reached  the  very  source  of  enthusiasm,  the  fire  of  which  burned 
in  the  hearts  of  the  prophets  so  fervently  as  to  cause  them  to 
utter  the  denunciations  and  the  promises  of  the  Eternal  in  a  tone 
suited  to  the  inspired  of  God,  and  to  sing  his  attributes  and  glo- 
ries with  a  dignity  and  authority  becoming  them,  as  the  vicege- 
rents of  God  upon  earth. 

6.  HEBREW  POETRY.  —  The  character  of  the  people  and  their 
language,  its  mission,  the  pastoral  life  of  the  patriarchs,   the 
beautiful  and  grand  scenery  of  the  country,  the  wonderful  his- 
tory of  the  nation,  the  feeling  of  divine  inspiration,  the  promise 
of  a  Messiah  who  should  raise  the  nation  to  glory,  the  imposing 
solemnities  of  the  divine  worship,  and  finally,  the  special  order 
of  the  prophets,  gave  a  strong  impulse  to  the  poetical  genius  of 
the  nation,  and  concurred  in  producing  a  form  of  poetry  which 
cannot  be  compared  with  any  other  for  its  simplicity  and  clear- 
ness, for  its  depth  and  majesty. 

These  features  of  Hebrew  poetry,  however,  spring  from  its 
internal  force  rather  than  from  any  external  form.  Indeed,  the 
Hebrew  poets  soar  far  above  all  others  in  that  energy  of  feeling, 
impetuous  and  irresistible,  which  penetrates,  warms,  and  moves 
the  very  soul.  They  reveal  their  anxieties  as  well  as  their 
hopes ;  they  paint  with  truth  and  love  the  actual  condition  of 
the  human  race,  with  its  sorrows  and  consolations,  its  hopes  and 
fears,  its  love  and  hate.  They  sele'ct  their  images  from  the 
habitual  ideas  of  the  people,  and  personify  inanimate  objects  — 
the  mountains  tremble  and  exult,  deep  cries  unto  deep.  An- 
other characteristic  of  Hebrew  poetry  is  the  strong  feeling  of 
nationality  it  expresses.  Of  their  two  most  sublime  poets,  one 
was  their  legislator,  the  other  their  greatest  king. 

7.  LYRIC  POETRY.  —  In  their  national  festivals  the  Hebrews 
sang  the  hymns  of  their  lyric  poets,   accompanied   by  musical 
instruments.      The   art  of  singing,  as    connected  with  poetry, 
flourished  especially  under  David,  who  instituted  twenty-four 
choruses,  composed  of  four  thousand  Levites,  whose  duty  it  was 
to  sing  in  the  public  solemnities.     It  is  generally  believed  that 
the  Hebrew  lyric  poetry  was  not  ruled  by  any  measure,  either 


HEBREW  LITERATURE.  53 

of  syllables  or  of  time.  Its  predominant  form  was  a  succession 
of  thoughts  and  a  rhythmic  movement,  less  of  syllables  and 
words  than  of  ideas  and  images  systematically  arranged.  The 
Psalms,  especially,  are  essentially  symmetrical,  according  to  the 
Habrew  ritual,  their  verses  being  sung  alternately  by  Levites  and 
people,  both  in  the  synagogues  and  more  frequently  in  the  open 
air.  The  song  of  Moses  after  the  passage  of  the  Red  Sea  is  the 
most  sublime  triumphal  hymn  in  any  language,  and  of  equal 
merit  is  his  song  of  thanksgiving  in  Deuteronomy.  Beautiful 
examples  of  the  same  order  of  poetry  may  be  found  in  the  song 
of  Judith  (though  not  canonical),  and  the  songs  of  Deborah  and 
Balaam.  But  Hebrew  poetry  attained  its  meridian  splendor  in 
the  Psalms  of  David.  The  works  of  God  in  the  creation  of  the 
world,  and  in  the  government  of  men ;  the  illustrious  deeds  of 
the  House  of  Jacob  ;  the  wonders  and  mysteries  of  the  new 
Covenant  are  sung  by  David  in  a  fervent  out-pouring  of  an  im- 
pulsive, passionate  spirit,  that  alternately  laments  and  exults, 
bows  in  contrition,  or  soars  to  the  sublimest  heights  of  devotion. 
The  Psalms,  even  now,  reduced  to  prose,  after  three  thousand 
years,  present  the  best  and  most  sublime  collection  of  lyrical 
poems,  unequaled  for  their  aspiration,  their  living  imagery,  their 
grand  ideas,  and  majesty  of  style. 

When  at  length  the  Hebrews,  forgetful  of  their  high  duties 
and  calling,  trampled  on  their  institutions  and  laws,  prophets 
were  raised  up  to  recall  the  wandering  people  to  their  allegiance. 
ISAIAH,  whether  he  foretells  the  future  destiny  of  the  nation,  or 
the  coming  of  the  Messiah,  in  his  majestic  eloquence,  sweetness, 
and  simplicity,  gives  us  the  most  perfect  model  of  lyric  poetry. 
He  prophesied  during  the  reigns  of  Azariah  and  Hezekiah,  and 
his  writings  bear  the  mark  of  true  inspiration. 

JEREMIAH  flourished  during  the  darkest  period  in  the  history 
of  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  and  under  the  last  four  kings,  pre- 
vious to  the  Captivity.  The  Lamentations,  in  which  he  pours 
forth  his  grief  for  the  fate  of  his  country,  are  full  of  touching 
melancholy  and  pious  resignation,  and,  in  their  harmonious  and 
beautiful  tone,  show  his  ardent  patriotism  and  his  unshaken 
trust  in  the  God  of  his  fathers.  He  does  not  equal  Isaiah  in 
the  sublimity  of  his  conceptions  and  the  variety  of  his  imagery, 
but  whatever  may  be  the  imperfections  of  his  style,  they  are 
lost  in  the  passion  and  vehemence  of  his  poems. 

DANIEL,  after  having  struggled  against  the  corruptions  of 
Babylon,  boldly  foretells  the  decay  of  that  empire  with  terrible 
power.  His  conceptions  and  images  are  truly  sublime  ;  but  his 
style  is  less  correct  and  regular  than  that  of  his  predecessors,  his 
language  being  a  mixture  of  Hebrew  and  Chaldaic. 

Such  is  also  the  style  of  EZEKIEL,  who  sings  the  development 


54         HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

of  the  obscure  prophesies  of  his  master.  His  writings  abound 
in  dreams  and  visions,  and  convey  rather  the  idea  of  the  terrible 
than  of  the  sublime. 

These  four,  from  the  length  of  their  writings,  are  called  the 
Greater  Prophets,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  twelve  Minor 
Prophets :  HOSEA,  JOEL,  AMOS,  OBADIAH,  JONAH,  MICAH, 
NAHUM,  HABAKKUK,  ZEPHANIAH,  HAGGAI,  ZECHARIAH,  and 
MALACHI,  all  of  whom,  though  endowed  with  different  charac- 
teristics and  genius,  show  in  their  writings  more  or  less  of  that 
fire  and  vigor  which  can  only  be  found  in  writers  who  were 
moved  and  warmed  by  the  very  spirit  of  God. 

8.  PASTORAL  POETRY  AND  DIDACTIC  POETRY.  —  The  Song 
of  Solomon  and  the  history  of  Ruth  are  the  best  specimens  of 
the  Hebrew  idyl,  and  breathe  all  the  simplicity  of  pastoral  life. 

The  books  of  Proverbs  and  Ecclesiastes  contain  treatises  on 
moral  philosophy,  or  rather,  are  didactic  poems.  The  Proverb, 
which  is  a  maxim  of  wisdom,  greatly  used  by  the  ancients  be- 
fore the  introduction  of  dissertation,  is,  as  the  name  indicates,  the 
prevalent  form  of  the  first  of  these  books.  In  Ecclesiastes  we 
have  described  the  trials  of  a  mind  which  has  lost  itself  in  unde- 
fined wishes  and  in  despair,  and  the  efficacious  remedies  for 
these  mental  diseases  are  shown  in  the  pictures  of  the  vanity  of 
the  world  and  in  the  final  divine  judgment,  in  which  the  problem 
of  this  life  will  have  its  complete  solution.  SOLOMON,  the  author 
of  these  works,  adds  splendor  to  the  sublimity  of  his  doctrines 
by  the  dignity  of  his  style. 

9.  EPIC  AND  DRAMATIC  POETRY.  — The  Book  of  Job  may  be 
considered  as  belonging  either  to  epic  or  to  dramatic  poetry. 
Its  exact  date  is  uncertain ;  some  writers  refer  it  to  the  primitive 
period  of  Hebrew  literature,  and  others  to  a  later  age ;  and, 
while  some  contend  that  Job  was  but  an  ideal,  representing 
human  suffering,  whose  story  was  sung  by  an  anonymous  poet, 
others,  with  more  probability,  regard  him  as  an  actual  person, 
exposed  to  the  trials  and  temptations  described  in  this  wonder- 
ful book.     However  this  may  be,  it  is  certain  that  this  monu- 
ment of  wisdom  stands  alone,  and  that  it  can  be  compared  to 
no  other  production  for  the  sublimity  of  its  ideas,  the  vivacity 
and  force  of  its  expressions,  the  grandeur  of  its  imagery,  and 
the  variety  of  its  characters.     No  other  work  represents,  in  more 
true  and  vivid  colors,  the  nobility  and  misery  of  humanity,  the 
laws  of  necessity  and  Providence,  and  the  trials  to  which  the 
good  are  subjected  for  their  moral  improvement.      Here  the 
great  struggle  between  evil  and  good  appears  in  its  true  light, 
and  human  virtue  heroically  submits  itself  to  the  ordeal  of  mis- 
fortune.    Here  we  learn  that  the  evil  and  good  of  this  life  are 
by  no  means  the  measure  of  morality,  and  here  we  witness  the 
final  triumph  of  justice. 


HEBREW  LITERATURE.  55 

10.  HEBREW  HISTORY.  —  Moses,  the  most  ancient  of  all  his- 
torians, was  also  the  first  leader  and  legislator  of  the  Hebrews. 
When  at  length  the  traditions  of  the  patriarchs  had  become 
obscured  and  confused  among  the  different  nations  of  the  earth, 
Moses  was  inspired  to  write  the  history  of  the  human  race,  and 
especially  of  the  chosen  people,  in  order  to  bequeath  to  coming 
centuries  a  memorial  of  revealed  truths  and  of  the  divine  works 
of  eternal  Wisdom.  Thus  in  the  first  chapters  of  Genesis,  with- 
out aiming  to  write  the  complete  annals  of  the  first  period  of  the 
world,  he  summed  up  the  general  history  of  man,  and  described, 
more  especially,  the  genealogy  of  the  patriarchs  and  of  the  gen- 
erations previous  to  the  time  of  the  dispersion. 

The  subject  of  the  book  of  Exodus  is  the  delivery  of  the  peo- 
ple from  the  Egyptian  bondage,  and  it  is  not  less  admirable  for 
the  importance  of  the  events  which  it  describes,  than  for  the 
manner  in  which  they  are  related.  In  this,  and  in  the  following 
book  of  Numbers,  the  record  of  patriarchal  life  gives  place  to 
the  teachings  of  Moses  and  to  the  history  of  the  wanderings  in 
the  deserts  of  Arabia. 

In  Leviticus  the  constitution  of  the  priesthood  is  described,  as 
well  as  the  peculiarities  of  a  worship. 

Deuteronomy  records  the  laws  of  Moses,  and  concludes  with 
his  sublime  hymn  of  thanksgiving. 

The  historical  books  of  Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  Kings,  Chron- 
icles, Ezra,  etc.,  contain  the  history  of  the  Hebrew  nation  for 
nearly  a  thousand  years,  and  relate  the  prosperity  and  the  dis- 
asters of  the  chosen  people.  Here  are  recorded  the  deeds  of 
Joshua,  of  Samson,  of  Samuel,  of  David,  and  of  Solomon,  the 
building  of  the  Temple,  the  division  of  the  tribes  into  two  king- 
doms, the  prodigies  of  Elijah  and  Elisha,  the  impieties  of  Ahab, 
the  calamities  of  Jedekiah,  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  of 
the  first  Temple,  the  dispersion  and  the  Babylonish  captivity, 
the  deliverance  under  Cyrus,  and  the  rebuilding  of  the  city  and 
Temple  under  Ezra,  and  other  great  events  in  Hebrew  history. 

The  internal  evidence  derived  from  the  peculiar  character  of 
each  of  the  historical  books  is  decisive  of  their  genuineness, 
which  is  supported  above  all  suspicion  of  alteration  or  addition 
by  the  scrupulous  conscientiousness  and  veneration  with  which 
the  Hebrews  regarded  their  sacred  writings.  Their  authenticity 
is  also  proved  by  the  uniformity  of  doctrine  which  pervades 
them  all,  though  written  at  different  periods,  by  the  simplicity 
and  naturalness  of  the  narrations,  and  by  the  sincerity  of  the 
writers. 

These  histories  display  neither  vanity  nor  adulation,  nor  do 
they  attempt  to  conceal  from  the  reader  whatever  might  be 
considered  as  faults  in  their  authors  or  their  heroes.  While 


56         HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

they  select  facts  with  a  nice  judgment,  and  present  the  most 
luminous  picture  of  events  and  of  their  causes,  they  abstain 
from  reasoning  or  speculation  in  regard  to  them. 

11.  HEBREW  PHILOSOPHY.  —  Although  the  Hebrews,  in  their 
different  sacred  writings,  have  transmitted  to  us  the  best  solu- 
tion of  the  ancient  philosophical  questions  on  the  creation  of  the 
world,  on  the  Providence  which  rules  it,  on  monotheism,  and  on 
the  origin  of  sin,  yet  they  have  nowhere  presented  us  with  a 
complete  system  of  philosophy. 

During  the  Captivity,  their  doctrines  were  influenced  by  those 
of  Zoroaster,  and  later,  when  many  of  the  Jews  established 
themselves  in  Egypt,  they  acquired  some  knowledge  of  the 
Greek  philosophy,  and  the  tenets  of  the  sects  of  the  Essenes  bear 
a  strong  resemblance  to  the  Pythagorean  and  Platonic  schools. 
This  resemblance  appears  most  clearly  in  the  writings  of  Philo 
of  Alexandria,  a  Jew,  born  a  few  years  before  the  birth  of  our 
Saviour.  Though  not  belonging  to  the  sect  of  the  Essenes,  he 
followed  their  example  in  adopting  the  doctrines  of  Plato  and 
taking  them  as  the  criterion  in  the  interpretation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures. So,  also,  Flavius  Josephus,  born  in  Jerusalem,  37  A.  D., 
and  Numenius,  born  in  Syria,  in  the  second  century  A.  D.,  adopted 
the  Greek  philosophy,  and  by  its  doctrines  amplified  and  ex- 
panded the  tenets  of  Judaism. 

12.  RESTORATION  OF  THE  SACRED  BOOKS.  —  One  of  the  most 
important  eras  in  Hebrew  literature  is  the  period  of  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Mosaic  institutions,  after  the  return  from  the  Cap- 
tivity.   According  to  tradition,  at  that  time  Ezra  established  the 
great  Synagogue,  a  college  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  learned 
men,  who  were  appointed  to  collect  copies  of  the  ancient  sacred 
books,  the  originals  of  which  had  been  lost  in  the  capture  of 
Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  Nehemiah  soon  after  placed 
this,  or  a  new  collection,  in  the  Temple.     The  design  of  these 
reformers  to  give  the  people  a  religious  canon  in  their  ancient 
tongue  induces  the  belief  that  they  engaged  in  the  work  with 
the  strictest  fidelity  to  the  old  Mosaic  institutions,  and  it  is  cer- 
tain that  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament,  in  the  time  of  the 
Maccabees,  was  the  same  as  that  which  we  have  at  present. 

13.  MANUSCRIPTS  AND  TRANSLATIONS.  —  Of  the  canonical 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  we  have  Hebrew  manuscripts,  printed 
editions,  and  translations.     The  most  esteemed  manuscripts  are 
those  of  the  Spanish  Jews,  of  which  the  most  ancient  belong  to 
the  eleventh  anti  twelfth  centuries.     The  printed  editions  of  the 
Bible  in  Hebrew  are  numerous.    The  earliest  are  those  of  Italy. 
Luther  made  his  German  translation  from  the  edition  of  Brescia, 
printed  in  1494.     The  earliest  and  most  famous  translation  of 
the  Old  Testament  is  the  Septuagint,  or  Greek  translation,  which 


HEBREW  LITERATURE.  57 

was  made  about  283  B.  c.  It  may,  probably,  be  attributed  to  the 
Alexandrian  Jews,  who,  having  lost  the  knowledge  of  the  He- 
brew, caused  the  translation  to  be  made  by  some  of  their  learned 
countrymen  for  the  use  of  the  Synagogues  of  Egypt.  It  was 
probably  accomplished  under  the  authority  of  the  Sanhedrim, 
composed  of  seventy  elders,  and  therefore  called  the  Septuagint 
version,  and  from  it  the  quotations  in  the  New  Testament  are 
chiefly  taken.  It  was  regarded  as  canonical  by  the  Jews  to 
the  exclusion  of  other  books  written  in  Greek,  but  not  translated 
from  the  Hebrew,  which  we  now  call,  by  the  Greek  name,  the 
Apocrypha. 

The  Vulgate  or  Latin  translation,  which  has  official  authority 
in  the  Catholic  Church,  was  made  gradually  from  the  eighth  to 
the  sixteenth  century,  partly  from  an  old  translation  which  was 
made  from  the  Greek  in  the  early  history  of  the  Church,  and 
partly  from  translations  from  the  Hebrew  made  by  St.  Jerome. 

The  English  version  of  the  Bible  now  in  use  in  England  and 
America  was  made  by  order  of  James  I.  It  was  accomplished 
by  forty-seven  distinguished  scholars,  divided  into  six  classes,  to 
each  of  which  a  part  of  the  work  was  assigned.  This  translation 
occupied  three  years,  and  was  printed  in  1611. 

14.  RABBINICAL  LITERATURE.  —  Rabbinical  literature  in- 
cludes all  the  writings  of  the  rabbins,  or  teachers  of  the  Jews  in 
the  later  period  of  Hebrew  letters,  who  have  interpreted  and 
developed  the  literature  of  the  earlier  ages.  The  language  made 
use  of  by  them  has  its  foundation  in  the  Hebrew  and  Chaldaic, 
with  various  alterations  and  modifications  in  the  use  of  words, 
the  meaning  of  which  they  have  considerably  enlarged  and  ex- 
tended. They  have  frequently  borrowed  from  the  Arabic, 
Greek,  and  Latin,  and  from  those  modern  tongues  spoken  where 
they  severally  resided. 

The  Talmud,  from  the  Hebrew  word  signifying  he  lias 
learned,  is  a  collection  of  traditions  illustrative  of  the  laws  and 
usages  of  the  Jews.  The  Talmud  consists  of  two  parts,  the 
Mishna  and  the  Gemara.  The  Mishna,  or  second  law,  is  a  col- 
lection of  rabbinical  rules  and  precepts  made  in  the  second  cen- 
tury. The  Gemara  (completion  or  doctrine)  was  composed  in 
the  third  century.  It  is  a  collection  of  commentaries  and  expla- 
nations of  the  Mishna,  and  both  together  formed  the  Jerusalem 
Talmud. 

The  Babylonian  rabbins  composed  new  commentaries  on  the 
Mishna,  and  this  formed  the  Babylonian  Talmud.  Both  Tal- 
muds  were  first  committed  to  writing  about  500  A.  D.  At  the 
period  of  the  Christian  Era,  the  civil  constitution,  language,  and 
mode  of  thinking  among  the  Jews  had  undergone  a  complete 
revolution,  and  were  entirely  different  from  what  they  had  been 


58         HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

in  the  early  period  of  the  commonwealth.  The  Mosaic  books 
contained  rules  no  longer  adapted  to  the  situation  of  the  nation, 
and  many  difficult  questions  arose  to  which  their  law  afforded 
no  satisfactory  solution.  The  rabbins  undertook  to  supply  this 
defect,  partly  by  commentaries  on  the  Mosaic  precepts,  and 
partly  by  the  composition  of  new  rules. 

The  Talmud  requires  that  wherever  twelve  adults  reside  to- 
gether in  one  place,  they  shall  erect  a  synagogue  and  serve  the 
God  of  their  fathers  by  a  multitude  of  prayers  and  formalities, 
amidst  the  daily  occupations  of  life.  It  allows  usury,  treats 
agricultural  pursuits  with  contempt,  and  requires  strict  separa- 
tion from  the  other  races,  and  commits  the  government  to  the 
rabbins.  The  Talmud  is  followed  by  the  Rabbinites,  to  which 
sect  nearly  all  the  European  and  American  Jews  belong.  The 
sect  of  the  Caraites  rejects  the  Talmud  and  holds  to  the  law  of 
Moses  only.  It  is  less  numerous,  and  its  members  are  found 
chiefly  in  the  East,  or  in  Turkey  and  Eastern  Russia. 

The  Cabala,  or  oral  tradition,  is,  according  to  the  Jews,  a  per- 
petual divine  revelation,  preserved  among  the  Jewish  people  by 
secret  transmission.  It  sometimes  denotes  the  doctrines  of  the 
prophets,  but  most  commonly  the  mystical  philosophy,  which 
was  probably  introduced  into  Palestine  from  Egypt  and  Persia. 
It  was  first  committed  to  writing  in  the  second  century  A.  D. 
The  Cabala  is  divided  into  the  symbolical  and  the  real,  of  which 
the  former  gives  a  mystical  signification  to  lettef s.  The  latter 
comprehends  doctrines,  and  is  divided  into  the  theoretical  and 
practical.  The  first  aims  to  explain  the  Scriptures  according  to 
the  secret  traditions,  while  the  last  pretends  to  teach  the  art  of 
performing  miracles  by  an  artificial  use  of  the  divine  names  and 
sentences  of  the  sacred  Scriptures. 

The  Jews  of  the  Middle  Ages  acquired  great  reputation  for 
learning,  especially  in  Spain,  where  they  were  allowed  to  study 
astronomy,  mathematics,  and  medicine  in  the  schools  of  the 
Moors.  Granada  and  Cordova  became  the  centres  of  rabbinical 
literature,  which  was  also  cultivated  in  France,  Italy,  Portugal, 
and  Germany.  In  the  sixteenth  century  the  study  of  Hebrew 
and  rabbinical  literature  became  common  among  Christian  schol- 
ars, and  in  the  following  centuries  it  became  more  interesting 
and  important  from  the  introduction  of  comparative  philology 
in  the  department  of  languages.  Rabbinical  literature  still  has 
its  students  and  interpreters.  In  Padua,  Berlin,  and  Metz  there 
are  seminaries  for  the  education  of  rabbins,  which  supply  with 
able  doctors  the  synagogues  of  Italy,  Germany,  and  France. 
There  is  also  a  rabbinical  school  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio.  The  Po- 
lish rabbins  and  Talmudists,  however,  are  the  most  celebrated. 

15.  THE  NEW  REVISION  OF  THE  BIBLE.  —  The  convocation 


HEBREW  LITERATURE.  59 

of  the  English  House  of  Bishops,  which  met  at  Canterbury  in 
1870,  recommended  a  revised  version  of  the  Scriptures,  and 
appointed  a  committee  for  the  work  of  sixty-seven  members 
from  various  ecclesiastical  bodies  of  England,  to  which  an 
American  committee  of  thirty-five  was  added,  and  by  their 
joint  labors  the  revised  edition  of  the  New  Testament  was 
issued  in  1881.  The  revised  Old  Testament  is  expected  to  ap- 
pear during  1884.  The  advantages  claimed  for  these  new  ver- 
sions are  :  a  more  accurate  rendering  of  the  text,  a  correction 
of  the  errors  of  former  translations,  the  removal  of  misleading 
archaisms  and  obsolete  terms,  better  punctuation,  arrangement 
in  sections  as  well  as  chapters  and  verses,  the  metrical  arrange- 
ment of  poetry,  and  an  increased  number  of  marginal  read- 
ings. 

In  1875,  Bryennios,  a  metropolitan  of  the  Greek  Church,  dis- 
covered in  the  library  of  the  Most  Holy  Sepulchre  at  Constanti- 
nople a  manuscript  belonging  to  the  second  century  A.  D.,  which 
contains,  among  other  valuable  and  interesting  documents,  one 
on  the  "  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,"  many  points  of  which 
bear  on  the  usages  of  the  church,  such  as  the  mode  of  baptism, 
the  celebration  of  the  Eucharist,  and  the  orders  of  the  ministry. 
It  was  at  first  considered  authentic  and  highly  important,  but 
more  deliberate  study  tends  to  discredit  its  authority. 


EGYPTIAN  LITERATURE. 

1.  The  Language. —2.  The  Writing. —3.  The  Literature. —4.  The  Monuments.— 
6.  The  Discovery  of  Champollion.  —  (j.  Literary  Remains ;  Historical ;  Religious  ;  Episto- 
lary ;  Fictitious  ;  Scientific  ;  Epic  ;  Satirical  and  Judicial.  —  7.  The  Alexandrian  Period. 
—  8.  The  Literary  Condition  of  Modern  Egypt. 

1.  THE  LANGUAGE.  —  From  the  earliest  times  the  language 
of  Egypt  was  divided  into  three  dialects  :  the  Memphitic,  spoken 
in  Memphis  and  Lower  Egypt ;  the  Theban,  or  Sahidic,  spoken 
in  Upper  Egypt ;  and  the  Bashmuric,  a  provincial  variety  be- 
longing to  the  oases  of  the  Lybian  Desert. 

The  Coptic  tongue,  which  arose  from  a  union  of  ancient  Egyp- 
tian with  the  vulgar  vernacular,  later  became  mingled  with 
Greek  and  Arabic  words,  and  was  written  in  the  Greek  alpha- 
bet. It  was  used  in  Egypt  until  the  tenth  century  A.  D.,  when 
it  gave  way  to  the  Arabic  ;  but  the  Christians  still  preserve  it  in 
their  worship  and  in  their  translation  of  the  Bible.  By  reject- 
ing its  foreign  elements  Egyptologists  have  been  enabled  to  study 
this  language  in  its  purity,  and  to  establish  its  grammar  and 
construction.  It  is  the  exclusive  character  of  the  Christian  Egyp- 
tian literature,  and  marks  the  last  development  and  final  decay 
of  the  Egyptian  language. 

2.  THE  WRITING.  —  Four  distinct  graphic  systems  were  in 
use  in  ancient  Egypt :  the  hieroglyphic,  the  hieratic,  the  demotic, 
and  Coptic.      The  first  expresses  words  partly  by  representa- 
tion of  the  object  and  partly  by  signs  indicating  sounds,  and 
was  used  chiefly  for  inscriptions.     The  hieratic  characters  pre- 
sented a  flowing  and  abbreviated  form  of  the  hieroglyphic,  and 
were  used  more  particularly  in  the  papyri.     The  great  body  of 
Egyptian  literature  has  reached  us  through  this  character,  the 
reading  of  which  can  only  be  determined  by  resolving  it  into  its 
prototype,  hieroglyphics. 

The  demotic  writing  indicates  the  rise  of  the  vulgar  tongue, 
which  took  place  about  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century 
B.  C.  It  was  used  to  transcribe  hieroglyphic  and  hieratic  in- 
scriptions and  papyri  into  the  common  idiom  until  the  second 
century  A.  D.,  when  the  Coptic  generally  superseded  it. 

3.  THE  LITERATURE.  —  The  literary  history  of  ancient  Egypt 
presents  a  remarkable  exception  to  that  of  any  other  country. 
While  the  language  underwent  various  modifications,  and  the 
written  characters  changed,  the  literature  remained  the  same  in 


EGYPTIAN  LITERATURE.  61 

all  its  principal  features.  This  literature  consists  solely  of  in- 
scriptions painted  or  engraved  on  monuments,  or  of  written 
manuscripts  on  papyrus  buried  in  the  tombs  or  beneath  the  ruins 
of  temples.  It  is  so  deficient  in  style,  and  so  unsystematic  in  its 
construction,  that  it  has  taxed  the  labors  of  the  ablest  critics  for 
the  last  fifty  years  to  construct  a  whole  from  its  disjointed  mate- 
rials, and  these  are  so  imperfect  that  many  periods  of  Egyptian 
history  are  complete  literary  blanks.  In  the  great  period  of  the 
Rameses,  novels  or  works  of  amusement  predominated ;  under 
the  Ptolemies,  historical  records,  and  in  the  Coptic  or  Christian 
stage,  homolies  and  church  rituals  prevailed  ;  but  through  every 
epoch  the  same  general  type  appears.  Notwithstanding  these 
deficiencies,  however,  Egypt  offers  a  most  attractive  field  for 
the  archaeologist,  and  new  discoveries  are  constantly  adding  to 
our  knowledge  of  this  interesting  country. 

4.  THE  MONUMENTS.  —  The  monuments  of  Egypt  are  relig- 
ious, as  the  temples,  sepulchral,  as  the  necropoles,  or  triumphal, 
as  the  obelisks.  The  temples  were  the  principal  structures  of 
the  Egyptian  cities,  and  their  splendid  ruins,  covered  with  in- 
scriptions, are  among  the  most  interesting  remains  of  antiquity. 
Life  after  death,  the  leading  idea  of  the  religion  of  Egypt,  was 
expressed  in  the  construction  of  the  tombs,  so  numerous  in  the 
vicinity  of  all  the  large  cities.  These  necropoles,  excavated  in 
the  rocks  or  hillsides,  or  built  within  the  pyramids,  consist  of 
rows  of  chambers  with  halls  supported  by  columns,  which,  with 
the  walls,  are  often  covered  with  pain  tings,  historical  or  monu- 
mental, representing  scenes  from  domestic  or  civil  life.  The 
great  pyramids  were  probably  built  for  the  sepulchres  of  kings 
and  their  families,  and  the  smaller  ones  for  persons  of  inferior 
rank. 

The  most  magnificent  of  the  triumphal  monuments  are  the 
obelisks,  gigantic  monoliths  of  red  or  white  granite,  some  of 
which  are  more  than  two  hundred  feet  high,  covered  with  in- 
scriptions, and  bearing  the  image  of  the  triumphant  king,  painted 
or  engraved.  The  splendid  obelisk  in  the  Place  de  la  Concorde, 
at  Paris,  celebrates  the  glories  of  Rameses  II. 

The  obelisk  now  in  New  York  is  one  of  a  pair  erected  at 
Heliopolis,  before  the  Temple  of  the  Sun,  about  1600  B.  c. 
In  the  reign  of  Augustus  both  were  removed  to  Alexandria, 
and  were  known  in  modern  times  as  Cleopatra's  Needles.  One 
was  presented  by  the  Khedive  to  the  city  of  London  in  1877, 
and  the  other  to  the  city  of  New  York  the  same  year.  The 
shaft  on  the  latter  bears  two  inscriptions,  one  celebrating  Thoth- 
mes  III.,  and  the  other  Rameses  II. 

One  of  the  most  characteristic  monuments  of  Egypt  is  the 
statue  of  the  Sphinx,  so  often  found  in  the  temples  and  necropo- 


62         HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

les.     It  is  a  recumbent  figure,  having  a  human  head  and  breast 
and  the  body  of  a  lion.    Whatever  idea  the  Egyptians  may  have 
attached  to  this  symbol,  it  represents  most  truly  the  character  of 
that  people  and  the  struggle  of  mind  to  free  itself  from  the  in- . 
stincts  of  brutal  nature. 

5.  THE  DISCOVERY  OF  CHAMPOLLTON.  —  During  the  expedi- 
tion into  Egypt,  in  1799,  in  throwing  up  some   earthworks  near 
Rosetta,  a  town  on  the  western  arm  of  the  Nile,  an  officer  of 
the   French  army  discovered  a  block  or  tablet  of  black  basalt, 
upon  which  were  engraved  inscriptions  in  Egyptian  and  Greek 
characters.     This  tablet,  called  the   Rosetta  Stone,  was  sent  to 
France  and  submitted  to  the  oi'ientalists  for  interpretation.    The 
inscription  was  found  to  be   a  decree  of  the  Egyptian  priests  in 
honor  of  Ptolemy  Epiphanes  (196  B.  c.),  which  was  ordered  to 
be   engraved  on  stone   in  sacred    (hieroglyphic),  common    (de- 
motic), and  in  Greek  characters.     Through  this  interpretation, 
Champollion   (1790-1832),   after  much  study,  discovered  and 
established  the  alphabetic  system  of   Egyptian  writing,  and  ap- 
plying his  discovery  more   extensively,  he  was  able  to  decipher 
the  names  of  the   kings  of  Egypt  from  the   Roman  emperors 
back,  through  the  Ptolemies,  to  the  Pharaohs  of  the  elder  dy- 
nasties.    This  discovery  was  the  key  to  the  interpretation  of  all 
the  ancient  monuments  of  Egypt ;  by  it  the  history  of  the  coun- 
try was  thrown  open  for  a  period  of  twenty-six  centuries,  the 
annals  of  the  neighboring  nations  were  rendered  more  intelligi- 
ble, the  religion,  arts,  sciences,  life,  and  manners  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians  were  revealed  to  the  modern  world,  and  the  obelisks, 
the  innumerable  papyri,  and  the  walls  of  the  temples  and  tombs 
were  transformed  into  inexhaustible  mines  of  historical  and  sci- 
entific knowledge. 

6.  LITERARY   REMAINS  ;   HISTORICAL  ;  RELIGIOUS  ;  EPISTO- 
LARY ;  FICTITIOUS  ;  SCIENTIFIC  ;  EPIC  ;  SATIRICAL  AND  JUDI- 
CIAL. —  The  Egyptian  priests  from  the  earliest  times  must  have 
preserved  the  annals  of  their  country,  though  obscured  by  myths 
and  symbols.     These  annals,  however,  were  destroyed  by  Cam- 
byses    (500  B.  c.),  who,  during    his    invasion  of    the    country, 
burned  the  temples  where  they  were  preserved,  although  they 
were  soon  rewritten,  according  to  the  testimony  of  Herodotus, 
•who  visited  Egypt  450  B.  c.     In  the  third  century  B.  c.,  Mane- 
tho,  a  priest  and  librarian  of  Heliopolis,  wrote  the  succession  of 
kings,  and  though  the  original  work  was  lost,  important  frag- 
ments of  it  have  been  preserved  by  other  writers.     There  seem 
to  have   been  four  periods  in  this   history  of  ancient  Egypt, 
marked  by  great  changes  in  the  social  and  political  constitution 
of  the  country.     In  the  first  epoch,  under  the  rule  of  the  gods, 
demigods,  and  heroes,  according  to   Manetho,  it  was  probably 


EGYPTIAN  LITERATURE.  63 

colonized  and  ruled  by  the  priests,  in  the  name  of  the  gods. 
The  second  period  extends  from  Menes,  the  supposed  founder  of 
the  monarchy,  to  the  invasion  of  the  Shepherd  Kings,  about 
2000  B.  C.  In  the  third  period,  under  this  title,  the  Phoenicians 
probably  ruled  Egypt  for  three  centuries,  and  it  was  one  of  these 
kings  or  Pharaohs  of  whom  Joseph  was  the  prime  minister.  In 
the  fourth  period,  from  1180  to  350  B.  c.,  the  invaders  were  ex- 
pelled and  native  rule  restored,  until  the  country  was  again  con- 
quered, first  by  the  Persians,  about  500  B.  c.,  and  again  by  the 
Greeks  under  Alexander,  350  B.  c.  From  that  time  to  the  pres- 
ent no  native  ruler  has  sat  on  the  throne  of  that  country.  After 
the  conquest  by  Alexander  the  Great,  who  left  it  to  the  sway  of 
the  Ptolemies,  it  was  successively  conquered  by  the  Romans,  the 
Saracens,  the  Mamelukes,  and  the  Turks.  Since  1841  it  has 
been  governed  by  a  viceroy  under  nominal  allegiance  to  the  Sul- 
tan of  Turkey.  In  1865  the  title  of  khedive  was  substituted  for 
that  of  viceroy. 

Early  Egyptian  chronology  is  in  a  great  measure  merely  con- 
jectural, and  new  information  from  the  monuments  only  adds  to 
the  obscurity.  The  historical  papyri  are  records  of  the  kings  or 
accounts  of  contemporary  events.  These,  as  well  as  the  inscrip- 
tions on  the  monuments,  generally  in  the  form  of  panegyric, 
are  inflated  records  of  the  successes  of  the  heroes  they  celebrate, 
,  or  explanations  of  the  historical  scenes  painted  or  sculptured  on 
the  monuments. 

The  early  religion  of  Egypt  was  founded  on  a  personification 
of  the  laws  of  Nature,  centred  in  a  mysterious  unity.  Egyp- 
tian nature,  however,  supplied  but  few  great  objects  of  worship 
as  symbols  of  divine  power,  the  desert,  a  natural  enemy,  the  fer- 
tilizing river,  and  the  sun,  the  all-pervading  presence,  worshiped 
as  the  source  of  life,  the  lord  of  time,  and  author  of  eternity. 
Three  great  realms  composed  the  Egyptian  cosmos  ;  the  heav- 
ens, where  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  paced  their  daily  round, 
the  abode  of  the  invisible  king,  typified  by  the  sun  and  wor- 
shiped as  Ammon  Ra,  the  earth  and  the  under-world,  the  abode 
of  the  dead.  Here,  too,  reigned  the  universal  lord  under  the 
name  of  Osiris,  whose  material  manifestation,  the  sun,  as  he 
passed  beneath  the  earth,  lightened  up  the  under-world,  where  the 
dead  were  judged,  the  just  recompensed,  and  the  guilty  punished. 

Innumerable  minor  divinities,  which  originally  personified 
attributes  of  the  one  Supreme  Deity,  were  represented  under 
the  form  of  such  animals  as  were  endowed  with  like  qualities. 
Every  god  was  symbolized  by  .some  animal,  which  thus  became 
an  object  of  worship  ;  but  by  confounding  symbols  with  realities 
this  worship  soon  degenerated  into  gross  materialism  and  idol- 
atry. 


64         HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

The  most  important  religious  work  in  this  literature  is  the 
"  Book  of  the  Dead,"  a  funeral  ritual.  The  earliest  known  copy 
is  in  hieratic  writing  of  the  oldest  type,  and  was  found  in  the 
tomb  of  a  queen,  who  lived  probably  about  3000  B.  c.  The 
latest  copy  is  of  the  second  century  A.  D.,  and  is  written  in  pure 
Coptic.  This  work,  consisting  of  one  hundred  and  sixty-six 
chapters,  is  a  collection  of  prayers  of  a  magical  character,  an 
account  of  the  adventures  of  the  soul  after  death,  and  directions 
for  reaching  the  Hall  of  Osiris.  It  is  a  marvel  of  confusion  and 
poverty  of  thought.  A  complete  translation  may  be  found  in 
4i  Egypt's  Place  in  Universal  History,"  by  Bunsen  (second  edi- 
tion), and  specimens  in  almost  every  museum  of  Europe.  There 
are  other  theological  remains,  such  as  the  Metamorphoses  of  the 
gods  and  the  Lament  of  Isis,  but  their  meaning  is  disguised  in 
allegory.  The  hymns  and  addresses  to  the  sun  abound  in  pure 
and  lofty  sentiment. 

The  epistolary  writings  are  the  best  known  and  understood 
branch  of  Egyptian  literature.  From  the  Ramesid  era,  the  most 
literary  of  all,  we  have  about  eighty  letters  on  various  subjects, 
interesting  as  illustrations  of  manners  and  specimens  of  style. 
The  most  important  of  these  is  the  "  Anastasi  Papyri  "  in  the 
British  Museum,  written  about  the  time  of  the  Exodus. 

Two  valuable  and  tolerably  complete  relics  represent  the  ficti- 
tious writing  of  Egyptian  literature ;  they  are  "  The  Tale  of 
Two  Brothers,"  now  in  the  British  Museum,  and  "  The  Romance 
of  Setna,"  recently  discovered  in  the  tomb  of  a  Coptic  monk. 
The  former  was  evidently  intended  for  the  amusement  of  a  royal 
prince.  One  of  its  most  striking  features  is  the  low  moral  tone 
of  the  women  introduced.  "  The  Romance  of  Setna "  turns 
upon  the  danger  of  acquiring  possession  of  the  sacred  books. 
The  opening  and  date  of  the  story  are  missing. 

Fresh  information  is  being  constantly  acquired  as  to  the 
knowledge  of  science  possessed  by  the  ancient  Egyptians.  Ge- 
ometry originated  with  them,  or  from  remote  ages  they  were  ac- 
quainted with  the  principles  of  this  science,  as  well  as  with  those 
of  hydrostatics  and  mechanics,  as  is  proved  by  the  immense 
structures  which  remain  the  wonder  of  the  modern  world.  They 
cultivated  astronomy  from  the  earliest  times,  and  they  have 
transmitted  to  us  their  observations  on  the  movements  of  the 
sun,  the  stars,  the  earth,  and  other  planets.  The  obelisks  served 
them  as  sun  dials,  and  the  pyramids  as  astronomical  observato- 
ries. They  had  great  skill  in  medicine  and  much  knowledge  of 
anatomy.  The  most  remarkable  medical  papyri  are  to  be  found 
in  the  Berlin  Museum. 

The  epics  and  biographical  sketches  are  narratives  of  personal 
adventure  in  war  or  travel,  and  are  distinguished  by  some  effort 


EGYPTIAN  LITERATURE.  65 

at  grace  of  style.  The  epic  of  Pentaur,  or  the  achievements  of 
Rameses  II.,  has  been  called  the  Egyptian  Iliad.  It  is  several 
centuries  older  than  the  Greek  Iliad,  and  deserves  admiration  for 
its  rapid  narrative  and  epic  unity. 

The  history  of  Mohan  (by  some  thought  to  be  Moses)  has 
been  called  the  Egyptian  Odyssey,  in  contrast  to  the  preceding. 
Mohan  was  a  high  official,  and  this  narrative  describes  his  trav- 
els in  Syria  and  Palestine.  This  papyrus  is  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum, and  both  epics  have  been  translated. 

The  satirical  writings  and  beast  fables  of  the  Egyptians  cari- 
cature the  foibles  of  all  classes,  not  sparing  the  sacred  person  of 
the  king,  and  are  often  illustrated  with  satirical  pictures.  Be- 
sides these  strictly  literary  remains,  a  large  number  of  judicial 
documents,  petitions,  decrees,  and  treaties  has  been  recovered. 

7.  THE  ALEXANDRIAN  PERIOD.  —  Egypt,  in  its  flourishing 
period,  having  contributed  to  the  civilization  of  Greece,  became, 
in  its  turn,  the  pupil  of  that  country.     In  the  century  following 
the  age  of  Alexander  the  Great,  under  the  rule  of  the  Ptolemies, 
the  philosophy  and  literature   of  Athens  were  transferred  to 
Alexandria.     Ptolemy  Philadelphia,  in  the  third  century  B.  c., 
completed  the  celebrated  Alexandrian  Library,  formed  for  the 
most  part  of  Greek  books,  and  presided  over  by  Greek  librari- 
ans.    The  school  of  Alexandria  had  its  poets,  its  grammarians, 
and  philosophers ;  but  its  poetry  lacked  the  fire  of  genius,  and 
its  grammatical  productions  were  more  remarkable  for  sophistry 
and  subtlety,  than  for  soundness  and  depth  of  research.     In  the 
philosophy  of  Alexandria,  the  Eastern  and  Western  systems  com- 
bined, and  this  school  had  many  distinguished  disciples. 

In  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era,  Egypt  passed  from 
the  Greek  kings  to  the  Roman  emperors,  and  the  Alexandrian 
school  continued  to  be  adorned  by  the  first  men  of  the  age. 
This  splendor,  more  Grecian  than  Egyptian,  was  extinguished  in 
the  seventh  century  by  the  Saracens,  who  conquered  the  country, 
and,  it  is  believed,  burned  the  great  Alexandrian  Library.  After 
the  wars  of  the  immediate  successors  of  Mohammed,  the  Ara- 
bian princes  protected  literature,  Alexandria  recovered  its 
schools,  and  other  institutions  of  learning  were  established ;  but 
in  the  conquest  of  the  country  by  the  Turks,  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  all  literary  light  was  extinguished. 

8.  LITERARY  CONDITION  OF  MODERN   EGYPT.  —  For  more 
than  nine  hundred  years  Cairo  has  possessed  a  university  of  high 
rank,  which  greatly  increased  in  importance  on  the  accession  of 
Mehemet  Ali,  in  1805,  who  established  many  other  schools,  pri- 
mary, scientific,  medical,  and  military,  though  they  were  suffered 
to  languish  under  his  two  successors.     In  1865,  when  Ismail- 
Pacha  mounted  the  throne  as  Khedive  (tributary  king),  he  gave 


66         HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

powerful  aid  to  the  university  and  to  public  instruction  every- 
where. The  number  of  students  at  the  University  of  Cairo  ad- 
vanced to  eleven  thousand.  The  wife  of  the  Khedive,  the  Prin- 
cess Cachma-Afet,  founded  in  1873,  and  maintained  from  her 
privy  purse,  a  school  for  the  thorough  instruction  of  girls,  which 
led  to  the  establishment  of  a  similar  institution  by  the  Ministry 
of  Public  Instruction.  This  princess  is  the  first  in  the  history  of 
Islam  who,  from  the  interior  of  the  harem,  has  exerted  her  influ- 
ence to  educate  and  enlighten  her  sex. 

When  the  Khedive  was  driven  into  exile  in  1879,  the  number 
of  schools,  nearly  ah1  the  result  of  his  energetic  rule,  was  4,817 
and  of  pupils  170,000.  Since  the  European  intervention  and 
domination  the  number  of  both  has  sensibly  diminished,  and  a 
serious  retrograde  movement  has  taken  place. 

The  higher  literature  of  Egypt  at  the  present  time  is  written 
in  pure  Arabic.  The  popular  writing  in  magazines,  periodicals, 
etc.,  is  in  Arabic  mixed  with  Syriac  and  Egyptian  dialects. 
Newspaper  literature  has  greatly  increased  during  the  past 
eight  years. 


GREEK  LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION. —1.  Greek  Literature  and  its  Divisions.  —  2.  The  Language.  —  3.  The 
Religion. 

PERIOD  FIKST. — 1.  Ante-Homeric  Songs  and  Bards.  —  2.  Poems  of  Homer  ;  the  Iliad; 
the  Odyssey. —3.  The  Cyclic  Poets  and  the  Homeric  Hymns. — 4.  Poems  of  Hesiod ; 
the  Works  and  Days ;  the  Theogony.  —  5.  Elegy  and  Epigram ;  Tyrtaeus ;  Archilochus  ;  Si- 


Poeins. — 11.  Pre-Socratic  Philosophy  ;  Ionian,  Eleatic,  Pythagorean  Schools.  — 12.  His- 
tory ;  Herodotus. 

PERIOD  SECOND.  —1.  Literary  Predominance  of  Athens.  — 2.  Greek  Drama.  — 3.  Trag- 
edy. —  4.  The  Tragic  Poets  ;  jEschylus ;  Sophocles ;  Euripides.  — 5.  Comedy ;  Aristophanes ; 
Meuauder.  —  6.  Oratory,  Rhetoric,  and  History  ;  Pericles  ;  the  Sophists ;  Lysias  ;  Iso- 
crates;  Demosthenes;  Thucydides;  Xenophon. — 7.  Socrates  and  the  Socratic  Schools ; 
Plato ;  Aristotle. 

PERIOD  THIRD.  —  1.  Origin  of  the  Alexandrian  Literature.  — 2.  The  Alexandrian  Poets  ; 
Philetas;  Calliinachus  ;  Theocritus;  Bion  ;  Moschus. — 3.  The  Prose  Writers  of  Alexan- 
dria ;  Zenodotus ;  Aristophanes ;  Aristarchus ;  Eratosthenes  ;  Euclid  ;  Archimedes.  — 
4.  Philosophy  of  Alexandria;  Neo-Platonism.  —  5.  Anti-Neo-Platonic  Tendencies;  Epic- 
tetus  ;  Lucian  ;  Longinus.  —  6.  Greek  Literature  in  Rome  ;  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus ; 
Flavius  Josephus;  Polybius  ;  Diodorus;  Strabo  ;  Plutarch. — 7.  Continued  Decline  of 
Greek  Literature.  —  8.  Last  Echoes  of  the  Old  Literature  ;  Hypatia ;  Nonnus ;  Musaeus ; 
Byzantine  Literature.  — 9.  The  New  Testament  and  the  Greek  Fathers.  Modern  Litera- 
ture ;  the  Brothers  Santsos  and  Alexander  Rangabe'. 

INTRODUCTION. 

1.  GREEK  LITERATURE  AND  ITS  DIVISIONS.  —  The  literary 
histories  thus  far  sketched,  with  the  exception  of  the  Hebrew, 
occupy  a  subordinate  position,  and  constitute  but  a  small  part 
of  the  general  and  continuous  history  of  literature.  As  there 
are  states  whose  interests  are  so  detached  from  foreign  nations 
and  so  centred  in  themselves  that  their  history  seems  to  form 
no  link  in  the  great  chain  of  political  events,  so  there  are  bod- 
ies of  literature  cut  off  from  all  connection  with  the  course  of 
general  refinement,  and  bearing  no  relation  to  the  development 
of  mental  power  in  the  most  civilized  portions  of  the  globe. 
Thus,  the  literature  of  India,  with  its  great  antiquity,  its  lan- 
guage, which,  in  fullness  of  expression,  sweetness  of  tone,  and 
regularity  of  structure,  rivals  the  most  perfect  of  those  Western 
tongues  to  which  it  bears  such  an  affinity,  with  all  its  affluence 
of  imagery  and  its  treasures  of  thought,  has  hitherto  been  desti- 
tute of  any  direct  influence  on  the  progress  of  general  literature, 
and  China  has  contributed  still  less  to  its  advancement.  Other 
branches  of  Oriental  literature,  as  the  Persian  and  Arabian, 
were  equally  isolated,  until  they  were  brought  into  contact  with 
the  European  mind  through  the  medium  of  the  Crusaders  and 
of  the  Moorish  empire  in  Spain. 


68          HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

We  come  now  to  speak  of  the  literature  of  the  Greeks  ;  a  lit- 
erature whose  continuous  current  has  rolled  down  from  remote 
ages  to  our  own  day,  and  whose  influence  has  been  more  exten- 
sive and  lasting  than  that  of  any  other  nation  of  the  ancient  or 
modern  world.  Endowed  with  profound  sensibility  and  a  lively 
imagination,  surrounded  by  all  the  circumstances  that  could  aid 
in  perfecting  the  physical  and  intellectual  powers,  the  Greeks 
early  acquired  that  essentially  literary  and  artistic  character 
which  became  the  source  of  the  greatest  productions  of  litera- 
ture and  art.  This  excellence  was,  also,  in  some  measure  due  to 
their  institutions  ;  free  from  the  system  of  castes  which  prevailed 
in  India  and  Egypt,  and  which  confined  all  learning  by  a  sort 
of  hereditary  right  to  the  priests,  the  tendency  of  the  Greek 
mind  was  from  the  first  liberal,  diffusive,  and  aesthetic.  The 
manifestation  of  their  genius,  from  the  first  dawn  of  their  intel- 
lectual culture,  was  of  an  original  and  peculiar  character,  and 
their  plastic  minds  gave  a  new  shape  and  value  to  whatever 
materials  they  drew  from  foreign  sources.  The  ideas  of  the 
Egyptians  and  Orientals,  which  they  adopted  into  their  mythol- 
ogy, they  cast  in  new  moulds,  and  reproduced  in  more  beautiful 
forms.  The  monstrous  they  subdued  into  the  vast,  the  gro- 
tesque they  softened  into  the  graceful,  and  they  diffused  a  fine 
spirit  of  humanity  over  the  rude  proportions  of  the  primeval 
figures.  So  with  the  dogmas  of  their  philosophy,  borrowed  from 
the  same  sources  ;  all  that  could  beautify  the  meagre,  harmonize 
the  incongruous,  enliven  the  dull,  or  convert  the  crude  materials 
of  metaphysics  into  an  elegant  department  of  literature,  belongs 
to  the  Greeks  themselves.  The  Grecian  mind  became  the  foun- 
dation of  the  Roman  and  of  all  modern  literatures,  and  its  mas- 
ter-pieces afford  the  most  splendid  examples  of  artistic  beauty 
and  perfection  that  the  world  has  ever  seen. 

The  history  of  Greek  literature  may  be  divided  into  three 
periods.  The  first,  extending  from  remote  antiquity  to  the  age 
of  Herodotus  (484  B.  c.),  includes  the  earliest  poetry  of  Greece, 
the  ante-Homeric  and  the  Homeric  eras,  the  origin  of  Greek 
elegy,  epigram,  iambic,  and  lyric  poetry,  and  the  first  develop- 
ment of  Greek  philosophy. 

The  second,  or  Athenian  period,  the  golden  age  of  Greek 
literature,  extends  from  the  age  of  Herodotus  (484  B.  c.)  to  the 
death  of  Alexander  the  Great  (323  B.  c.),  and  comprehends  the 
development  of  the  Greek  drama  in  the  works  of  ^Ischylus, 
Sophocles,  and  Euripides,  and  of  political  oratory,  history,  and 
philosophy,  in  the  works  of  Demosthenes,  Thucydides,  Xeno- 
phon,  Plato,  and  Aristotle. 

The  third,  or  the  period  of  the  decline  of  Greek  literature, 
extending  from  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great  (323  B.  c.) 


GREEK  LITERATURE.  69 

to  the  fall  of  the  Byzantine  empire  (1453  A.  D.),  is  characterized 
by  the  removal  of  Greek  learning  and  literature  from  Athens  to 
Alexandria,  and  by  its  gradual  decline  and  extinction. 

2.  THE  LANGUAGE.  —  Of  all  known  languages  none  has 
attained  so  high  a  degree  of  perfection  as  that  of  the  Greeks. 
Belonging  to  the  great  Indo-European  family,  it  is  rich  in  sig- 
nificant words,  strong  and  elegant  in  its  combinations  and 
phrases,  and  extremely  musical,  not  only  in  its  poetry,  but  in  its 
prose.  The  Greek  language  must  have  attained  great  excel- 
lence at  a  very  early  period,  for  it  existed  in  its  essential  perfec- 
tion in  the  time  of  Homer.  It  was,  also,  early  divided  into  dia- 
lects, as  spoken  by  the  various  Hellenic  tribes  that  inhabited 
different  parts  of  the  country.  The  principal  of  these  found  in 
written  composition  are  the  ^Eolic,  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Attic,  of 
which  the  ^Eolic,  the  most  ancient,  was  spoken  north  of  the 
Isthmus,  in  the  vEolic  colonies  of  Asia  Minor,  and  in  the  north- 
ern islands  of  the  ^Egean  Sea.  It  was  chiefly  cultivated  by  the 
lyric  poets.  The  Doric,  a  variety  of  the  ^Eolic,  characterized 
by  its  strength,  was  spoken  in  Peloponnesus,  and  in  the  Doric 
colonies  of  Asia  Minor,  Lower  Italy,  and  Sicily.  The  Ionic, 
the  most  soft  and  liquid  of  all  the  dialects,  belonged  to  the  Io- 
nian colonies  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago. 
It  was  the  language  of  Homer,  Hesiod,  and  Herodotus.  The 
Attic,  which  was  the  Ionic  developed,  enriched,  and  refined,  was 
spoken  in  Attica,  and  prevailed  in  the  flourishing  period  of 
Greek  literature. 

After  the  fall  of  Constantinople,  in  1453,  the  Greek  language, 
which  had  been  gradually  declining,  became  entirely  extinct, 
and  a  dialect,  which  had  long  before  sprung  up  among  the  com- 
mon people,  took  the  place  of  the  ancient,  majestic,  and  refined 
tongue.  This  popular  dialect  in  turn  continued  to  degenerate 
until  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  Recently  institutions  of 
learning  have  been  established,  and  a  new  impulse  given  to  im- 
provement in  Greece.  Great  progress  has  been  made  in  the 
cultivation  of  the  language,  and  great  care  is  taken  by  modern 
Greek  writers  to  avoid  the  use  of  foreign  idioms  and  to  preserve 
the  ancient  orthography.  Many  newspapers,  periodicals,  orig- 
inal works,  and  translations  are  published  every  year  in  Greece. 
The  name  Romaic,  which  has  been  applied  to  modern  Greek,  is 
now  almost  superseded  by  that  of  Neo-Hellenic. 

3.  THE  RELIGION.  —  In  the  development  of  the  Greek  relig- 
ion two  periods  may  be  distinguished,  the  ante-Homeric  and  the 
Homeric.  As  the  heroic  age  of  the  Greek  nation  was  preceded 
by  one  in  which  the  cultivation  of  the  land  chiefly  occupied  the 
attention  of  the  inhabitants,  so  there  are  traces  and  remnants  of 
a  state  of  the  Greek  religion,  in  which  the  gods  were  considered 


70         HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

as  exhibiting  their  power  chiefly  in  the  changes  of  the  seasons, 
and  in  the  operations  and  phenomena  of  outward  nature.  Im- 
agination led  these  early  inhabitants  to  discover,  not  only  in  the 
general  phenomena  of  vegetation,  the  unfolding  and  death  of  the 
leaf  and  flower,  and  in  the  moist  and  dry  seasons  of  the  year, 
but  also  in  the  peculiar  physical  character  of  certain  districts,  a 
sign  of  the  alternately  hostile  or  peaceful,  happy  or  ill-omened 
interference  of  certain  deities.  There  are  still  preserved  in  the 
Greek  mythology  many  legends  of  charming  and  touching  sim- 
plicity, which  had  their  origin  at  this  period,  when  the  Greek 
religion  bore  the  character  of  a  worship  of  the  powers  of  nature. 
Though  founded  on  the  same  ideas  as  most  of  the  religions  of 
the  East,  and  particularly  of  Asia  Minor,  the  earliest  religion  of 
the  Greeks  was  richer  and  more  various  in  its  forms,  and  took 
a  loftier  and  a  wider  range.  The  Grecian  worship  of  nature,  in 
all  the  various  forms  which  it  assumed,  recognized  one  deity,  as 
the  highest  of  all,  the  head  of  the  entire  system,  Zeus,  the  god 
of  heaven  and  light ;  with  him,  and  dwelling  in  the  pure  expanse 
of  ether,  is  associated  the  goddess  of  the  earth,  who,  in  different 
temples,  was  worshiped  under  different  names,  as  Hera,  Demeter, 
and  Dione.  Besides  this  goddess,  other  beings  are  united  with 
the  supreme  god,  who  are  personifications  of  certain  of  his  ener- 
gies ;  powerful  deities  who  carry  the  influence  of  light  over  the 
earth,  and  destroy  the  opposing  powers  of  darkness  and  confu- 
sion ;  as  Athena,  born  from  the  head  of  her  father,  and  Apollo, 
the  pure  and  shining  god  of  light.  There  are  other  deities  allied 
with  earth  and  dwelling  in  her  dark  recesses ;  and  as  life  ap- 
pears not  only  to  spring  from  the  earth,  but  to  return  whence  it 
sprung,  these  deities  are,  for  the  most  part,  also  connected  with 
death ;  as  Hermes,  who  brings  up  the  treasures  of  fruitfulness 
from  the  depths  of  the  earth,  and  Cora,  the  child,  now  lost  and 
now  recovered  by  her  mother,  Demeter,  the  goddess  both  of  re- 
viving and  of  decaying  nature.  The  element  of  water,  Poseidon, 
was  also  introduced  into  this  assemblage  of  the  personified 
powers  of  nature,  and  peculiarly  connected  with  the  goddess  of 
the  earth ;  fire,  Hepha3stus,  was  represented  as  a  powerful  prin- 
ciple derived  from  heaven,  having  dominion  over  the  earth,  and 
closely  allied  with  the  goddess  who  sprang  from  the  head  of 
the  supreme  god.  Other  deities  form  less  important  parts  of  this 
system,  as  Dionysus,  whose  alternate  joys  and  sufferings  show  a 
strong  resemblance  to  the  form  which  religious  notions  assumed 
in  Asia  Minor.  Though  not,  like  the  gods  of  Olympus,  recog- 
nized by  all  the  races  of  the  Greeks,  Dionysus  exerted  an  impor- 
tant influence  on  the  spirit  of  the  Greek  nation,  and  in  sculpture 
and  poetry  gave  rise  to  bold  flights  of  imagination,  and  to  pow- 
erful emotions,  both  of  joy  and  sorrow. 


GREEK  LITERATURE.  71 

These  notions  concerning  the  gods  must  have  undergone  many 
changes  before  they  assumed  the  form  under  which  they  appear 
in  the  poems  of  Homer  and  Hesiod.  The  Greek  religion,  as 
manifested  through  them,  reached  the  second  period  of  its  de- 
velopment, belonging  to  that  time  when  the  most  distinguished 
and  prominent  part  of  the  people  devoted  their  lives  to  the  affairs 
of  the  state  and  the  occupation  of  arms,  and  in  which  the  heroic 
spirit  was  manifested  according  to  these  ideas.  On  Olympus,  ly- 
ing near  the  northern  boundary  of  Greece,  the  highest  mountain 
of  that  country,  whose  summit  seems  to  touch  the  heavens,  there 
rules  the  assembly  or  family  of  the  gods  ;  the  chief  of  which, 
Zeus,  summons  at  his  pleasure  the  other  gods  to  council,  as  Aga- 
memnon summons  the  other  princes.  He  is  acquainted  with  the 
decrees  of  fate,  and  able  to  control  them,  and  being  himself 
king  among  the  gods,  he  gives  the  kings  of  the  earth  their 
powers  and  dignity.  By  his  side  is  his  wife,  Hera,  whose  station 
entitles  her  to  a  large  share  of  his  rank  and  dominion  ;  and  a 
daughter  of  masculine  character,  Athena,  a  leader  of  battles  and 
a  protectress  of  citadels,  who,  by  her  wise  counsels,  deserves  the 
confidence  which  her  father  bestows  on  her  ;  besides  these,  there 
are  a  number  of  gods  with  various  degrees  of  kindred,  who  have 
each  their  proper  place  and  allotted  duty  on  Olympus.  The 
attention  of  this  divine  council  is  chiefly  turned  to  the  fortunes 
of  nations  and  cities,  and  especially  to  the  adventures  and  enter- 
prises of  the  heroes,  who  being  themselves,  for  the  most  part, 
sprung  from  the  blood  of  the  gods,  form  the  connecting  link 
between  them  and  the  ordinary  herd  of  mankind.  At  this  stage 
the  ancient  religion  of  nature  had  disappeared,  and  the  gods 
who  dwelt  on  Olympus  scarcely  manifested  any  connection  with 
natural  phenomena.  Zeus  exercises  his  power  as  a  ruler  and 
a  king ;  Hera,  Athena,  and  Apollo  no  longer  symbolize  the 
fertility  of  the  earth,  the  clearness  of  the  atmosphere,  and  the 
arrival  of  the  serene  spring ;  Hephaestus  has  passed  from  the 
powerful  god  of  fire  in  heaven  and  earth  into  a  laborious  smith 
and  worker  of  metals  ;  Hermes  is  transformed  into  the  messen- 
ger of  Zeus ;  and  the  other  deities  which  stood  at  a  greater  dis- 
tance from  the  affairs  of  men  are  entirely  forgotten,  or  scarcely 
mentioned  in  the  Homeric  mythology. 

These  deities  are  known  to  us  chiefly  through  the  names 
given  to  them  by  the  Romans,  who  adopted  them  at  a  later 
period,  or  identified  them  with  deities  of  their  own.  Zeus  was 
called  by  them  Jupiter;  Hera,  Juno;  Athena,  Minerva;  Ares, 
Mars  ;  Artemis,  Diana ;  Hermes,  Mercury ;  Cora,  Proserpine ; 
Hephaestus,  Vulcan ;  Poseidon,  Neptune  ;  Aphrodite,  Venus ; 
Dionysus,  Bacchus. 


72         HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL   LITERATURE. 


PERIOD  FIRST. 
FROM  REMOTE  ANTIQUITY  TO  HERODOTUS  (484  B.C.). 

1.  ANTE-HOMERIC  SONGS  AND  BARDS.  —  Many  centuries 
must  have  elapsed  before  the  poetical  language  of  the  Greeks 
could  have  attained  the  splendor,  copiousness,  and  fluency  found 
in  the  poems  of  Homer.  The  first  outpourings  of  poetical  enthu- 
siasm were,  doubtless,  songs  describing,  in  few  and  simple  verses, 
events  which  powerfully  affected  the  feelings  of  the  hearers.  It 
is  probable  that  the  earliest  were  those  that  referred  to  the  sea- 
sons and  their  phenomena,  and  that  they  were  sung  by  the  peas- 
ants at  their  corn  and  wine  harvests,  and  had  their  origin  in  times 
of  ancient  rural  simplicity.  Songs  of  this  kind  had  often  a  plain- 
tive and  melancholy  character.  Such  was  the  song  "  Linus  "  men- 
tioned by  Homer,  which  was  frequently  sung  at  the  grape-picking. 
This  Linus  evidently  belongs  to  a  class  of  heroes  or  demi-gods, 
of  which  many  instances  occur  in  the  religions  of  Asia  Minor. 
Boys  of  extraordinary  beauty  and  in  the  flower  of  youth  were 
supposed  to  have  been  drowned,  or  devoured  by  raging  dogs, 
and  their  death  was  lamented  at  the  harvests  and  other  periods 
of  the  hot  season.  According  to  the  tradition,  Linus  sprang 
from  a  divine  origin,  grew  up  with  the  shepherds  among  the 
lambs,  and  was  torn  in  pieces  by  wild  dogs,  whence  arose  the 
festival  of  the  lambs,  at  which  many  dogs  were  slain.  The  real 
object  of  lamentation  was  the  tender  beauty  of  spring  destroyed 
by  the  summer  heat,  and  other  phenomena  of  the  same  kind 
which  the  imagination  of  those  times  invested  with  a  personal 
form,  and  represented  as  beings  of  a  divine  nature.  Of  similar 
meaning  are  many  other  songs,  which  were  sung  at  the  time  of 
the  summer  heat  or  at  the  cutting  of  the  corn.  Such  was  the 
song  called  "  Bormus  "  from  its  subject,  a  beautiful  boy  of  that 
name,  who,  having  gone  to  fetch  water  for  the  reapers,  was, 
while  drawing  it,  borne  down  by  the  nymphs  of  the  stream. 
Such  were  the  cries  for  the  youth  Hylas,  swallowed  up  by  the 
waters  of  a  fountain,  and  the  lament  for  Adonis,  whose  untimely 
death  was  celebrated  by  Sappho. 

The  Paeans  were  songs  originally  dedicated  to  Apollo,  and 
afterwards  to  other  gods  ;  their  tune  and  words  expressed  hope 
and  confidence  to  overcome,  by  the  help  of  the  god,  great  and 
imminent  danger,  or  gratitude  and  thanksgiving  for  victory  and 
safety.  To  this  class  belonged  the  vernal  Paeans,  which  were 
sung  at  the  termination  of  winter,  and  those  sung  in  war  before 
the  attack  on  the  enemy.  The  Threnos,  or  lamentations  for 
the  dead,  were  songs  containing  vehement  expressions  of  grief, 
sung  by  professional  singers  standing  near  the  bed  upon  which 


GREEK  LITERATURE.  73 

the  body  was  laid,  and  accompanied  by  the  cries  and  groans  of 
women.  The  Hymenseos  was  the  joyful  bridal  song  of  the  wed- 
ding festivals,  in  which  there  were  ordinarily  two  choruses,  one 
of  boys  bearing  burning  torches  and  singing  the  hymenseos  to 
the  clear  sound  of  the  pipe,  and  another  of  young  girls  dancing 
to  the  notes  of  the  harp.  The  Chorus  originally  referred  chiefly 
to  dancing.  The  most  ancient  sense  of  the  word  is  &  place  for 
dancing,  and  in  these  choruses  young  persons  of  both  sexes 
danced  together  in  rows,  holding  one  another  by  the  hand,  while 
the  citharist,  or  the  player  on  the  lyre,  sitting  in  their  midst, 
accompanied  the  sound  of  his  instrument  with  songs,  which  took 
their  name  from  the  choruses  in  which  they  were  sung. 

Besides  these  popular  songs,  there  were  the  religious  and 
heroic  poems  of  the  bards,  who  were,  for  the  most  part,  natives 
of  that  portion  of  the  country  which  surrounds  the  mountains  of 
Helicon  and  Parnassus,  distinguished  as  the  home  of  the  Muses. 
Among  the  bards  devoted  to  the  worship  of  Apollo  and  other 
deities,  were  Marsyas,  the  inventor  of  the  flute,  Musaeus  and  Or- 
pheus. Many  names  of  these  ancient  poets  are  recorded,  but  of 
their  poetry,  previous  to  Homer,  not  even  a  fragment  remains. 

The  bards  or  chanters  of  epic  poetry  were  called  Rhapsodists, 
from  the  manner  in  which  they  delivered  their  compositions ; 
this  name  was  applied  equally  to  the  minstrel  who  recited  his 
own  poems,  and  to  him  who  declaimed  anew  songs  that  had 
been  heard  a  thousand  times  before.  The  form  of  these  heroic 
songs,  probably  settled  and  fixed  by  tradition,  was  the  hexame- 
ter, as  this  metre  gave  to  the  epic  poetry  repose,  majesty,  a 
lofty  and  solemn  tone,  and  rendered  it  equally  adapted  to  the 
pythoness  who  announced  the  decrees  of  the  deity,  and  to  the 
rhapsodist  who  recited  the  battles  of  heroes.  The  bards  held 
an  important  post  in  the  festal  banquets,  where  they  flattered  the 
pride  of  the  princes  by  singing  the  exploits  of  their  forefathers. 

2.  POEMS  OF  HOMER.  —  Although  seven  cities  contended  for 
the  honor  of  giving  birth  to  Homer,  it  was  the  prevalent  belief, 
in  the  flourishing  times  of  Greece,  that  he  was  a  native  of 
Smyrna.  He  was  probably  born  in  that  city  about  1000  B.  c. 
Little  is  known  of  his  life,  but  the  power  of  his  transcendent 
genius  is  deeply  impressed  upon  his  works.  He  was  called  by 
the  Greeks  themselves,  the  poet ;  and  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey 
were  with  them  the  ultimate  standard  of  appeal  on  all  matters 
of  religious  doctrine  and  early  history.  They  were  learned  by 
boys  at  school,  and  became  the  study  of  men  in  their  riper  years, 
and  in  the  time  of  Socrates  there  were  Athenians  who  could 
repeat  both  poems  by  heart.  In  whatever  part  of  the  world  a 
Greek  settled,  he  carried  with  him  a  love  for  the  great  poet, 
and  long  after  the  Greek  people  had  lost  their  independence, 


74          HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  continued  to  maintain  an  undiminished 
hold  upon  their  affections.  The  peculiar  excellence  of  these 
poems  lies  in  their  sublimity  and  pathos,  in  their  tenderness  and 
simplicity,  and  they  show  in  their  author  an  inexhaustible  vigor, 
that  seems  to  revel  in  an  endless  display  of  prodigious  energies. 
The  universality  of  the  powers  of  Homer  is  their  most  astonish- 
ing attribute.  He  is  not  great  in  any  one  thing ;  he  is  greatest 
in  all  things.  He  imagines  with  equal  ease  the  terrible,  the 
beautiful,  the  mean,  the  loathsome,  and  he  paints  them  all  with 
equal  force.  In  his  descriptions  of  external  nature,  in  his  ex- 
hibitions of  human  character  and  passion,  no  matter  what  the 
subject,  he  exhausts  its  capabilities.  His  pictures  are  true  to 
the  minutest  touch ;  his  men  and  women  are  made  of  flesh  and 
blood.  They  lose  nothing  of  their  humanity  for  being  cast  in  a 
heroic  mould.  He  transfers  himself  into  the  identity  of  those 
whom  he  brings  into  action ;  masters  the  interior  springs  of  their 
spiritual  mechanism  ;  and  makes  them  move,  look,  speak,  and 
do  exactly  as  they  would  in  real  life. 

In  the  legends  connected  with  the  Trojan  war,  the  anger  of 
Achilles  and  the  return  of  Ulysses,  Homer  found  the  subjects  of 
the  Iliad  and  Odyssey.  The  former  relates  that  Agamemnon 
had  stolen  from  Achilles,  Briseis,  his  beloved  slave,  and  describes 
the  fatal  consequences  which  the  subsequent  anger  of  Achilles 
brought  upon  the  Greeks  ;  and  how  the  loss  of  his  dearest  friend, 
Patroclus,  suddenly  changed  his  hostile  attitude,  and  brought 
about  the  destruction  of  Troy  and  of  Hector,  its  magnanimous 
defender.  The  Odyssey  is  composed  on  a  more  artificial  and 
complicated  plan  than  the  Iliad.  The  subject  is  the  return  of 
Ulysses  from  a  land  beyond  the  range  of  human  knowledge  to 
a  home  invaded  by  bands  of  insolent  intruders,  who  seek  to  kill 
his  son  and  rob  him  of  his  wife.  The  poem  begins  at  that  point 
where  the  hero  is  considered  to  be  farthest  from  his  home,  in 
the  central  portion  of  the  sea,  where  the  nymph  Calypso  has 
kept  him  hidden  from  all  mankind  for  seven  years.  Having  by 
the  help  of  the  gods  passed  through  innumerable  dangers,  after 
many  adventures  he  reaches  Ithaca,  and  is  finally  introduced 
into  his  own  house  as  a  beggar,  where  he  is  made  to  suffer  the 
harshest  treatment  from  the  suitors  of  his  wife,  in  order  that  he 
may  afterwards  appear  with  the  stronger  right  as  a  terrible 
avenger.  In  this  simple  story  a  second  was  interwoven  by  the 
poet,  which  renders  it  richer  and  more  complete,  though  more 
intricate  and  less  natural.  It  is  probable  that  Homer,  after 
having  sung  the  Iliad  in  the  vigor  of  his  youthful  years,  either 
composed  the  Odyssey  in  his  old  age,  or  communicated  to  some 
devoted  disciple  the  plan  of  this  poem. 

In  the  age  immediately  succeeding  Homer,  his  great  poems 


GREEK  LITERATURE.  75 

were  doubtless  recited  as  complete  wholes,  at  the  festivals  of  the 
princes  ;  but  when  the  contests  of  the  rhapsodists  became  more 
animated,  and  more  weight  was  laid  on  the  art  of  the  reciter 
than  on  the  beauty  of  the  poem  he  recited,  and  when  other 
musical  and  poetical  performances  claimed  a  place,  then  they 
were  permitted  to  repeat  separate  parts  of  poems,  and  the  Iliad 
and  Odyssey,  as  they  had  not  yet  been  reduced  to  writing,  ex- 
isted for  a  time  only  as  scattered  and  unconnected  fragments  ; 
and  we  are  still  indebted  to  the  regulator  of  the  poetical  contests 
(either  Solon  or  Pisistratus)  for  having  compelled  the  rhapso- 
dists to  follow  one  another  according  to  the  order  of  the  poem, 
and  for  having  thus  restored  these  great  works  to  their  pristine 
integrity.  The  poets,  who  either  recited  the  poems  of  Homer 
or  imitated  him  in  their  compositions,  were  called  Homerides. 

3.  THE  CYCLIC  POETS  AND  THE  HOMERIC  HYMKS.  —  The 
poems  of  Homer,  as  they  became  the  foundation  of  all  Grecian 
literature,  are  likewise  the  central  point  of  the  epic  poetry  of 
Greece.     All  that  is  most  excellent  in  this  line  originated  from 
them,  and  was  connected  with  them  in  the  way  of  completion 
or  continuation.     After  the   time  of  Homer,  a  class  of  poets 
arose  who,  from  their  constant  endeavor  to  connect  their  poems 
with  those  of  this  master,  so  that  they  might  form  a  great  cycle, 
were  called  the  Cyclic  Poets.     They  were  probably  Homeric 
rhapsodists  by  profession,  to  whom  the  constant  recitation  of  the 
ancient  Homeric  poems  would  naturally  suggest  the  idea  of  con- 
tinuing them  by  essays   of  their  own.     The  poems  known  as 
Homeric    hymns   formed   an   essential    part   of  the   epic   style. 
They  were  hymns  to  the  gods,  bearing  an  epic  character,  and 
were   called  prcemia,  or  preludes,  and  served  the  rhapsodists 
either  as  introductory  strains  for  their  recitation,  or  as  a  transi- 
tion from  the  festivals  of  the  gods  to  the  competition  of  the 
singers  of  heroic  poetry. 

4.  POEMS    OF    HESIOD.  —  Nothing  certain  can  be   affirmed 
respecting  the  date  of  Hesiod  ;  a  Breotian  by  birth,  he  is  con- 
sidered by  some  ancient  authorities  as  contemporary  with  Homer, 
while  others  suppose  him  to  have  flourished  two  or  three  genera- 
tions later.     The  poetry  of  Hesiod  is  a  faithful  transcript  of  the 
whole  condition  of  Bosotian  life.     It  has  nothing  of  that  youth- 
ful and  inexhaustible  fancy  of  Homer  which  lights  up  the  sub- 
lime images  of  a  heroic  age  and  moulds   them  into  forms  of 
surpassing  beauty.     The  poetry  of  Hesiod   appears  struggling 
to  emerge  out  of  the  narrow  bounds  of  common  life,  which  he 
strives  to  ennoble  and  to  render  more  endurable.     It  is  purely 
didactic,  and  its  object  is  to  disseminate  knowledge,  by  which 
life  may  be  improved,  or  to  diffuse  certain  religious  notions  as  to 
the  influence  of  a  superior  destiny.     His  poem  entitled  "  Works 


76          HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

and  Days  "  is  so  entirely  occupied  with  the  events  of  common 
life,  that  the  author  would  not  seem  to  have  been  a  poet  by  pro- 
fession, but  some  Boeotian  husbandman  whose  mind  had  been 
moved  by  circumstances  •  to  give  a  poetical  tone  to  the  course  of 
his  thoughts  and  feelings.  The  unjust  claim  of  Perses,  the 
brother  of  Hesiod,  to  the  small  portion  of  their  father's  land 
which  had  been  allotted  to  him,  called  forth  this  poem,  in  which 
he  seeks  to  improve  the  character  and  habits  of  Perses,  to  deter 
him  from  acquiring  riches  by  litigation,  and  to  incite  him  to  a 
life  of  labor,  as  the  only  source  of  permanent  prosperity.  He 
points  out  the  succession  in  which  his  labors  must  follow  if  he 
determines  to  lead  a  life  of  industry,  and  gives  wise  rules  of 
economy  for  the  management  of  a  family ;  and  to  illustrate  and 
enforce  the  principal  idea,  he  ingeniously  combines  with  his  pre- 
cepts mythical  narratives,  fables,  and  descriptions.  The  "  The- 
ogony  "  of  Hesiod  is  a  production  of  the  highest  importance,  as 
it  contains  the  religious  faith  of  Greece.  It  was  through  it 
that  Greece  first  obtained  a  religious  code,  which,  although 
without  external  sanction  or  priestly  guardians  and  interpreters, 
must  have  produced  the  greatest  influence  on  the  religious  con- 
dition of  the  Greeks. 

5.  ELEGY  AND  EPIGRAM.  —  Until  the  beginning  of  the  sev- 
enth century  B.  c.,  the  epic  was  the  only  kind  of  poetry  cultivated 
in  Greece,  with  the  exception  of  the  early  songs  and  hymns,  and 
the  hexameter  the  only  metre  used  by  the  poets.  This  exclusive 
prevalence  of  epic  poetry  was  doubtless  connected  with  the  po- 
litical state  of  the  country.  The  ordinary  subjects  of  these 
poems  must  have  been  highly  acceptable  to  the  princes  who 
derived  their  race  from  the  heroes,  as  was  the  case  with  all  the 
royal  families  of  early  times.  The  republican  movements,  which 
deprived  these  families  of  their  privileges,  were  favorable  to  the 
stronger  development  of  each  man's  individuality,  and  the  poet, 
who  in  the  most  perfect  form  of  the  epos  was  completely  lost  in 
his  subject,  now  came  before  the  people  as  a  man  with  thoughts 
and  objects  of  his  own,  and  gave  free  vent  to  the  emotions  of  his 
soul  in  elegiac  and  iambic  strains.  The  word  elegeion  means  noth- 
ing more  than  the  combination  of  a  hexameter  and  a  pentam- 
eter, making  together  a  distich,  and  an  elegy  is  a  poem  of  such 
verses.  It  was  usually  sung  at  the  Symposia  or  literary  festivals 
of  the  Greeks ;  in  most  cases  its  main  subject  was  political ;  it 
afterwards  assumed  a  plaintive  or  amatory  tone.  The  elegy  is 
the  first  regularly  cultivated  branch  of  Greek  poetry,  in  which 
the  flute  alone  and  neither  the  cithara  nor  lyre  was  employed. 
It  was  not  necessary  that  lamentations  should  form  the  subject 
of  it,  but  emotion  was  essential,  and  excited  by  events  or  circum- 
stances of  the  time  or  place  the  poet  poured  forth  his  heart  in 
the  unreserved  expression  of  his  fears  and  hopes. 


GREEK  LITERATURE.  77 

Tyrtaeus  (fl.  694  B.  c.),  who  went  from  Athens  to  Sparta,  com- 
posed the  most  celebrated  of  his  elegies  on  the  occasion  of  the 
Messenian  war,  and  when  the  Spartans  were  on  a  campaign,  it 
was  their  custom  after  the  evening  meal,  when  the  paean  had 
been  sung  in  honor  of  the  gods,  to  recite  these  poerns.  From 
this  time  we  find  a  union  between  the  elegiac  and  iambic  poetry  ; 
the  same  poet,  who  employs  the  elegy  to  express  his  joyous  and 
melancholy  emotions,  has  recourse  to  the  iambus  when  his  cool 
sense  prompts  him  to  censure  the  follies  of  mankind.  The  rela- 
tion between  these  two  metres  is  observable  in  Archilochus 
(fl.  688  B.  c.)  and  Simonides  (fl.  664  B.  c.).  The  elegies  of 
Archilochus,  of  which  many  fragments  are  extant  (while  of 
Simonides  we  only  know  that  he  composed  elegies),  had  nothing 
of  that  spirit  of  which  his  iambics  were  full,  but  they  contain 
the  frank  expression  of  a  mind  powerfully  affected  by  outward 
circumstances.  With  the  Spartans,  wine  and  the  pleasures  of 
the  feast  became  the  subject  of  the  elegy,  and  it  was  also  recited 
at  the  solemnities  held  in  honor  of  all  who  had  fallen  for  their 
country.  The  elegies  of  Solon  (592-559  B.  c.)  were  pure  ex- 
pressions of  his  political  feelings.  Simonides  of  Scios,  the  re- 
nowned lyric  poet,  the  contemporary  of  Pindar  and  ^Eschylus, 
was  one  of  the  great  masters  of  elegiac  song. 

The  epigram  was  originally  an  inscription  on  a  tombstone,  or 
a  votive  offering  in  a  temple,  or  on  any  other  thing  which  re- 
quired explanation.  The  unexpected  turn  of  thought  and  point- 
edness  of  expression,  which  the  moderns  consider  the  essence  of 
this  species  of  composition,  were  not  required  in  the  ancient 
Greek  epigram,  where  nothing  was  wanted  but  that  the  entire 
thought  should  be  conveyed  within  the  limit  of  a  few  distichs, 
and  thus,  in  the  hands  of  the  early  poets,  the  epigram  was  re- 
markable for  the  conciseness  and  expressiveness  of  its  language 
and  differed  in  this  respect  from  the  elegy,  in  which  full  expres- 
sion was  given  to  the  feelings  of  the  poet. 

It  was  Simonides  who  first  gave  to  the  epigram  all  the  perfec- 
tion of  which  it  was  capable,  and  he  was  frequently  employed  by 
the  states  which  fought  against  the  Persians  to  adorn  with  in- 
scriptions the  tombs  of  their  fallen  warriors.  The  most  cele- 
brated of  these  is  the  inimitable  inscription  on  the  Spartans  who 
died  at  Thermopylae  :  "  Foreigner,  tell  the  Lacedaemonians  that 
we  are  lying  here  in  obedience  to  their  laws."  On  the  Rhodian 
lyric  poet,  Timocreon,  an  opponent  of  Simonides  in  his  art,  he 
wrote  the  following  in  the  form  of  an  epitaph :  "  Having  eaten 
much  and  drank  much  and  said  much  evil  of  other  men,  here  I 
lie,  Timocreon  the  Rhodian." 

6.  IAMBIC  POETRY,  THE  FABLE  AXD  PARODY.  —  The  kind 
of  poetry  known  by  the  ancients  as  Iambic  was  created  among 


78         HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

the  Athenians  by  Archilochus  at  the  same  time  as  the  elegy.  It 
arose  at  a  period  when  the  Greeks,  accustomed  only  to  the  calm, 
uniinpassioned  tone  of  the  epos,  had  but  just  found  a  temperate 
expression  of  lively  emotion  in  the  elegy.  It  was  a  light,  trip- 
ping measure,  sometimes  loosely  constructed,  or  purposely  halt- 
ing and  broken,  well  adapted  to  vituperation,  unrestrained  by 
any  regard  to  morality  and  decency.  At  the  public  tables  of 
Sparta  keen  and  pointed  raillery  was  permitted,  and  some  of 
the  most  venerable  and  sacred  of  their  religious  rites  afforded 
occasion  for  their  unsparing  and  audacious  jests.  This  raillery 
was  so  ancient  and  inveterate  a  custom,  that  it  had  given  rise  to 
a  peculiar  word,  which  originally  denoted  nothing  but  the  jests 
and  banter  used  at  these  festivals,  namely,  Iambus.  All  the 
wanton  extravagance  which  was  elsewhere  repressed  by  law  or 
custom,  here,  under  the  protection  of  religion,  burst  forth  with 
boundless  license,  and  these  scurrilous  effusions  were  at  length 
reduced  by  Archilochus  into  the  systematic  form  of  iambic 
metre. 

Akin  to  the  iambic  are  two  sorts  of  poetry,  the  fable  and  the 
parody,  which,  though  differing  widely  from  each  other,  have 
both  their  source  in  the  turn  for  the  delineation  of  the  ludicrous, 
and  both  stand  in  close  historical  relation  to  the  iambic.  The 
fable  in  Greece  originated  in  an  intentional  travesty  of  human 
affairs.  It  is  probable  that  the  taste  for  fables  of  beasts  and 
numerous  similar  inventions  found  its  way  from  the  East,  since 
this  sort  of  symbolical  narrative  is  more  in  accordance  with  the 
Oriental  than  with  the  Greek  character. 

jEsop  (fl.  572  B.  c.)  was  very  far  from  being  regarded  by  the 
Greeks  as  one  of  their  poets,  and  still  less  as  a  writer.  They 
considered  him  merely  as  an  ingenious  fabulist,  to  whom,  at  a 
later  period,  nearly  ah1  fables,  that  were  invented  or  derived 
from  any  other  source,  were  attributed.  He  was  a  slave,  whose 
wit  and  pleasantry  procured  him  his  freedom,  and  who  finally 
perished  in  Delphi,  where  the  people,  exasperated  by  his  sarcas- 
tic fables,  put  him  to  death  on  a  charge  of  robbing  the  temple. 
No  metrical  versions  of  these  fables  are  known  to  have  existed 
in  early  tunes. 

The  word  "  parody  "  means  an  adoption  of  the  form  of  some 
celebrated  poem  with  such  changes  as  to  produce  a  totally  dif- 
ferent effect,  and  generally  to  substitute  mean  and  ridiculous  for 
elevated  and  poetical  sentiments.  "  The  Battle  of  the  Frogs 
and  Mice,"  attributed  to  Homer,  but  bearing  evident  traces  of 
a  later  age,  belongs  to  this  species  of  poetry. 

7.  GREEK  Music  AND  LYRIC  POETRY.  —  It  was  not  until 
the  minds  of  the  Greeks  had  been  elevated  by  the  productions  of 
the  epic  muse,  that  the  genius  of  original  poets  broke  loose  from 


GREEK  LITERATURE.  79 

the  dominion  of  the  epic  style,  and  invented  new  forms  for  ex- 
pressing the  emotions  of  a  mind  profoundly  agitated  hy  passing 
events  ;  with  few  innovations  in  the  elegy,  but  with  greater  bold- 
ness in  the  iambic  metre.  In  these  two  forms,  Greek  poetry 
entered  the  domain  of  real  life.  The  elegy  and  iambus  contain 
the  germ  of  the  lyric  style,  though  they  do  not  themselves  come 
under  that  head.  The  Greek  lyric  poetry  was  characterized  by 
the  expression  of  deeper  and  more  impassioned  feeling,  and  a 
more  impetuous  tone  than  the  elegy  and  iambus,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  effect  was  heightened  by  appropriate  vocal  and 
instrumental  music,  and  often  by  the  figures  of  the  dance.  In 
this  union  of  the  sister  arts,  poetry  was  indeed  predominant,  yet 
music,  in  its  turn,  exercised  a  reciprocal  influence  on  poetry,  so 
that  as  it  became  more  cultivated,  the  choice  of  the  musical  meas- 
ure decided  the  tone  of  the  whole  poem. 

The  history  of  Greek  music  begins  with  Terpander  the  Les- 
bian (fl.  670  B.  c.),  who  was  many  times  the  victor  in  the  musi- 
cal contests  at  the  Pythian  temple  of  Delphi.  He  added  three 
new  strings  to  the  cithara,  which  had  consisted  only  of  four,  and 
this  heptachord  was  employed  by  Pindar,  and  remained  long  in 
high  repute  ;  he  was  also  the  first  who  marked  the  different 
tones  in  music.  With  other  musicians,  he  united  the  music  of 
Asia  Minor  with  that  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  founded  on  it  a 
system  in  which  each  style  had  its  appropriate  character.  By 
the  efforts  of  Terpander  and  one  or  two  other  masters,  music 
was  brought  to  a  high  degree  of  excellence,  and  adapted  to  ex- 
press any  feeling  to  which  the  poet  could  give  a  more  definite 
character  and  meaning,  and  thus  they  had  solved  the  great  prob- 
lem of  their  art.  It  was  in  Greece  the  constant  endeavor  of  the 
great  poets,  thinkers,  and  statesmen  who  interested  themselves 
in  the  education  of  youth,  to  give  a  good  direction  to  this  art ; 
they  all  dreaded  the  increasing  prevalence  of  a  luxuriant  style 
of  instrumental  music  and  an  unrestricted  flight  into  the  bound- 
less realms  of  harmony. 

The  lyric  poetry  of  the  Greeks  was  of  two  kinds,  and  culti- 
vated by  two  different  schools  of  poets.  One,  called  the  ^olic, 
flourished  among  the  JEolians  of  Asia  Minor,  and  particularly 
in  the  island  of  Lesbos ;  the  other,  the  Doric,  which,  although 
diffused  over  the  whole  of  Greece,  was  at  first  principally  culti- 
vated by  the  Dorians.  These  two  schools  differed  essentially  in 
the  subjects,  as  in  the  form  and  style  of  their  poems.  The 
Doric  was  intended  to  be  executed  by  choruses,  and  to  be  sung 
to  choral  dances  ;  while  the  ^Eolic  was  recited  by  a  single  per- 
son, who  accompanied  his  recitation  with  a  stringed  instrument, 
generally  the  lyre. 

8.  JEoLic  LYRIC  POETS.  —  Alczeus   (fl.  611  B.  c.),  born  in 


80          HANDBOOK   OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

Mytilene  in  the  island  of  Lesbos,  being  driven  out  of  his  native 
city  for  political  reasons,  wandered  about  the  world,  and,  in  the 
midst  of  troubles  and  perils,  struck  the  lyre  and  gave  utterance 
to  the  passionate  emotions  of  his  mind.  His  war-songs  express 
a  stirring,  martial  spirit ;  and  a  noble  nature,  accompanied  with 
strong  passions,  appears  in  all  his  poems,  especially  in  those  in 
which  he  sings  the  praises  of  love  and  wine,  though  little  of  his 
erotic  poetry  has  reached  our  time.  It  is  evident  that  poetry 
was  not  with  him  a  mere  pastime  or  exercise  of  skill,  but  a 
means  of  pouring  out  the  inmost  feelings  of  the  soul. 

Sappho  (fl.  600  B.  c.)  the  other  leader  of  the  JEolic  school  of 
poetry,  was  the  object  of  the  admiration  of  all  antiquity.  She 
was  contemporary  with  Alcaeus,  and  in  her  verses  to  him  we 
plainly  discern  the  feeling  of  unimpeached  honor  proper  to  a 
free-born  and  well-educated  maiden.  Alcaeus  testifies  that  the 
attractions  and  loveliness  of  Sappho  did  not  derogate  from  her 
moral  worth  when  he  calls  her  "  violet-crowned,  pure,  sweetly 
smiling  Sappho."  This  testimony  is,  indeed,  opposed  to  the 
accounts  of  later  writers,  but  the  probable  cause  of  the  false 
imputations  in  reference  to  Sappho  seems  to  be  that  the  refined 
Athenians  were  incapable  of  appreciating  the  frank  simplicity 
with  which  she  poured  forth  her  feelings,  and  therefore  they 
confounded  them  with  unblushing  immodesty.  While  the  men 
of  Athens  were  distinguished  for  their  perfection  in  every  branch 
of  art,  none  of  their  women  emerged  from  the  obscurity  of  do- 
mestic life.  "  That  woman  is  the  best,"  says  Pericles,  "  of  whom 
the  least  is  said  among  men,  whether  for  good  or  for  evil."  But 
the  ^Eolians  had  in  some  degree  preserved  the  ancient  Greek 
manners,  and  their  women  enjoyed  a  distinct  individual  existence 
and  moral  character.  They  doubtless  participated  in  the  gen- 
eral high  state  of  civilization,  which  not  only  fostered  poetical 
talents  of  a  high  order  among  women,  but  produced  in  them  a 
turn  for  philosophical  reflection.  This  was  so  utterly  inconsist- 
ent with  Athenian  manners,  that  we  cannot  wonder  that  women, 
who  had  in  any  degree  overstepped  the  bounds  prescribed  to 
their  sex  at  Athens,  should  be  represented  by  the  licentious  pen 
of  Athenian  comic  writers  as  lost  to  every  sense  of  shame  and 
decency.  Sappho,  in  her  odes,  made  frequent  mention  of  a 
youth  to  whom  she  gave  her  whole  heart,  while  he  requited  her 
love  with  cold  indifference  ;  but  there  is  no  trace  of  her  having 
named  the  object  of  her  passion.  She  may  have  celebrated  the 
beautiful  and  mythical  Phaon  in  such  a  manner  that  the  verses 
were  supposed  to  refer  to  a  lover  of  her  own.  The  account  of 
her  leap  from  the  Leucadian  rock  is  rather  a  poetical  image, 
than  a  real  event  in  the  life  of  the  poetess.  The  true  conception 
of  the  erotic  poetry  of  Sappho  can  only  be  drawn  from  the  frag- 


GREEK  LITERATURE.  81 

ments  of  her  odes,  which,  though  numerous,  are  for  the  most 
part  very  short.  Among  them,  we  must  distinguish  the  Epitha- 
lamia  or  hymeneals,  which  were  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  genius 
of  the  poetess  from  the  exquisite  perception  she  seems  to  have 
had  of  whatever  was  attractive  in  either  sex.  From  the  numer- 
ous fragments  that  remain,  these  poems  appear  to  have  had 
great  beauty  and  much  of  that  expression  which  the  simple  and 
natural  manners  of  the  times  allowed,  and  the  warm  and  sensi- 
tive heart  of  the  poetess  suggested.  That  Sappho's  fame  was 
spread  throughout  Greece,  may  be  seen  from  the  history  of 
Solon,  who  was  her  contemporary.  Hearing  his  nephew  recite 
one  of  her  poems,  he  said  that  he  would  not  willingly  die  until 
he  had  learned  it  by  heart.  And,  doubtless,  from  that  circle  of 
accomplished  women,  of  whom  she  formed  the  brilliant  centre, 
a  flood  of  poetic  light  was  poured  forth  on  every  side.  Among 
them  may  be  mentioned  the  names  of  Damophila  and  Erinna, 
whose  poem,  "  The  Spindle,"  was  highly  esteemed  by  the  an- 
cients. 

The  genius  of  Anacreon  (fl.  540  B.  c.),  though  akin  to  that 
of  Alcaeus  and  Sappho,  had  an  entirely  different  bent.  He  seems- 
to  consider  life  as  valuable  only  so  far  as  it  can  be  spent  in  wine, 
love,  and  social  enjoyment.  The  Ionic  softness  and  departure 
from  strict  rule  may  also  be  perceived  in  his  versification.  The 
different  odes  preserved  under  his  name  are  the  productions  of 
poets  of  a  much  later  date.  With  Anacreon  ceased  the  species 
of  lyric  poetry  in  which  he  excelled  ;  indeed,  he  stands  alone  in 
it,  and  the  tender  softness  of  his  song  was  soon  drowned  by  the 
louder  tones  of  the  choral  poetry. 

The  Scolia  were  a  kind  of  lyric  songs  sung  at  social  meals, 
when  the  spirit  was  raised  by  wine  and  conversation  to  a  lyrical 
pitch.  The  lyre  or  a  sprig  of  myrtle  was  handed  round  the 
table  and  presented  to  any  one  who  could  amuse  the  company 
by  a  song  or  even  a  good  sentence  in  a  lyrical  form. 

9.  DORIC,  OK  CHORAL  LYRIC  POETS.  —  The  chorus  was  in 
general  use  in  Greece  before  the  time  of  Homer,  and  nearly 
every  variety  of  the  choral  poetry,  which  was  afterwards  so  brill- 
iantly developed,  existed  at  that  remote  period  in  a  rude,  un- 
finished state.  After  the  improvements  made  by  Terpander 
and  others  in  musical  art,  choral  poetry  rapidly  progressed  to- 
wards perfection.  The  poets  during  the  period  of  progress  were 
Alcman  and  Stesichorus,  while  finished  lyric  poetry  is  repre- 
sented by  Ibycus,  Simonides,  his  disciple  Bacchylides  and  Pindar. 
These  great  poets  were  only  the  representatives  of  the  fervor 
with  which  the  religious  festivals  inspired  all  classes.  Choral 
dances  were  performed  by  the  whole  people  with  great  ardor 
6 


82         HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

and  enthusiasm ;  every  considerable  town  had  its  poet,  who  de- 
voted his  whole  life  to  the  training  and  exhibition  of  choruses. 

Alcman  (b.  660  B.  c.)  was  a  Lydian  of  Sardis.  and  an  eman- 
cipated slave.  His  poems  exhibit  a  great  variety  of  metre,  of 
dialect,  and  of  poetic  tone.  He  is  regarded  as  having  overcome 
the  difficulties  presented  by  the  rough  dialect  of  Sparta,  and  as 
having  succeeded  in  investing  it  with  a  certain  grace.  He  is  one 
of  the  poets  whose  image  is  most  effaced  by  time,  and  of  whom 
we  can  obtain  little  accurate  knowledge.  The  admiration 
awarded  him  by  antiquity  is  scarcely  justified  by  the  extant  re- 
mains of  his  poems. 

Stesichorus  (fl.  611  B.  c.)  lived  at  a  time  when  the  predomi- 
nant tendency  of  the  Greek  mind  was  towards  lyric  poetry. 
His  special  business  was  the  training  and  direction  of  the  cho- 
ruses, and  he  assumed  the  name  of  Stesichorus.  or  leader  of 
choruses,  his  real  name  being  Tesias.  His  metres  approach 
more  nearly  to  the  epos  than  those  of  Alcman.  As  Quintilian 
says,  he  sustained  the  weight  of  epic  poetry  with  the  lyre.  His 
language  accorded  Avith  the  tone  of  his  poetry,  and  he  is  not 
less  remarkable  in  himself,  than  as  the  precursor  of  the  perfect 
lyric  poetry  of  Pindar. 

Arion  (625-585  B.  c.)  was  chiefly  known  in  Greece  as  the 
perfecter  of  the  "  Dithyramb,"  a  song  of  Bacchanalian  festivals, 
doubtless  of  great  antiquity.  Its  character,  like  the  worship  to  t 
which  it  belonged,  was  always  impassioned  and  enthusiastic  ;  the 
extremes  of  feeling,  rapturous  pleasure,  and  wild  lamentation 
were  both  expressed  in  it. 

Ibycus  (b.  528  B.  c.)  was  a  wandering  poet,  as  is  attested  by 
the  story  of  his  death  having  been  avenged  by  the  cranes.  His 
poetical  style  resembles  that  of  Stesichorus,  as  also  his  subjects. 
The  erotic  poetry  of  Ibycus  is  most  celebrated,  and  breathes  a 
fervor  of  passion  far  exceeding  that  of  any  similar  production  of 
Greek  literature. 

Simonides  (556-468  B.  c.)  has  already  been  described  as  one 
of  the  great  masters  of  the  elegy  and  epigram.  In  depth  and 
novelty  of  ideas,  and  in  the  fervor  of  poetic  feeling,  he  was  far 
inferior  to  his  contemporary  Pindar,  but  he  was  probably  the 
most  prolific  lyric  poet  of  Greece.  According  to  the  frequent 
reproach  of  the  ancients,  he  was  the  first  that  sold  his  poems  for 
money.  His  style  was  not  as  lofty  as  that  of  Pindar,  but  what 
he  lost  in  sublimity  he  gained  in  pathos. 

Bacchylides  (fl.  450  B.  c.),  the  nephew  of  Simonides,  devoted 
his  genius  chiefly  to  the  pleasures  of  private  life,  love,  and  wine, 
and  his  productions,  when  compared  with  those  of  Simonides, 
are  marked  by  less  moral  elevation. 

Timocreon  the  Rhodian  (fl.  471  B.  c.)  owes  his  chief  celebrity 


GREEK  LITERATURE.  83 

among  the  ancients  to  the  hate  he  bore  to  Themistocles  in  polit- 
ical life,  and  to  Simonides  on  the  field  of  poetry. 

Pindar  (522—435  B.  c.)  was  the  contemporary  of  ^schylus, 
but  as  the  causes  which  determined  his  poetical  character  are  to 
be  sought  in  an  earlier  age,  and  in  the  Doric  and  ^Eolic  parts 
of  Greece,  he  may  properly  be  placed  at  the  close  of  the  early 
period,  while  vEschylus  stands  at  the  head  of  the  new  epoch  of 
literature.  Like  Hesiod,  Pindar  was  a  native  of  Bosotia,  and  that 
there  was  still  much  love  for  music  and  poetry  there  is  proved 
by  the  fact  that  two  women,  Myrtis  and  Corinna,  had  obtained 
great  celebrity  in  these  arts  during  the  youth  of  this  poet. 
Myrtis  (fl.  490  B.  c.)  strove  with  him  for  the  prize  at  the  public 
games,  and  Corinna  (fl.  490  B.  c.)  is  said  to  have  gained  the 
victory  over  him  five  times.  Too  little  of  the  poetry  of  Corinna 
has  been  preserved  to  allow  a  judgment  on  her  style  of  composi- 
tion. Pindar  made  the  arts  of  poetry  and  music  the  business 
of  his  life,  and  his  fame  soon  spread  throughout  Greece  and  the 
neighboring  countries.  He  excelled  in  all  the  known  varieties 
of  choral  poetry,  but  the  only  class  of  poems  that  enables  us 
to  judge  of  his  general  style  is  his  triumphal  odes.  When  a 
victory  was  gained  in  a  contest  at  a  festival  by  the  speed  of 
horses,  the  strength  and  dexterity  of  the  human  body,  or  by 
skill  in  music,  such  a  victory,  which  shed  honor  not  only  on  the 
victor,  but  also  on  his  family,  and  even  on  his  native  city,  de- 
manded a  public  celebration.  An  occasion  of  this  kind  had 
always  a  religious  character,  and  often  began  with  a  procession 
to  an  altar  or  temple,  where  a  sacrifice  was  offered,  followed  by 
a  banquet,  and  the  solemnity  concluded  with  a  merry  and  bois- 
tei*ous  revel.  At  this  sacred  and  at  the  same  time  joyous  fes- 
tival, the  chorus  appeared  and  recited  the  triumphal  hymn, 
which  was  considered  the  fairest  ornament  of  the  triumph. 
Such  an  occasion,  a  victory  in  the  sacred  games  and.  its  end,  the 
ennobling  of  a  ceremony  connected  with  the  worship  of  the 
gods,  required  that  the  ode  should  be  composed  in  a  lofty  and 
dignified  style.  Pindar  does  not  content  himself  with  celebrat- 
ing the  bodily  prowess  of  the  victor  alone,  but  he  usually  adds 
some  moral  virtue  which  he  has  shown,  and  which  he  recom- 
mends and  extols.  Sometimes  this  virtue  is  moderation,  wisdom, 
or  filial  love,  more  often  piety  to  the  gods,  and  he  expounds  to 
the  victor  his  destiny,  by  showing  him  the  dependence  of  his 
exploits  on  the  higher  order  of  things.  Mythical  narratives 
occupy  much  space  in  these  odes,  for  in  the  time  of  Pindar  the 
mythical  past  was  invested  with  a  splendor  and  sublimity,  of 
which  even  the  faint  reflection  was  sufficient  to  embellish  the 
present. 

10.  OKPHIC  DOCTRINES  AND  POEMS.  —  The  interval  between 


84         HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

Homer  and  Pindar  is  an  important  period  in  the  history  of 
Greek  civilization.  In  Homer  we  perceive  that  infancy  of  the 
mind  which  lives  in  seeing  and  imagining,  and  whose  moral 
judgments  are  determined  by  impulses  of  feeling  rather  than 
by  rules  of  conduct,  while  with  Pindar  i\\e  chief  effort  of  his 
genius  is  to  discover  the  true  standard  of  moral  government. 
This  great  change  of  opinion  must  have  been  affected  by  the 
efforts  of  many  sages  and  poets.  All  the  Greek  religious  po- 
etry, treating  of  death  and  of  the  world  beyond  the  grave,  re- 
fers to  the  deities  whose  influence  was  supposed  to  be  exercised 
in  the  dark  regions  at  the  centre  of  the  earth,  and  who  had  lit- 
tle connection  with  the  political  and  social  relations  of  human 
life.  They  formed  a  class  apart  from  the  gods  of  Olympus  ;  the 
mysteries  of  the  Greeks  were  connected  with  their  worship 
alone,  and  the  love  of  immortality  first  found  support  in  a  be- 
lief in  these  deities.  The  mysteries  of  Demeter,  especially  those 
celebrated  at  Eleusis,  inspired  the  most  animating  hopes  with 
regard  to  the  soul  after  death.  These  mysteries,  however,  had 
little  influence  on  the  literature  of  the  nation  ;  but  there  was  a 
society  of  persons  called  the  followers  of  Orpheus,  who  published 
their  notions  and  committed  them  to  literary  works.  Under  the 
guidance  of  the  ancient  mystical  poet,  Orpheus,  they  dedicated 
themselves  to  the  worship  of  Bacchus  or  Dionysus,  in  which  they 
sought  satisfaction  for  an  ardent  longing  after  the  soothing  and 
elevating  influences  of  religion,  and  upon  the  worship  of  this 
deity  they  founded  their  hopes  of  an  ultimate  immortality  of  the 
soul.  Unlike  the  popular  worshipers  of  Bacchus,  they  did  not 
indulge  in  unrestrained  pleasure  or  frantic  enthusiasm,  but  rather 
aimed  at  an  ascetic  purity  of  life  and  manners.  It  is  difficult 
to  tell  when  this  association  was  formed  in  Greece,  but  we  find 
in  Hesiod  something  of  the  Orphic  spirit,  and  the  beginning  of 
higher  and  more  hopeful  views  of  death. 

The  endeavor  to  obtain  a  knowledge  of  divine  and  human 
things  was  in  Greece  slowly  and  with  difficulty  evolved  from 
their  religious  notions,  and  it  was  for  a  long  time  confined  to 
the  refining  and  rationalizing  of  their  mythology.  An  extensive 
Orphic  literature  first  appeared  at  the  time  of  the  Persian  war, 
when  the  remains  of  the  Pythagorean  order  in  Magna  Graecia 
united  themselves  to  the  Orphic  associations.  The  philosophy 
of  Pythagoras,  however,  had  no  analogy  with  the  spirit  of  the 
Orphic  mysteries,  in  which  the  worship  of  Dionysus  was  the 
centre  of  all  religious  ideas,  while  the  Pythagorean  philosophers 
preferred  the  worship  of  Apollo  and  the  Muses.  In  the  Orphic 
theogony  we  find,  for  the  first  time,  the  idea  of  creation.  An- 
other difference  between  the  notions  of  the  Orphic  poets  and 
those  of  the  early  Greeks  was  that  the  former  did  not  limit 


GREEK  LITERATURE.  85 

their  views  to  the  present  state  of  mankind,  still  less  did  they  ac- 
quiesce in  Hesiod's  melancholy  doctrine  of  successive  ages,  each 
one  worse  than  the  preceding  ;  but  they  looked  for  a  cessation 
of  strife,  a  state  of  happiness  and  beatitude  at  the  end  of  all 
things.  Their  hopes  of  this  result  were  founded  on  Dionysus, 
from  the  worship  of  whom  all  their  peculiar  religious  ideas  were 
derived.  This  god,  the  son  of  Zeus,  is  to  succeed  him  in  the 
government  of  the  world,  to  restore  the  Golden  Age,  and  to  lib- 
erate human  souls,  who,  according  to  an  Orphic  notion,  are  pun- 
ished by  being  confined  in  the  body  as  in  a  prison.  The  suffer- 
ings of  the  soul  in  its  prison,  the  steps  and  transitions  by  which 
it  passes  to  a  higher  state  of  existence,  and  its  gradual  purifica- 
tion and  enlightenment,  were  all  fully  described  in  these  poems. 
Thus,  in  the  poetry  of  the  first  five  centuries  of  Greek  literature, 
especially  at  the  close  of  this  period,  we  find,  instead  of  the  calm 
enjoyment  of  outward  nature  which  characterized  the  early  epic 
poetry,  a  profound  sense  of  the  misery  of  human  life,  and  an 
ardent  longing  for  a  condition  of  greater  happiness.  This  feel- 
ing, indeed,  was  not  so  extended  as  to  become  common  to  the 
whole  Greek  nation,  but  it  took  deep  root  in  individual  minds, 
and  was  connected  with  more  serious  and  spiritual  views  of 
human  nature. 

11.  PRE-SOCRATIC  PHILOSOPHY.  —  Philosophy  was  early  cul- 
tivated by  the  Greeks,  who  first  among  all  nations  distinguished 
it  from  religion  and  mythology.  For  some  time,  however,  after 
its  origin,  it  was  as  far  removed  from  the  ordinary  thoughts  and 
occupations  of  the  people  as  poetry  was  intimately  connected 
with  them.  Poetry  idealizes  all  that  is-  most  characteristic  of  a 
nation  ;  its  religion,  mythology,  political  and  social  institutions, 
and  manners.  Philosophy,  on  the  other  hand,  begins  by  de- 
taching the  mind  from  the  opinions  and  habits  in  which  it  has 
been  bred  up,  from  the  national  conceptions  of  the  gods  and  the 
universe,  and  from  traditionary  maxims  of  ethics  and  politics. 
The  philosophy  of  Greece,  antecedent  to  the  time  of  Socrates,  is 
contained  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Ionic,  Eleatic,  and  Pythagorean 
schools.  Thales  of  Miletus  (639-548  B.  c.)  was  the  first  in  the 
series  of  the  Ionic  philosophers.  He  was  one  of  the  Seven  Sages, 
who  by  their  practical  wisdom  nobly  contributed  to  the  flourish- 
ing condition  of  Greece.  Thales,  Solon,  Bion  (fl.  570  B.  c.), 
Cleobulus  (fl.  542  B.  c.),  Periander  (fl.  598  B.  c.),  Pittacus  of 
Mytilene  (579  B.  c.),  and  Chilon  (fl.  542  B.  c.),  were  the  seven 
philosophers  called  the  seven  sages  by  their  countrymen.  Thales 
is  said  to  have  foretold  an  eclipse  of  the  sun,  for  which  he 
doubtless  employed  astronomical  formulae,  which  he  had  ob- 
tained from  the  Chaldeans.  His  tendency  was  practical,  and 
where  his  own  knowledge  was  insufficient,  he  applied  the  dis- 


86         HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

coveries  of  other  nations  more  advanced  than  his  own.  He 
considered  all  nature  as  endowed  with  life,  and  sought. to  dis- 
cover the  principles  of  external  forms  in  the  powers  which  lie 
beneath ;  he  taught  that  water  was  the  principle  of  things. 
Anaximander  (fl.  547  B.  c.),  and  Anaximenes  (fl.  548  B.  c.) 
were  the  other  two  most  distinguished  representatives  of  the 
Ionic  school.  The  former  believed  that  chaotic  matter  was  the 
principle  of  all  things,  the  latter  taught  that  it  was  air.  The 
Eleatic  school  is  represented  by  Xenophanes,  Parmenides,  and 
Zeno.  As  the  philosophers  of  the  first  school  were  called  lo- 
nians  from  the  country  in  which  they  resided,  so  these  were 
named  from  Elea,  a  Greek  colony  of  Italy.  Xenophanes  (fl.  538 
B.  c.),  the  founder  of  this  school,  adopted  a  different  principle 
from  that  of  the  Ionic  philosophers,  and  proceeded  upon  an  ideal 
system,  while  that  of  the  latter  was  exclusively  founded  upon 
experience.  He  began  with  the  idea  of  the  godhead,  and  showed 
the  necessity  of  considering  it  as  an  eternal  and  unchanging  ex- 
istence, and  represented  the  anthropomorphic  conceptions  of  the 
Greeks  concerning  their  gods  as  mere  prejudices.  In  his  works 
he  retained  the  poetic  form  of  composition,  some  fragments  of 
which  he  himself  recited  at  public  festivals,  after  the  manner  of 
the  rhapsodists.  Parmenides  flourished  504  years  B.  c.  His 
philosophy  rested  upon  the  idea  of  existence  which  excluded  the 
idea  of  creation,  and  thus  fell  into  pantheism.  His  poem  on 
"  Nature  "  was  composed  in  the  epic  metre,  and  in  it  he  ex- 
pressed in  beautiful  forms  the  most  abstract  ideas.  Zeno  of 
Elea  (fl.  500  B.  c.)  was  a  pupil  of  Parmenides,  and  the  earliest 
prose  writer  among  the  Greek  philosophers.  He  developed  the 
doctrines  of  his  master  by  showing  the  absurdities  involved  in 
the  ideas  of  variety  and  of  creation,  as  opposed  to  one  and  uni- 
versal substance.  Other  philosophers  belonging  to  lona  or  Elea 
may  be  referred  to  these  schools,  as  Heraclitus,  Empedocles, 
Democritus,  and  Anaxagoras,  whose  doctrines,  however,  vary 
from  those  of  the  representatives  of  the  philosophical  systems 
above  named.  Heraclitus  (fl.  505  B.  c.)  dealt  rather  in  inti- 
mations of  important  truths  than  in  popular  exposition  of  them ; 
his  cardinal  doctrine  seems  to  have  been  that  everything  is  in 
perpetual  motion,  that  nothing  has  any  permanent  existence, 
and  that  everything  is  assuming  a  new  form  or  perishing  :  the 
principle  of  this  perpetual  motion  he  supposed  to  be  fire,,  though 
probably  he  did  not  mean  material  fire,  but  some  higher  and 
more  universal  agent.  Like  nearly  all  the  philosophers,  he  de- 
spised the  popular  religion.  Empedocles  (fl.  440  B.  c.)  wrote  a 
doctrinal  poem  concerning  nature,  fragments  of  which  have  been 
preserved.  He  denied  the  possibility  of  creation,  and  held  the 
doctrine  of  an  eternal  and  imperishable  existence ;  but  he  con- 


GREEK  LITERATURE.  87 

sidered  this  existence  as  having  different  natures,  and  admitted 
that  fire,  earth,  air,  and  water  were  the  four  elements  of  all 
things.  These  elements  he  supposed  to  he  governed  by  two 
principles,  one  positive  and  one  negative,  that  is  to  say,  connect- 
ing love  and  dissolving  discord.  Democritus  (fl.  460  B.  c.)  em- 
bodied his  extensive  knowledge  in  a  series  of  writings,  of  which 
only  a  few  fragments  have  been  preserved.  Cicero  compared 
him  with  Plato  for  rhythm  and  elegance  of  language.  He  de- 
rived the  manifold  phenomena  of  the  world  from  the  different 
form,  disposition,  and  arrangement  of  the  innumerable  elements 
or  atoms  as  they  become  united.  He  is  the  founder  of  the 
atomic  doctrine.  Anaxagoras  (fl.  456  B.  c.)  rejected  all  popular 
notions  of  religion,  excluded  the  idea  of  creation  and  destruc- 
tion, and  taught  that  atoms  were  unchangeable  and  imperish- 
able ;  that  spirit,  the  purest  and  subtlest  of  all  things,  gave  to 
these  atoms  the  impulse  by  which  they  took  the  forms  of  indi- 
vidual things  and  beings ;  and  that  this  impulse  was  given  in 
circular  motion,  which  kept  the  heavenly  bodies  in  their  courses. 
But  none  of  his  doctrines  gave  so  much  offence  or  was  consid- 
ered so  clear  a  proof  of  his  atheism  as  his  opinion  that  the  sun, 
the  bountiful  god  Helios,  who  shines  both  upon  mortals  and  im- 
mortals, was  a  mass  of  red-hot  iron.  His  doctrines  tended 
powerfully  by  their  rapid  diffusion  to  undermine  the  principles 
on  which  the  worship  of  the  ancient  gods  rested,  and  they  there- 
fore prepared  the  way  for  the  subsequent  triumph  of  Chris- 
tianity. 

The  Pythagorean  or  Italic  School  was  founded  by  Pythagoras, 
who  is  said  to  have  flourished  between  540  and  500  B.  c.  Pythag- 
oras was  probably  an  Ionian  who  emigrated  to  Italy,  and  there 
established  his  school.  His  principal  efforts  were  directed  to 
practical  life,  especially  to  the  regulation  of  political  institutions, 
and  his  influence  was  exercised  by  means  of  lectures,  or  sayings, 
or  by  the  establishment  and  direction  of  the  Pythagorean  asso- 
ciations. He  encouraged  the  study  of  mathematics  and  music, 
and  considered  singing  to  the  cithara  as  best  fitted  to  produce 
that  mental  repose  and  harmony  of  soul  which  he  regarded  as 
the  highest  object  of  education. 

12.  HISTORY.  —  It  is  remarkable  that  a  people  so  cultivated 
as  the  Greeks  should  have  been  so  long  without  feeling  the  want 
of  a  correct  record  of  their  transactions  in  war  and  peace.  The 
difference  between  this  nation  and  the  Orientals,  in  this  respect, 
is  very  great.  But  the  division  of  the  country  into  numerous 
small  states,  and  the  republican  form  of  the  governments,  pre- 
vented a  concentration  of  interest  on  particular  events  and  per- 
sons, and  owing  to  the  dissensions  between  the  republics,  their 
historical  traditions  could  not  but  offend  some  while  they  flat- 


88         HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

tered  others  ;  it  was  not  until  a  late  period  that  the  Greeks  con- 
sidered contemporary  events  as  worthy  of  being  thought  or 
written  of.  But  for  this  absence  of  authentic  history,  Greek 
literature  could  never  have  become  what  it  was.  By  the  purely 
fictitious  character  of  its  poetry,  and  its  freedom  from  the  shack- 
les of  particular  truths,  it  acquired  that  general  probability  which 
led  Aristotle  to  consider  poetry  as  more  philosophical  than  his- 
tory. Greek  art,  likewise,  from  the  lateness  of  the  period  at 
which  it  descended  from  the  representation  of  gods  and  heroes 
to  the  portraits  of  real  men,  acquired  a  nobleness  and  beauty 
of  form  which  it  could  not  otherwise  have  obtained.  This  poet- 
ical basis  gave  the  literature  of  the  Greeks  a  noble  and  liberal 
turn. 

Writing  was  probably  known  in  Greece  some  centuries  before 
the  time  of  Cadmus  of  Miletus  (fl.  522  B.  c.),  but  it  had  not 
been  employed  for  the  purpose  of  preserving  any  detailed  his- 
torical record,  and  even  when,  towards  the  end  of  the  age  of  the 
Seven  Sages  (550  B.  c.),  some  writers  of  historical  narratives 
began  to  appear,  they  did  not  select  recent  historical  events,  but 
those  of  distant  times  and  countries  ;  so  entirely  did  they  believe 
that  oral  tradition  and  the  daily  discussions  of  common  life  were 
sufficient  records  of  the  events  of  their  own  time  and  country. 
Cadmus  of  Miletus  is  mentioned  as  the  first  historian,  but  his 
works  seem  to  have  been  early  lost.  To  him,  and  other  Greek 
historians  before  the  time  of  Herodotus,  scholars  have  given  the 
name  of  Logographers,  from  Logos,  signifying  any  discourse  in 
prose. 

The  first  Greek  to  whom  it  occurred  that  a  narrative  of  facts 
might  be  made  intensely  interesting  was  Herodotus  (484-432 
B.  c.),  a  native  of  Halicarnassus  in  Asia  Minor,  the  Homer  of 
Greek  history.  Obliged,  for  political  reasons,  to  leave  his  native 
land,  he  visited  many  countries,  such  as  Egypt,  Babylon,  and 
'  Persia,  and  spent  the  latter  years  of  his  life  in  one  of  the  Gre- 
cian settlements  in  Italy,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  the  com- 
position of  his  work.  His  travels  were  undertaken  from  the 
pure  spirit  of  inquiry,  and  for  that  age  they  were  very  extensive 
and  important.  It  is  probable  that  his  great  and  intricate  plan, 
hitherto  unknown  in  the  historical  writings  of  the  Greeks,  did 
not  at  first  occur  to  him,  and  that  it  was  only  in  his  later  years 
that  he  conceived  the  complete  idea  of  a  work  so  far  beyond 
those  of  his  predecessors  and  contemporaries.  It  is  stated  that 
he  recited  his  history  at  different  festivals,  which  is  quite  credi- 
ble, .though  there  is  little  authority  for  the  story  that  at  one  of 
these  Thucydides  was  present  as  a  boy,  and  shed  tears,  drawn 
forth  by  his  own  desire  for  knowledge  and  his  intense  interest 
in  the  narrative.  His  work  comprehends  a  history  of  nearly  all 


GREEK  LITERATURE.  89 

the  nations  of  the  world  at  that  time  known.  It  has  an  epic 
character,  not  only  from  the  equable  and  uninterrupted  flow  of 
the  narrative,  hut  also  from  certain  pervading  ideas  which  give 
a  tone  to  the  whole.  The  principal  of  these  is  the  idea  of  a  fixed 
destiny,  of  a  wise  arrangement  of  the  world,  which  has  pre- 
scribed to  every  being  his  path,  and  which  allots  ruin  and  de- 
struction not  only  to  crime  and  violence,  but  to  excessive  power 
and  riches  and  the  overweening  pride  which  is  their  companion. 
In  this  consists  the  envy  of  the  gods  so  often  mentioned  by  He- 
rodotus, and  usually  called  by  the  other  Greeks  the  divine  Ne- 
mesis. He  constantly  adverts  in  his  narrative  to  the  influence 
of  this  divine  power,  the  Dsemonion,  as  he  calls  it.  He  shows 
how  the  Deity  visits  the  sins  of  the  ancestors  upon  their  de- 
scendants, how  man  rushes,  as  it  were,  wilfully  upon  his  own 
destruction,  and  how  oracles  mislead  by  their  ambiguity,  when 
interpreted  by  blind  passion.  He  shows  his  awe  of  the  divine 
Nemesis  by  his  moderation  and  the  firmness  with  which  he  keeps 
down  the  ebullitions  of  national  pride.  He  points  out  traits  of 
greatness  of  character  in  the.  hostile  kings  of  Persia,  and  shows 
his  countrymen  how  often  they  owed  their  successes  to  Provi- 
dence and  external  advantages  rather  than  to  their  own  valor 
and  ability.  Since  Herodotus  saw  the  working  of  a  divine 
agency  in  all  human  events,  and  considered  the  exhibition  of  it 
as  the  main  object  of  his  history,  his  aim  is  totally  different 
from  that  of  a  historian  who  regards  the  events  of  life  merely 
with  reference  to  men.  He  is,  in  truth,  a  theologian  and  a  poet 
as  well  as  a  historian.  It  is,  however,  vain  to  deny  that  when 
Herodotus  did  not  see  himself  the  events  which  he  describes,  he 
is  often  deceived  by  the  misrepresentations  of  others  ;  yet,  with- 
out his  single-hearted  simplicity,  his  disposition  to  listen  to  every 
remarkable  account,  and  his  admiration  for  the  wonders  of  the 
Eastern  world,  Herodotus  would  never  have  imparted  to  us 
many  valuable  accounts.  Modern  travelers,  naturalists,  and* 
geographers  have  often  had  occasion  to  admire  the  truth,  and 
correctness  of  the  information  contained  in  his  simple  and  mar- 
velous narratives.  But  no  dissertation  on  this  writer  can  con- 
vey any  idea  of  the  impression  made  by  reading  his  work ;  his 
language  closely  approximates  to  oral  narration  ;  it  is  like  hear- 
ing a  person  speak  who  has  seen  and  lived  through  a  variety  of 
remarkable  things,  and  whose  greatest  delight  consists  in  recall- 
ing these  images  of  the  past.  Though  a  Dorian  by  birth,  he 
adopted  the  Ionic  dialect,  with  its  uncontracted  terminations, 
its  accumulated  vowels,  and  its  soft  forms.  These  various  ele- 
ments conspire  to  render  the  work  of  Herodotus  a  production 
as  perfect  in  its  kind  as  any  human  work  can  be. 


90         HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

PERIOD  SECOND. 
THE  EPOCH  OF  THE  ATHENIAN  LITERATURE  (484-322  B.  c.). 

1.  LITERARY  PREDOMINANCE  OF  ATHENS.  —  Among  the 
Greeks  a  national  literature  was  early  formed.  Every  literary 
work  in  the  Greek  language,  in  whatever  dialect  it  might  be 
composed,  was  enjoyed  by  the  whole  nation,  and  the  fame  of 
remarkable  writers  soon  spread  throughout  Greece.  Certain 
cities  were  considered  almost  as  theatres,  where  the  poets  and 
sages  could  bring  their  powers  and  acquirements  into  public  no- 
tice. Among  these,  Sparta  stood  highest  down  to  the  time  of 
the  Persian  war.  But  when  Athens,  raised  by  her  political 
power  and  the  mental  qualities  of  her  citizens,  acquired  the 
rank  of  the  capital  of  Greece,  literature  assumed  a  different 
form,  and  there  is  no  more  important  epoch  in  the  history  of 
the  Greek  intellect  than  the  time  when  she  obtained  this  pre- 
eminence over  her  sister  states.  The  character  of  the  Athe- 
nians peculiarly  fitted  them  to  take  this  lead  ;  they  were  lonians, 
and  the  boundless  resources  and  mobility  of  the  Ionian  spirit  are 
shown  by  their  astonishing  productions  in  Asia  Minor  and  in 
the  islands,  in  the  two  centuries  previous  to  the  Persian  war ;  in 
their  iambic  and  elegiac  poetry,  and  in  the  germs  of  philosophic 
inquiry  and  historical  composition.  The  literature  of  those  who 
remained  in  Attica  seemed  poor  and  meagre  when  compared 
with  that  luxuriant  outburst ;  nor  did  it  appear,  till  a  later  pe- 
riod, that  the  progress  of  the  Athenian  intellect  was  the  more 
sound  and  lasting.  The  lonians  of  Asia  Minor,  becoming  at 
length  enfeebled  and  corrupted  by  the  luxuries  of  the  East,  passed 
easily  under  the  power  of  the  Persians,  while  the  inhabitants 
of  Attica,  encompassed  and  oppressed  by  the  manly  tribes  of 
Greece,  and  forced  to  keep  the  sword  constantly  in  their  hands, 
'exerted  all  their  talents  and  thus  developed  all  their  extraordi- 
nary powers. 

Solon,  the  great  lawgiver,  arose  to  combine  moral  strictness 
and  order  with  freedom  of  action.  After  Solon  came  the  do- 
minion of  the  Pisistratidze,  which  lasted  from  about  560  to  510 
B.  c.  They  showed  a  fondness  for  art,  diffused  a  taste  for 
poetry  among  the  Athenians,  and  naturalized  at  Athens  the 
best  literary  productions  of  Greece.  They  were  unquestionably 
the  first  to  introduce  the  entire  recital  of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey ; 
they  also  brought  to  Athens  the  most  distinguished  lyric  poets 
of  the  time,  Anacreon,  Simonides,  and  others.  But,  notwith- 
standing their  patronage  of  literature  and  art,  it  was  not  till 
after  the  fall  of  their  dynasty  that  Athens  shot  up  with  a  vigor 
that  can  only  be  derived  from  the  consciousness  of  every  citizen 
that  he  has  a  share  in  the  common  weal. 


GREEK  LITERATURE.  91 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  Athens  produced  her  most  excel- 
lent works  in  literature  and  art  in  the  midst  of  the  greatest  po- 
litical convulsions,  and  of  her  utmost  efforts  for  conquest  and 
self-preservation.  The  long  dominion  of  the  Pisistratids  pro- 
duced nothing  more  important  than  the  first  rudiments  of  the 
tragic  drama,  for  the  origin  of  comedy  at  the  country  festivals 
of  Bacchus  falls  in  the  time  before  Pisistratus.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  thirty  years  between  the  expulsion  of  Hippias,  the  last 
of  the  Pisistratids,  and  the  battle  of  Salamis  (510-480  B.  c.),  was 
a  period  marked  by  great  events  both  in  politics  and  literature. 
Athens  contended  with  success  against  her  warlike  neighbors, 
supported  the  lonians  in  their  revolt  against  Persia,  and  warded 
off  the  first  powerful  attack  of  the  Persians  upon  Greece.  Dur- 
ing the  same  period,  the  pathetic  tragedies  of  Phrynichus  and 
the  lofty  tragedies  of  .ZEschylus  appeared  on  the  stage,  political 
eloquence  was  awakened  in  Themistocles,  and  everything  seemed 
to  give  promise  of  future  greatness. 

The  political  events  which  followed  the  Persian  war  gradu- 
ally gave  to  Athens  the  dominion  over  her  allies,  so  that  she 
became  the  sovereign  of  a  large  and  flourishing  empire,  compre- 
hending the  islands  and  coasts  of  the  .^Egean  and  a  part  of  the 
Euxine  sea.  In  this  manner  was  gained  a  wide  basis  for  the 
lofty  edifice  of  political  glory,  which  was  raised  by  her  states- 
men. The  completion  of  this  splendid  structure  was  due  to 
Pericles  (500-429  B.  c.).  Through  his  influence  Athens  be- 
came a  dominant  community,  whose  chief  business  it  was  to  ad- 
minister the  affairs  of  an  extensive  empire,  flourishing  in  agri- 
culture, industry,  and  commerce.  Pericles,  however,  did  not 
make  the  acquisition  of  power  the  highest  object  of  his  exer- 
tions ;  his  aim  was  to  realize  in  Athens  the  idea  which  he  had 
conceived  of  human  greatness,  that  great  and  noble  thoughts 
should  pervade  the  whole  mass  of  the  ruling  people  ;  and  this 
was,  in  fact,  the  case  as  long  as  his  influence  lasted,  to  a  greater 
degree  than  has  occurred  in  any  other  period  of  history.  The 
objects  to  which  Pericles  directed  the  people,  and  for  which  he 
accumulated  so  much  power  and  wealth  at  Athens,  may  be  best 
seen  in  the  still  extant  works  of  architecture  and  sculpture 
which  originated  under  his  administration.  He  induced  the 
Athenian  people  to  expend  on  the  decoration  of  Athens  a  larger 
part  of  its  ample  revenues  than  was  ever  applied  to  this  purpose 
in  any  other  state,  either  republican  or  monarchical.  Of  the 
surpassing  skill  with  which  he  collected  into  one  focus  the  rays 
of  artistic  genius  at  Athens,  no  stronger  proof  can  be  afforded, 
than  the  fact  that  no  subsequent  period,  through  the  patronage 
of  Macedonian  or  Roman  princes,  produced  works  of  equal  ex- 
cellence. Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that  the  creations  of  the  age 


92         HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

of  Pericles  are  the  only  works  of  art  which  completely  satisfy 
the  most  refined  and  cultivated  taste. 

But  this  brilliant  exhibition  of  human  excellence  was  not 
without  its  dark  side,  nor  the  flourishing  state  of  Athenian  civil- 
ization exempt  from  the  elements  of  decay.  The  political  posi- 
tion of  Athens  soon  led  to  a  conflict  between  the  patriotism  and 
moderation  of  her  citizens,  and  their  interests  and  passions. 
From  the  earliest  times,  this  city  had  stood  in  an  unfriendly 
relation  to  the  rest  of  Greece,  and  her  policy  of  compelling  so 
many  cities  to  contribute  their  wealth  in  order  to  make  her  the 
focus  of  art  and  civilization  was  accompanied  with  offensive 
pride  and  selfish  patriotism.  The  energy  in  action,  which  dis- 
tinguished the  Athenians,  degenerated  into  a  restless  love  of 
adventure ;  and  that  dexterity  in  the  use  of  words,  which  they 
cultivated  more  than  the  other  Greeks,  induced  them  to  subject 
everything  to  discussion,  and  destroyed  the  habits  founded  on 
unreasoning  faith.  The  principles  of  the  policy  of  Pericles  were 
closely  connected  with  the  demoralization  which  followed  his 
administration.  By  founding  the  power  of  the  Athenians  on  the 
dominion  of  the  sea,  he  led  them  to  abandon  land  war  and  the 
military  exercises  requisite  for  it,  which  had  hardened  the  old 
warriors  at  Marathon.  As  he  made  them  a  dominant  people, 
whose  time  was  chiefly  devoted  to  the  business  of  governing 
their  widely-extended  empire,  it  was  necessary  for  him  to  pro- 
vide that  the  common  citizens  of  Athens  should  be  able  to  gain 
a  livelihood  by  their  attention  to  public  business,  and  accord- 
ingly, a  large  revenue  was  distributed  among  them  in  the  form 
of  wages  for  attendance  in  the  courts  of  justice  and  other  public 
assemblies.  These  payments  to  citizens  for  their  share  in  the 
public  business  were  quite  new  in  Greece,  and  many  considered 
the  sitting  and  listening  in  these  assemblies  as  an  idle  life  in 
comparison  with  the  labor  of  the  plowman  and  vine-grower  in 
the  country,  and  for  a  long  time  the  industrious  cultivators,  the 
brave  warriors,  and  the  men  of  old-fashioned  morality  were 
opposed,  among  the  citizens  of  Athens,  to  the  loquacious,  lux- 
urious, and  dissolute  generation  who  passed  their  whole  time  in 
the  market-place  and  courts  of  justice.  The  contests  between 
these  two  parties  are  the  main  subject  of  the  early  Attic  comedy. 

Literature  and  art,  however,  were  not,  during  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war,  affected  by  the  corruption  of  morals.  The  works 
of  fhis  period  exhibit  not  only  a  perfection  of  form  but  also  an 
elevation  of  soul  and  a  grandeur  of  conception,  which  fill  us 
with  admiration  not  only  for  those  who  produced  them,  but  for 
those  who  could  enjoy  such  works  of  art.  A  step  farther,  and 
the  love  of  genuine  beauty  gave  place  to  a  desire  for  evil  pleas- 
ures, and  the  love  of  wisdom  degenerated  into  an  idle  use  of 
words. 


GREEK  LITERATURE.  93 

2.  THE  DRAMA.  —  The  spirit  of  an  age  is  more  completely 
represented  by  its  poetry  than  by  its  prose  composition,  and  ac- 
cordingly we  may  best  trace  the  character  of  the  three  different 
stages  of  civilization  among  the  Greeks  in  the  three  grand  divis- 
ions of  their  poetry.  The  epic  belongs  to  their  monarcliical 
period,  when  the  minds  of  the  people  were  impregnated  and 
swayed  by  legends  handed  down  from  antiquity.  Elegiac,  iam- 
bic, and  lyric  poetry  arose  in  the  more  stirring  and  agitated 
times  which  accompanied  the  development  of  republican  gov- 
ernments, times  in  which  each  individual  gave  vent  to  his  per- 
sonal aims  and  wishes,  and  all  the  depths  of  the  human  breast 
were  unlocked  by  the  inspirations  of  poetry.  And  now,  when 
at  the  summit  of  Greek  civilization,  in  the  very  prime  of  Athen- 
ian power  and  freedom,  we  see  dramatic  poetry  spring  up  as  the 
organ  of  the  prevailing  thoughts  and  feelings  of  the  time,  we  are 
naturally  led  to  ask  how  it  comes  that  this  style  of  poetry  agreed 
so  well  with  the  spirit  of  the  age,  and  so  far  outstripped  its  com- 
petitors in  the  contest  for  public  favor. 

Dramatic  poetry,  as  its  name  implies,  represents  actions,  which 
are  not,  as  in  the  epos,  merely  narrated,  hut  seem  to  take  place 
before  the  eyes  of  the  spectator.  The  epic  poet  appears  to  re- 
gard the  events,  which  he  relates  from  afar,  as  objects  of  calm 
contemplation  and  admiration,  and  is  always  conscious  of  the 
great  interval  between  him  and  them,  while  the  dramatist 
plunges  with  his  entire  soul  into  the  scenes  of  human  life,  and 
seems  himself  to  experience  the  events  which  he  exhibits  to  our 
view.  The  drama  comprehends  and  develops  the  events  of 
human  life  with  a  force  and  depth  which  no  other  style  of  poetry 
can  reach. 

If  we  carry  ourselves  in  imagination  back  to  a  time  when 
dramatic  composition  was  unknown,  we  must  acknowledge  that 
its  creation  required  great  boldness  of  mind.  Hitherto  the  bard 
had  only  sung  of  gods  and  heroes ;  it  was,  therefore,  a  great 
change  for  the  poet  himself  to  come  forward  all  at  once  in  the 
character  of  the  god  or  hero,  in  a  nation  which,  even  in  its 
amusements,  had  always  adhered  closely  to  established  usages. 
It  is  true  that  there  is  much  in  human  nature  which  impels  it  to 
dramatic  representations,  such  as  the  universal  love  of  imitating 
other  persons,  and  the  child-like  liveliness  with  which  a  narrator, 
strongly  impressed  with  his  subject,  delivers  a  speech  which  he 
has  heard  or  perhaps  only  imagined.  Yet  there  is  a  wide  step . 
from  these  disjointed  elements  to  the  genuine  drama,  and  it 
seems  that  no  nation,  except  the  Greeks,  ever  made  this  step. 
The  dramatic  poetry  of  the  Hindus  belongs  to  a  time  when  there 
had  been  much  intercourse  between  Greece  and  India;  even 
in  ancient  Greece  and  Italy,  dramatic  poetry,  and  especially 


94         HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

tragedy,  attained  to  perfection  only  in  Athens,  and  here  it  was 
exhibited  only  at  a  few  festivals  of  a  single  god,  Dionysus,  while 
epic  rhapsodies  and  lyric  odes  were  recited  on  various  occasions. 
All  this  is  incomprehensible,  if  we  suppose  dramatic  poetry  to 
have  originated  in  causes  independent  of  the  peculiar  circum- 
stances of  time  and  place.  If  a  love  of  imitation  and  a  delight 
in  disguising  the  real  person  under  a  mask  were  the  basis  upon 
which  this  style  of  poetry  was  raised,  the  drama  would  have 
been  as  natural  and  as  universal  among  men  as  these  qualities 
are  common  to  their  nature. 

A  more  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  origin  of  the  Greek 
drama  may  be  found  in  its  connection  with  the  worship  of  the 
gods,  and  particularly  that  of  Bacchus.  The  gods  were  sup- 
posed to  dwell  in  their  temples  and  to  participate  in  their  fes- 
tivals, and  it  was  not  considered  presumptuous  or  unbecoming 
to  represent  them  as  acting  like  human  beings,  as  was  frequently 
done  by  mimic  representations.  The  worship  of  Bacchus  had 
one  quality  which  was  more  than  any  other  calculated  to  give 
birth  to  the  drama,  and  particularly  to  tragedy,  namely,  the 
enthusiasm  which  formed  an  essential  part  of  it,  and  which 
proceeded  from  an  impassioned  sympathy  with  the  events  of 
nature  in  connection  with  the  course  of  the  seasons.  The  orig- 
inal participators  in  these  festivals  believed  that  they  perceived 
the  god  to  be  really  affected  by  the  changes  of  nature,  killed 
or  dying,  flying  and  rescued,  or  reanimated,  victorious,  and  dom- 
inant. Although  the  great  changes,  which  took  place  in  the 
religion  and  cultivation  of  the  Greeks,  banished  from  their  minds 
the  conviction  that  these  events  really  occurred,  yet  an  enthu- 
siastic sympathy  with  the  god  and  his  fortunes,  as  with  real 
events,  always  remained.  The  swarm  of  subordinate  beings  by 
whom  Bacchus  was  surrounded  —  satyrs,  nymphs,  and  a  vari- 
ety of  beautiful  and  grotesque  forms  —  were  ever  present  to 
the  fancy  of  the  Greeks,  and  it  was  not  necessary  to  depart  very 
widely  from  the  ordinary  course  of  ideas  to  imagine  them  visible 
to  human  eyes  among  the  solitary  woods  and  rocks.  The  cus- 
tom, so  prevalent  at  the  festivals  of  Bacchus,  of  taking  the  dis- 
guise of  satyrs,  doubtless  originated  in  the  desire  to  approach 
more  nearly  to  the  presence  of  their  divinity.  The  desire  of 
escaping  from  self  into  something  new  and  strange,  of  living  in 
an  imaginary  world,  broke  forth  in  a  thousand  instances  in  those 
festivals.  It  was  seen  in  the  coloring  of  the  body,  the  wearing 
of  skins  and  masks  of  wood  or  bark,  and  in  the  complete  costume 
belonging  to  the  character. 

The  learned  writers  of  antiquity  agree  in  stating  that  tragedy, 
as  well  as  comedy,  was  originally  a  choral  song.  The  action, 
.the  adventures  of  the  gods,  was  presupposed  or  only  symbolically 


GREEK  LITERATURE.  95 

indicated ;  the  chorus  expressed  their  feelings  upon  it.  This 
choral  song  belonged  to  the  class  of  the  dithyramb,  an  enthusi- 
astic ode  to  Bacchus,  capable  of  expressing  every  variety  of  feel- 
ing excited  by  the  worship  of  that  god.  It  was  first  sung  by 
revelers  at  convivial  meetings,  afterwards  it  was  regularly  exe- 
cuted by  a  chorus.  The  subject  of  these  tragic  choruses  some- 
times changed  from  Bacchus  to  other  heroes  distinguished  for 
their  misfortunes  and  suffering.  The  reason  why  the  dithy- 
ramb and  afterwards  tragedy  was  transferred  from  that  god  to 
heroes  and  not  to  other  gods  of  the  Greek  Olympus,  was  that 
the  latter  were  elevated  above  the  chances  of  fortune  and  the  al- 
ternations of  joy  and  grief  to  which  both  Bacchus  and  the  he- 
roes were  subject. 

It  is  stated  by  Aristotle,  that  tragedy  originated  with  the 
chief  singers  of  the  dithyramb.  It  is  probable  that  they  repre- 
sented Bacchus  himself  or  his  messengers,  that  they  came  for- 
ward and  narrated  his  perils  and  escapes,  and  that  the  chorus 
then  expressed  their  feeling,  as  at  passing  events.  The  chorus 
thus  naturally  assumed  the  character  of  satellites  of  Bacchus, 
whence  they  easily  fell  into  the  parts  of  satyrs,  who  were  his 
companions  in  sportive  adventures,  as  well  as  in  combats  and 
misfortunes.  The  name  of  tragedy,  or  goat's  song,  was  derived 
from  the  resemblance  of  the  singers,  in  their  character  of  satyrs, 
to  goats. 

Thus  far  tragedy  had  advanced  among  the  Dorians,  who, 
therefore,  considered  themselves  the  inventors  of  it.  All  its  fur- 
ther development  belongs  to  the  Athenians.  In  the  time  of  Pis- 
istratus,  Thespis  (506  B.  c.)  first  caused  tragedy  to  become  a 
drama,  though  a  very  simple  one.  He  connected  with  the 
choral  representation  a  regular  dialogue,  by  joining  one  person 
to  the  chorus  who  was  the  first  actor.  He  introduced  linen 
masks,  and  thus  the  one  actor  might  appear  in  several  charac- 
ters. In  the  drama  of  Thespis  we  find  the  satyric  drama  con- 
founded with  tragedy,  and  the  persons  of  the  chorus  frequently 
representing  satyrs.  The  dances  of  the  chorus  were  still  a 
principal  part  of  the  performance ;  the  ancient  tragedians,  in 
general,  were  teachers  of  dancing,  as  well  as  poets  and  musi- 
cians. 

In  Phrynichus  (fl.  512  B.  c.)  the  lyric  predominated  over  the 
dramatic  element.  Like  Thespis,  he  had  only  one  actor,  but  he 
used  this  actor  for  different  characters,  and  he  was  the  first  who 
brought  female  parts  upon  the  stage,  which,  according  to  the 
manners  of  the  ancients,  could  be  acted  only  by  men.  In  sev- 
eral instances  it  is  remarkable  that  Phrynichus  deviated  from 
mythical  subjects  to  those  taken  from  contemporary  history. 

3.  TRAGEDY. — The  tragedy  of  antiquity  was  entirely  differ- 


96         HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

ent  from  that  which,  in  progress  of  time,  arose  among  other  na- 
tions ;  a  picture  of  human  life,  agitated  by  the  passions,  and  cor- 
responding as  accurately  as  possible  to  its  original  in  all  its 
features.  Ancient  tragedy  departs  entirely  from  ordinary  life  ; 
its  character  is  in  the  highest  degree  ideal,  and  its  development 
necessary,  and  essentially  directed  by  the  fate  to  which  gods 
and  men  were  subjected.  As  tragedy  and  dramatic  exhibitions, 
generally,  were  seen  only  at  the  festivals  of  Bacchus,  they  re- 
tained a  sort  of  Bacchic  coloring,  and  the  extraordinary  excite- 
ment of  all  minds  at  these  festivals,  by  raising  them  above  the 
tone  of  every-day  existence,  gave  both  to  the  tragic  and  comic 
muse  unwonted  energy  and  fire. 

The  Bacchic  festal  costume,  which  the  actors  wore,  consisted 
of  long  striped  garments  reaching  to  the  ground,  over  which 
were  thrown  upper  garments  of  some  brilliant  color,  with  gay 
trimmings  and  gold  ornaments.  The  choruses  also  vied  with 
each  other  in  the  splendor  of  their  dress,  as  well  as  in  the  excel- 
lence of  their  singing  and  dancing.  The  chorus,  which  always 
bore  a  subordinate  part  in  the  action  of  the  tragedy,  was  in  no 
respect  distinguished  from  the  stature  and  appearance  of  ordi- 
nary men,  while  the  actor,  who  represented  the  god  or  hero,  re- 
quired to  be  raised  above  the  usual  dimensions  of  mortals.  A 
tragic  actor  was  a  strange,  and,  according  to  the  taste  of  the 
ancients  themselves  at  a  later  period,  a  very  monstrous  being. 
His  person  was  lengthened  out  considerably  beyond  the  propor- 
tions of  the  human  figure  by  the  very  high  soles  of  the  tragic 
shoe,  and  by  the  length  of  the  tragic  mask,  and  the  chest,  body, 
legs,  and  arms  were  stuffed  and  padded  to  a  corresponding  size  ; 
the  body  thus  lost  much  of  its  natural  flexibility,  and  the  gestic- 
ulation consisted  of  stiff,  angular  movements,  in  which  little  was 
left  to  the  emotion  or  the  inspiration  of  the  moment.  Masks, 
which  had  originated  in  the  taste  for  mumming  and  disguises  of 
all  sorts,  prevalent  at  the  Bacchic  festivals,  were  an  indispensa- 
ble accompaniment  to  tragedy.  They  not  only  concealed  the 
individual  features  of  well-known  actors,  and  enabled  the  spec- 
tators entirely  to  forget  the  performer  in  his  part,  but  gave  to 
his  whole  aspect  that  ideal  character  which  the  tragedy  of  antiq- 
uity demanded.  The  tragic  mask  was  not  intentionally  ugly 
and  caricatured  like  the  comic,  but  the  half-open  mouth,  the 
large  eye-sockets,  and  sharply-defined  features,  in  which  every 
characteristic  was  presented  in  its  utmost  strength,  and  the 
bright  and  hard  coloring  were  calculated  to  make  the  impres- 
sion of  a  being  agitated  by  the  emotions  and  passions  of  human 
nature  in  a  degree  far  above  the  standard  of  common  life.  The 
masks  could,  however,  be  changed  between  the  acts,  so  as  to 
represent  the  necessary  changes  in  the  state  or  emotions  of  the 
persons. 


GREEK  LITERATURE.  97 

The  ancient  theatres  were  stone  buildings  of  enormous  size, 
calculated  to  accommodate  the  whole  free  and  adult  population 
of  a  great  city  at  the  spectacles  and  festal  games.  These  the- 
atres were  not  designed  exclusively  for  dramatic  poetry  ;  choral 
dances,  processions,  revels,  and  all  sorts  of  representations  were 
held  in  them.  We  find  theatres  in  every  part  of  Greece,  though 
dramatic  poetry  was  the  peculiar  growth  of  Athens. 

The  whole  structure  of  the  theatre,  as  well  as  the  drama  it- 
self, may  be  traced  to  the  chorus,  whose  station  was  the  original 
centre  of  the  whole  performance.  The  orchestra,  which  occu- 
pied a  circular  level  space  in  the  centre  of  the  building,  grew 
out  of  the  chorus  or  dancing-place  of  the  Homeric  times.  The 
altar  of  Bacchus,  around  which  the  dithyrambic  chorus  danced 
in  a  circle,  had  given  rise  to  a  sort  of  raised  platform  in  the 
centre  of  the  orchestra,  which  served  as  a  resting-place  for  the 
chorus. 

The  chorus  sang  alone  when  the  actors  had  quitted  the  stage, 
or  alternately  with  the  persons  of  the  drama,  and  sometimes  en- 
tered into  dialogues  with  them.  These  persons  represented 
heroes  of  the  mythical  world,  whose  whole  aspect  bespoke  some- 
thing mightier  and  more  sublime  than  ordinary  humanity,  and 
it  was  the  part  of  the  chorus  to  show  the  impression  made  by 
the  incidents  of  the  drama  on  lower  and  feebler  minds,  and  thus, 
as  it  were,  to  interpret  them  to  the  audience,  with  whom  they 
owned  a  more  kindred  nature.  The  ancient  stage  was  remark- 
ably long,  and  of  little  depth  ;  it  was  called  the  proscenium,  be- 
cause it  was  in  front  of  the  scene.  Scene  properly  means  tent 
or  hut,  such  as  originally  marked  the  dwelling  of  the  principal 
person.  This  hut  at  length  gave  place  to  a  stately  scene,  en- 
riched with  architectural  decorations,  yet  its  purpose  remained 
the  same. 

We  have  seen  how  a  single  actor  was  added  to  the  chorus  by 
Thespis,  who  caused  him  to  represent  in  succession  all  the  per- 
sons of  the  drama.  jEschylus  added  a  second  actor  in  order  to 
obtain  the  contrast  of  two  acting  persons  on  the  stage ;  even 
Sophocles  did  not  venture  beyond  the  introduction  of  a  third. 
But  the  ancients  laid  more  stress  upon  the  precise  number  and 
mutual  relations  of  these  actors  than  can  here  be  explained. 

4.  THE  TRAGIC  POETS.  —  ^Eschylus  (525-477  B.  c.),  like 
almost  all  the  great  masters  of  poetry  in  ancient  Greece,  was  a 
poet  by  profession,  and  from  the  great  improvements  which  he 
introduced  into  tragedy  he  was  regarded  by  the  Athenians  as 
its  founder.  Of  the  seventy  tragedies  which  he  is  said  to  have 
written,  only  seven  are  extant.  Of  these,  the  "  Prometheus  "  is 
beyond  all  question  his  greatest  work.  The  genius  of  JEschylus 
inclined  rather  to  the  awful  and  sublime,  than  to  the  tender  and 
7 


98         HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

pathetic.  He  excels  in  representing  the  superhuman,  in  depict- 
ing demigods  and  heroes,  and  in  tracing  the  irresistible  march 
of  fate.  The  depth  of  poetical  feeling  in  him  is  accompanied 
with  intense  and  philosophical  thought ;  he  does  not  merely  rep- 
resent individual  tragical  ^events,  but  he  recurs  to  the  greater 
elements  of  tragedy — the  subjection  of  the  gods  and  Titans, 
and  the  original  dignity  and  greatness  of  nature  and  of  man. 
He  delights  to  portray  this  gigantic  strength,  as  in  his  Prome- 
theus chained  and  tortured,  but  invincible  ;  and  these  represen- 
tations have  a  moral  sublimity  far  above  mere  poetic  beauty. 
His  tragedies  were  at  once  political,  patriotic,  and  religious. 

Sophocles  (495—406  B.  c.),  as  a  poet,  is  universally  allowed 
to  have  brought  the  drama  to  the  highest  degree  of  perfection 
of  which  it  was  susceptible.  Indeed,  the  Greek  mind  may  be 
said  to  have  culminated  in  him  ;  his  writings  overflow  with  that 
indescribable  charm  which  only  flashes  through  those  of  other 
poets.  His  plots  are  worked  up  with  more  skill  and  care  than 
those  of  either  of  his  great  rivals,  ^schylus  or  Euripides,  and 
he  added  the  last  improvement  to  the  form  of  the  drama  by  the 
introduction  of  a  third  actor,  —  a  change  which  greatly  enlarged 
the  scope  of  the  action.  Of  the  many  tragedies  which  he  is  said 
to  have  written,  only  seven  are  extant.  Of  these,  the  "  CEdipus 
Tyrannus  "  is  particularly  remarkable  for  its  skillful  develop- 
ment, and  for  the  manner  in  which  the  interest  of  the  piece  in- 
creases through  each  succeeding  act.  Of  all  the  poets  of  antiq- 
uity, Sophocles  has  penetrated  most  deeply  into  the  recesses  of 
the  human  heart.  His  tragedies  appear  to  us  as  pictures  of  the 
mind,  as  poetical  developments  of  the  secrets  of  our  souls,  and 
of  the  laws  to  which  their  nature  makes  them  amenable. 

In  Euripides  (480-407  B.  c.)  we  discover  the  first  traces  of 
decline  in  the  Greek  tragedy.  He  diminished  its  dignity  by 
depriving  it  of  its  ideal  character,  and  by  bringing  it  down  to 
the  level  of  every-day  life.  All  the  characters  of  Euripides 
have  that  loquacity  and  dexterity  in  the  use  of  words  which  dis- 
tinguished the  Athenians  of  his  day ;  yet  in  spite  of  all  these 
faults  he  has  many  beauties,  and  is  particularly  remai'kable  for 
pathos,  so  that  Aristotle  calls  him  the  most  tragic  of  poets. 
Eighteen  of  his  tragedies  are  still  extant. 

The  contemporaries  of  the  three  great  tragic  poets,  ^schylus, 
Sophocles,  and  Euripides,  must  be  regarded  for  the  most  part  as 
far  from  insignificant,  since  they  maintained  their  place  on  the 
stage  beside  them,  and  not  unfrequently  gained  the  tragic  prize 
in  competition  with  them ;  yet  the  general  character  of  these 
poets  must  have  been  deficient  in  that  depth  and  peculiar  force 
of  genius  by  which  these  great  tragedians  were  distinguished. 
If  this  had  not  been  the  case,  their  works  would  assuredly  have 


GREEK  LITERATURE.  99 

attracted  greater  attention,  and  would  have  been  read  more  fre- 
quently in  later  times. 

5.  COMEDY.  —  Greek  comedy  was  distinguished  as  the  Old, 
the  Middle,  and  the  New.  As  tragedy  arose  from  the  winter 
feast  of  Bacchus,  which  fostered  an  enthusiastic  sympathy  with 
the  apparent  sorrows  of  the  god  of  nature,  comedy  arose  from 
the  concluding  feast  of  the  vintage,  at  which  an  exulting  joy 
over  the  inexhaustible  riches  of  nature  manifested  itself  in  wan- 
tonness of  every  kind.  In  such  a  feast,  the  Comus,  or  Baccha- 
nalian procession,  was  a  principal  ingredient.  This  was  a 
tumultuous  mixture  of  the  wild  carouse,  the  noisy  song,  and  the 
drunken  dance  ;  and  the  meaning  of  the  word  comedy  is  a  comus 
song.  It  was  from  this  lyric  comedy  that  the  dramatic  comedy 
was  gradually  produced.  It  received  its  full  development  from 
Cratinus,  who  lived  in  the  age  of  Pericles.  Cratinus  and  his 
younger  contemporaries,  Eupolis  (431  B.  c.)  and  Aristophanes 
(452-380  B.  c.),  were  the  great  poets  of  the  old  Attic  comedy. 
Of  their  works,  only  eleven  dramas  of  Aristophanes  are  extant. 
The  chief  object  of  these  comedies  was  to  excite  laughter  by  the 
boldest  and  most  ludicrous  caricature,  and,  provided  that  end 
was  obtained,  the  poet  seems  to  have  cared  little  about  the  justice 
of  the  picture.  It  is  scarcely  possible  to  imagine  the  unmeasured 
and  unsparing  license  of  attack  assumed  by  these  comedies  upon 
the  gods,  the  institutions,  the  politicians,  philosophers,  poets, 
private  citizens,  and  women  of  Athens.  With  this  universal 
liberty  of  subject  there  is  combined  a  poignancy  of  derision  and 
satire,  a  fecundity  of  imagination,  and  a  richness  of  poetical  ex- 
pression such  as  cannot  be  surpassed.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
career  of  Aristophanes,  however,  this  unrestricted  license  of  the 
comedy  began  gradually  to  disappear. 

The  Old  comedy  was  succeeded  by  the  Middle  Attic  comedy, 
in  which  the  satire  was  no  longer  directed  against  the  influential 
men  or  rulers  of  the  people,  but  was  rich  in  ridicule  of  the  Pla- 
tonic Academy,  of  the  newly  revived  sect  of  the  Pythagoreans, 
and  of  the  orators,  rhetoricians,  and  poets  of  the  day.  In  this 
transition  from  the  Old  to  the  Middle  comedy,  we  may  discern 
at  once  the  great  revolution  that  had  taken  place  in  the  domestic 
history  of  Athens,  when  the  Athenians,  from  a  nation  of  politi- 
cians, became  a  nation  of  literary  men  ;  when  it  was  no  longer 
the  opposition  of  political  ideas,  but  the  contest  of  opposing 
schools  of  philosophers  and  rhetoricians,  which  set  all  heads  in 
motion.  The  poets  of  this  comedy  were  very  numerous. 

The  last  poets  of  the  Middle  comedy  were  contemporaries  of 
the  writers  of  the  New,  who  rose  up  as  their  rivals,  and  who 
were  only  distinguished  from  them  by  following  the  new  ten- 
dency more  decidedly  and  exclusively.  Menander  (342-293 


100       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

B.  c.)  was  one  of  the  first  of  these  poets,  and  he  is  also  the  most 
perfect  of  them.  The  Athens  of  his  day  differed  from  that  of 
the  time  of  Pericles,  in  the  same  way  that  an  old  man,  weak  in 
body  but  fond  of  life,  good-humored  and  self-indulgent,  differs 
from  the  vigorous,  middle-aged  man  at  the  summit  of  his  mental 
strength  and  bodily  energy.  Since  there  was  so  little  in  politics 
to  interest  or  to  employ  the  mind,  the  Athenians  found  an  ob- 
ject in  the  occurrences  of  social  life  and  the  charm  of  dissolute 
enjoyment.  Dramatic  poetry  now,  for  the  first  time,  centred  in 
love,  as  it  has  since  done  among  all  nations  to  whom  the  Greek 
cultivation  has  descended.  But  it  certainly  was  not  love  in  those 
nobler  forms  to  which  it  has  since  elevated  itself.  Menander 
painted  truly  the  degenerate  world  in  which  he  lived,  actu- 
ated by  no  mighty  impulses,  no  noble  aspirations.  He  was  con- 
temporary with  Epicurus,  and  their  characters  had  much  in 
common ;  both  were  deficient  in  the  inspiration  of  high  moral 
ideas. 

The  comedy  of  Menander  and  his  contemporaries  completed 
what  Euripides  had  begun  on  the  tragic  stage  a  hundred  years 
before  their  time.  They  deprived  their  characters  of  that  ideal 
grandeur  which  had  been  most  conspicuous  in  the  creations  of 
./Eschylus  and  the  earlier  poets,  and  thus  tragedy  and  comedy, 
which  had  started  from  such  different  beginnings,  here  met  as  at 
the  same  point.  The  comedies  of  Menander  may  be  considered 
as  almost  the  conclusion  of  Attic  literature;  he  was  the  last 
original  poet  of  Athens  ;  those  who  arose  at  a  later  period  were 
bu1>  gleaners  after  the  rich  harvest  of  Greek  poetry  had  been 
gathered. 

6.  ORATORY,  RHETORIC,  AND  HISTORY.  —  We  may  distin- 
guish three  epochs  in  the  history  of  Attic  prose  from  Pericles  to 
Alexander  the  Great  :  first,  that  of  Pericles  and  Thucydides  ; 
second,  that  of  Lysias,  Socrates,  and  Plato  ;  and,  third,  that  of 
Demosthenes  and  ^Eschines.  Public  speaking  had  been  com- 
mon in  Greece  from  the  earliest  times,  but  as  the  works  of  Athe- 
nian orators  alone  have  come  down  to  us,  we  may  conclude  that 
oratory  was  cultivated  in  a  much  higher  degree  at  Athens  than 
elsewhere.  No  speech  of  Pericles  has  been  preserved  in  writ- 
ing ;  only  a  few  of  his  emphatic  and  nervous  expressions  were 
kept  in  remembrance  ;  but  a  general  impression  of  the  grandeur 
of  his  oratory  long  prevailed  among  the  Greeks,  from  which  we 
may  form  a  clear  conception  of  his  style.  The  sole  object  of  the 
oratory  of  Pericles  was  to  produce  conviction ;  he  did  not  aim 
to  excite  any  sudden  or  transient  burst  of  passion  by  working  on 
the  emotions  of  the  heart ;  nor  did  he  use  any  of  those  means 
employed  by  the  orators  of  a  later  age  to  set  in  motion  the  un- 
ruly impulses  of  the  multitude.  His  manner  was  tranquil,  with 


GREEK  LITERATURE.  101 

hardly  any  change  of  feature ;  his  garments  were  undisturbed  by 
any  oratorical  gesticulations,  and  his  voice  was  equable  and  sus- 
tained. He  never  condescended  to  flatter  the  people,  and  his 
dignity  never  stooped  to  merriment.  Although  there  was  more 
of  reasoning  than  imagination  in  his  speeches,  he  gave  a  vivid 
and  impressive  coloring  to  his  language  by  the  use  of  striking 
metaphors  and  comparisons,  as  when,  at  the  funeral  of  a  number 
of  young  persons  who  had  fallen  in  battle,  he  used  the  beautiful 
figure,  that  "  the  year  had  lost  its  spring." 

The  cultivation  of  the  art  of  oratory  among  the  Athenians  was 
due  to  a  combination  of  the  natural  eloquence  displayed  by  the 
Athenian  statesmen,  and  especially  by  Pericles,  with  the  rhetori- 
cal studies  of  the  sophists,  who  exercised  a  greater  influence  on 
the  culture  of  the  Greek  mind  than  any  other  class  of  men,  the 
poets  excepted.  The  sophists,  as  their  name  indicates,  were 
persons  who  made  knowledge  their  profession,  and  undertook  to 
impart  it  to  every  one  who  was  willing  to  place  himself  under 
their  guidance  ;  they  were  reproached  with  being  the  first  to 
sell  knowledge  for  money,  for  they  not  only  demanded  pay  from 
those  who  came  to  hear  their  lectures,  but  they  undertook,  for  a 
certain  sum,  to  give  young  men  a  complete  sophistical  education. 
Pupils  flocked  to  them  in  crowds,  and  they  acquired  such  riches 
as  neither  art  nor  science  had  ever  before  earned  among  the 
Greeks.  If  we  consider  their  doctrines  philosophically,  they 
amounted  to  a  denial  or  renunciation  of  all  true  science.  They 
were  able  to  speak  with  equal  plausibility  for  and  against  the 
same  position  ;  not  in  order  to  discover  the  truth,  but  to  show 
the  nothingness  of  truth.  In  the  improvement  of  written  com- 
position, however,  a  high  value  must  be  set  on  their  services. 
They  made  language  the  object  of  their  study  ;  they  aimed  at 
correctness  and  beauty  of  style,  and  they  laid  the  foundation  for 
the  polished  diction  of  Plato  and  Demosthenes.  They  taught 
that  the  sole  aim  of  the  orator  is  to  turn  the  minds  of  his  hear- 
ers into  such  a  train  as  may  best  suit  his  own  interest ;  that, 
consequently,  rhetoric  is  the  agent  of  persuasion,  the  art  of  all 
arts,  because  the  rhetorician  is  able  to  speak  well  and  convinc- 
ingly on  every  subject,  though  he  may  have  no  accurate  knowl- 
edge respecting  it. 

The  Peloponnesian  war,  which  terminated  in  the  downfall  of 
Athens,  was  succeeded  by  a  period  of  exhaustion  and  repose. 
The  fine  arts  were  checked  in  their  progress,  and  poetry  degen- 
erated into  empty  bombast.  Yet  at  this  very  time  prose  litera- 
ture began  a  new  career,  which  led  to  its  fairest  development. 

Lysias  and  Isocrates  gave  an  entirely  new  form  to  oratory  by 
the  happy  alterations  which  they  in  different  ways  introduced 
into  the  old  prose  style.  Lysias  (fl.  359  B.  c.),  in  the  fiftieth 


102       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

year  of  his  age,  began  to  follow  the  trade  of  writing  speeches  for 
such  private  individuals  as  could  not  trust  their  own  skill  in  ad- 
dressing a  court ;  for  this  object,  a  plain,  unartificial  style  was 
best  suited,  because  citizens  who  called  in  the  aid  of  the  speech- 
writer  had  no  knowledge  of  rhetoric,  and  thus  Lysias  was 
obliged  to  originate  a  style,  which  became  more  and  more  con- 
firmed by  habit.  The  consequence  was,  that  for  his  contem- 
poraries and  for  all  ages  he  stands  forth  as  the  first  and  in 
many  respects  the  perfect  pattern  of  a  plain  style.  The  narra- 
tive part  of  the  speech,  for  which  he  was  particularly  famous, 
is  always  natural,  interesting,  and  lively,  and  often  relieved  by 
mimic  touches  which  give  it  a  wonderful  air  of  reality.  The 
proofs  and  confutations  are  distinguished  by  a  clearness  of  rea- 
soning and  a  boldness  of  argument  which  leave  no  room  for 
doubt ;  in  a  word,  the  speeches  are  just  what  they  ought  to  be 
in  order  to  obtain  a  favorable  decision,  an  object  in  which,  it 
seems,  he  often  succeeded.  Of  his  many  orations,  thirty-five 
have  come  down  to  us. 

Isocrates  (fl.  338  B.  c.)  established  a  school  for  political  ora- 
tory, which  became  the  first  and  most  flourishing  in  Greece. 
His  orations  were  mostly  destined  for  this  school.  Though  nei- 
ther a  great  statesman  nor  philosopher  in  himself,  Isocrates 
constitutes  an  epoch  as  a  rhetorician  or  artist  of  language.  His 
influence  extended  far  beyond  the  limits  of  his  own  school,  and 
without  his  reconstruction  of  the  style  of  Attic  oratory  we  could 
have  had  no  Demosthenes  and  no  Cicero  ;  through  these,  the 
school  of  Isocrates  has  extended  its  influence  even  to  the  oratory 
of  our  own  day. 

The  verdict  of  his  contemporaries,  ratified  by  posterity,  has 
pronounced  Demosthenes  (380-322  B.  c.)  the  greatest  orator 
that  has  ever  lived,  yet  he  had  no  natural  advantages  for  oratory. 
A  feeble  frame  and  a  weak  voice,  a  shy  and  awkward  manner, 
the  ungraceful  gesticulations  of  one  whose  limbs  had  never  been 
duly  exercised,  and  a  defective  articulation,  would  have  deterred 
most  men  from  even  attempting  to  address  an  Athenian  assem- 
bly ;  but  the  ambition  and  perseverance  of  Demosthenes  enabled 
him  to  triumph  over  every  disadvantage.  He  improved  his 
bodily  powers  by  running,  his  voice  by  speaking  aloud  as  he 
walked  up  hill,  or  declaimed  against  the  roar  of  the  sea  ;  he 
practiced  graceful  delivery  before  a  looking-glass,  and  controlled 
his  unruly  articulation  by  speaking  with  pebbles  in  his  mouth. 
His  want  of  fluency  he  remedied  by  diligent  composition,  and  by 
copying  and  committing  to  memory  the  works  of  the  best  au- 
thors. By  these  means  he  came  forth  as  the  acknowledged 
leader  of  the  assembly,  and,  even  by  the  confession  of  his  dead- 
liest enemies,  the  first  orator  of  Greece.  His  harangues  to  the 


GREEK  LITERATURE.  103 

people,  and  his  speeches  on  public  and  private  causes,  which 
have  been  preserved,  form  a  collection  of  sixty-one  orations. 
The  most  important  efforts  of  Demosthenes,  however,  were  the 
series  of  public  speeches  referring  to  Philip  of  Macedon,  and 
known  as  the  twelve  Philippics,  a  name  which  has  become  a 
general  designation  for  spirited  invectives.  The  main  charac- 
teristic of  his  eloquence  consisted  in  the  use  of  the  common  lan- 
guage of  his  age  and  country.  He  took  great  pains  in  the  choice 
and  arrangement  of  his  words,  and  aimed  at  the  utmost  concise- 
ness, making  epithets,  even  common  adjectives,  do  the  work  of 
a  whole  sentence,  and  thus,  by  his  perfect  delivery  and  action, 
a  sentence  composed  of  ordinary  terms  sometimes  smote  with 
the  weight  of  a  sledge-hammer.  In  his  orations  there  is  not 
any  long  or  close  train  of  reasoning,  still  less  any  profound  ob- 
servations or  remote  and  ingenious  allusions,  but  a  constant  suc- 
cession of  remarks,  bearing  immediately  on  the  matter  in  hand, 
perfectly  plain,  and  as  readily  admitted  as  easily  understood. 
These  are  intermingled  with  the  most  striking  appeals  either  to 
feelings  which  all  were  conscious  of,  and  deeply  agitated  by, 
though  ashamed  to  own,  or  to  sentiments  which  every  man  was 
panting  to  utter  and  delighted  to  hear  thundered  forth,  —  bursts 
of  oratory,  which  either  overwhelmed  or  relieved  the  audience. 
Such  characteristics  constituted  the  principal  glory  of  the  great 
orator. 

The  most  eminent  of  the  contemporaries  of  Demosthenes 
were  Isseus  (420-348  B.  c.),  an  artificial  and  elaborate  orator ; 
Lycurgus  (393-328  B.  c.),  a  celebrated  civil  reformer  of  Athens  ; 
Hypereides,  contemporary  of  Lycurgus  ;  and,  above  all,  ^Es- 
chines  (389-314  B.  c.),  the  great  rival  of  Demosthenes,  of 
whose  numerous  speeches  only  three  have  been  preserved.  At 
a  later  period  we  find  two  schools  of  rhetoric,  the  Attic,  founded 
by  .ZEschines,  and  the  Asiatic,  established  by  Hegesias  of  Mag- 
nesia. The  former  proposed  as  models' of  oratory  the  great 
Athenian  orators,  the  latter  depended  on  artificial  manners, 
and  produced  speeches  distinguished  rather  by  rhetorical  orna- 
ments and  a  rapid  flow  of  diction  than  by  weight  and  force  of 
style. 

In  the  historical  department,  Thucydides  (471-391  B.  c.) 
began  an  entirely  new  class  of  historical  writing.  While  He- 
rodotus aimed  at  giving  a  vivid  picture  of  all  that  fell  under 
the  cognizance  of  the  senses,  and  endeavored  to  represent  a 
superior  power  ruling  over  the  destinies  of  princes  and  people, 
the  attention  of  Thucydides  was  directed  to  human  action,  as 
it  is  developed  from  the  character  and  situation  of  the  individ- 
ual. His  histoiy,  from  its  unity  of  action,  may  be  considered 
as  a  historical  drama,  the  subject  being  the  Athenian  domination 


104       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

over  Greece,  and  the  parties  the  belligerent  republics.  Clearness 
in  the  narrative,  harmony  and  consistency  of  the  details  with 
the  general  history,  are  the  characteristics  of  his  work ;  and  in 
his  style  he  combines  the  concise  and  pregnant  oratory  of  Peri- 
cles with  the  vigorous  but  artificial  style  of  the  rhetoricians. 
Demosthenes  was  so  diligent  a  student  of  Thucydides  that  he 
copied  out  his  history  eight  times. 

Xenophon  (445-391  B.  c.)  may  also  be  classed  among  the 
great  historians,  his  name  being  most  favorably  known  from  the 
"  Anabasis,"  in  which  he  describes  the  retreat  of  the  ten  thou- 
sand Greek  mercenaries  in  the  service  of  Cyrus,  the  Persian 
king,  among  whom  he  himself  played  a  prominent  part.  The 
minuteness  of  detail,  the  picturesque  simplicity  of  the  style,  and 
the  air  of  reality  which  pervades  it,  have  made  it  a  favorite 
with  every  age.  In  his  memorials  of  Socrates,  he  records  the 
conversations  of  a  man  whom  he  had  admired  and  listened  to, 
but  whom  he  did  not  understand.  In  the  language  of  Xeno- 
phon we  find  the  first  approximation  to  the  common  dialect, 
which  became  afterwards  the  universal  language  of  Greece.  He 
wrote  several  other  works,  in  which,  however,  no  development 
of  one  great  and  pervading  idea  can  be  found ;  but  in  all  of 
them  there  is  a  singular  clearness  and  beauty  of  description. 

7.  SOCRATES  AND  THE  SOCBATIC  SCHOOLS.  —  Although  Soc- 
rates (468-399  B.  c.)  left  no  writings  behind  him,  yet  the  intel- 
lect of  Greece  was  powerfully  affected  by  the  principles  of  his 
philosophy,  and  the  greatest  literary  genius  that  ever  appeared 
in  Hellas  owed  most  of  his  mental  training  to  his  early  inter- 
course with  him.  It  was  by  means  of  conversation,  by  a  search- 
ing process  of  question  and  answer,  that  Socrates  endeavored  to 
lead  his  pupils  to  a  consciousness  of  their  own  ignorance,  and 
thus  to  awaken  in  their  minds  an  anxiety  to  obtain  more  exact 
views.  This  method  of  questioning  he  reduced  to  a  scientific 
process,  and  "  dialectics  "  became  a  name  for  the  art  of  reason- 
ing and  the  science  of  logic.  The  subject-matter  of  this  method 
was  moral  science  considered  with  special  reference  to  politics. 
To  him  may  be  justly  attributed  induction  and  general  defini- 
tions, and  he  applied  this  practical  logic  to  a  common-sense 
estimate  of  the  duties  of  man  both  as  a  moral  being  and  as  a 
member  of  a  community,  and  thus  he  first  treated  moral  philos- 
ophy according  to  scientific  principles.  No  less  than  ten  schools 
of  philosophers  claimed  him  as  their  head,  though  the  majoi-ity 
of  them  imperfectly  represented  his  doctrines.  By  his  influence 
on  Plato,  and  through  him  on  Aristotle,  he  constituted  himself 
the  founder  of  the  philosophy  which  is  still  recognized  in  the 
civilized  world. 

From  the  doctrine  held  by  Socrates,  that  virtue  was  depend- 


GREEK  LITERATURE.  105 

ent  on  knowledge,  Eucleides  of  Megara  (fl.  398  B.  c.),  the 
founder  of  the  Megaric  school,  submitted  moral  philosophy  to 
dialectical  reasoning  and  logical  refinements ;  and  from  the 
Socratic  principle  of  the  union  between  virtue  and  happiness, 
Aristippus  of  Gyrene  (fl.  396  B.  c.)  deduced  the  doctrine  which 
became  the  characteristic  of  the  Cyrenian  school,  affirming  that 
pleasure  was  the  ultimate  end  of  life  and  the  higher  good  ;  while 
Antisthenes  (fl.  396  B.  c.)  constructed  the  Cynic  philosophy, 
which  placed  the  ideal  of  virtue  in  the  absence  of  every  need, 
and  hence  in  the  disregarding  of  every  interest,  wealth,  honor, 
and  enjoyment,  and  in  the  independence  of  any  restraints  of  life 
and  society.  Diogenes  of  Sinope  (fl.  300  B.  c.)  was  one  of  the 
most  prominent  followers  of  this  school.  He,  like  his  master, 
Antisthenes,  always  appeared  in  the  most  beggarly  clothing, 
with  the  staff  and  wallet  of  mendicancy  ;  and  this  ostentation  of 
self-denial  drew  from  Socrates  the  exclamation,  that  he  saw  the 
vanity  of  Antisthenes  through  the  holes  in  his  garments. 

Plato  (429-348  B.  c.)  was  the  only  one  of  the  disciples  of 
Socrates  who  represented  the  whole  doctrines  of  his  teacher. 
We  owe  to  him  that  the  ideas  which  Socrates  awakened  have 
been  made  the  germ  of  one  of  the  grandest  systems  of  specula- 
tion that  the  world  has  ever  seen,  and  that  it  has  been  conveyed 
to  us  in  literary  compositions  which  are  unequaled  in  refine- 
ment of  conception,  or  in  vigor  and  gracefulness  of  style.  At 
the  age  of  nineteen  he  became  one  of  the  pupils  and  associates 
of  Socrates,  and  did  not  leave  him  until  that  martyr  of  intellect- 
ual freedom  drank  the  fatal  cup  of  hemlock.  He  afterwards 
traveled  in  Asia  Minor,  in  Egypt,  in  Italy,  and  Sicily,  and  made 
himself  acquainted  with  all  contemporary  philosophy.  During 
the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  was  engaged  as  a  public  lecturer  on 
philosophy.  His  lectures  were  delivered  in  the  gardens  of  the 
Academia,  and  they  have  left  proof  of  their  celebrity  in  the 
structure  of  language,  which  has  derived  from  them  a  term  now 
common  to  all  places  of  instruction.  Of  the  importance  of  the 
Socratic  and  Pythagorean  elements  in  Plato's  philosophy  there 
can  be  no  doubt ;  but  he  transmuted  ah1  he  touched  into  his  own 
forms  of  thought  and  language,  and  there  was  no  branch  of 
speculative  literature  which  he  had  not  mastered.  By  adopting 
the  form  of  dialogue,  in  which  all  his  extant  works  have  come 
down  to  us,  he  was  enabled  to  criticise  the  various  systems-  of 
philosophy  then  current  in  Greece,  and  also  to  gratify  his  own 
dramatic  genius,  and  his  almost  unrivaled  power  of  keeping  up 
an  assumed  character.  The  works  of  Plato  have  been  divided 
into  three  classes :  first,  the  elementary  dialogues,  or  those 
which  contain  the  germs  of  all  that  follows,  of  logic  as  the  in- 
strument of  philosophy,  and  of  ideas  as  its  proper  object ;  sec- 


106       HANDBOOK   OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

ond,  progressive  dialogues,  which  treat  of  the  distinction  between 
philosophical  and  common  knowledge,  in  their  united  application 
to  the  proposed  and  real  sciences,  ethics,  and  physics  ;  third,  the 
constructive  dialogues,  in  which  the  practical  is  completely  united 
with  the  speculative,  with  an  appendix  containing  laws,  epis- 
tles, etc. 

The  fundamental  principle  of  Plato's  philosophy  is  the  belief 
in  an  eternal  and  self-existent  cause,  the  origin  of  all  things. 
From  this  divine  Being  emanate  not  only  the  souls  of  men, 
which  are  immortal,  but  that  of  the  universe  itself,  which  is  sup- 
posed to  be  animated  by  a  divine  spirit.  The  material  objects 
of  our  sight,  and  other  senses,  are  mere  fleeting  emanations  of 
the  divine  idea ;  i*  is  only  this  idea  itself  that  is  really  existent ; 
the  objects  of  sensuous  perception  are  mere  appearances,  taking 
their  forms  by  participation  in  the  idea ;  hence  it  follows,  that 
in  Plato's  philosophy  all  knowledge  is  innate,  and  acquired  by 
the  soul  before  birth,  when  it  was  able  to  contemplate  real  ex- 
istences, and  all  our  ideas  of  this  world  are  mere  reminiscences 
of  their  true  and  eternal  patterns.  The  belief  of  Plato  in  the 
immortality  of  the  soul  naturally  led  him  to  establish  a  high 
standard  of  moral  excellence,  and,  like  his  great  teacher,  he  con- 
stantly inculcates  temperance,  justice,  and  purity  of  life.  His 
political  views  are  developed  in  the  "  Republic  "  and  in  the 
"  Laws,"  in  which  the  main  feature  of  his  system  is  the  subor- 
dination, or  rather  the  entire  sacrifice  of  the  individual  to  the 
state. 

The  style  of  Plato  is  in  every  way  worthy  of  his  position  in 
universal  literature,  and  modern  scholars  have  confirmed  the  en- 
comium of  Aristotle,  that  all  his  dialogues  exhibit  extraordinary 
acuteness,  elaborate  elegance,  bold  originality,  and  curious  spec- 
ulation. In  Plato,  the  powers  of  imagination  were  just  as  con- 
spicuous as  those  of  reasoning  and  reflection  ;  he  had  all  the 
chief  characteristics  of  a  poet,  especially  of  a  dramatic  poet,  and 
if  his  rank  as  a  philosopher  had  been  lower  than  it  is,  he  would 
still  have  ranked  high  among  dramatic  writers  for  his  life-like 
representations  of  the  personages  whose  opinions  he  wished  to 
combat  or  to  defend. 

Aristotle  (384-322  B.  c.)  occupies  a  position  among  the  lead- 
ers of  human  thought  not  inferior  to  that  of  his  teacher,  Plato. 
He  was  a  native  of  Stagyra,  in  Macedonia,  and  is  hence  often 
called  the  Stagyrite.  He  early  repaired  to  Athens,  and  became 
a  pupil  of  Plato,  who  called  him  the  soul  of  his  school.  He  was 
afterwards  invited  by  Philip  of  Macedon  to  undertake  the  liter- 
ary education  of  Alexander,  at  that  time  thirteen  years  old. 
This  charge  continued  about  three  years.  He  afterwards  re- 
turned to  Athens,  where  he  opened  his  school  in  a  gymnasium 


GREEK  LITERATURE.  107 

called  the  Lyceum,  delivering  his  lessons  as  he  walked  to  and 
fro,  and  from  these  saunters  his  scholars  were  called  Peripa- 
tetics, or  saunterers.  During  this  period  he  composed  most  of  his 
extant  works.  Alexandeu  placed  at  his  disposal  a  large  sum  for 
his  collections  in  natural  history,  and  employed  some  thousands 
of  men  in  procuring  specimens  for  his  museum.  After  the 
death  of  Alexander,  he  was  accused  of  blasphemy  to  the  gods, 
and,  warned  by  the  fate  of  Socrates,  he  withdrew  from  Athens 
to  Chalcis,  where  he  afterwards  died. 

In  looking  at  the  mere  catalogue  of  the  works  of  Aristotle, 
we  are  struck  with  his  vast  range  of  knowledge.  He  aimed  at 
nothing  less  than  the  completion  of  a  general  encyclopedia  of 
philosophy.  He  was  the  author  of  the  first  scientific  cultivation 
of  each  science,  and  there  was  hardly  any  quality  distinguishing 
a  philosopher  as  such,  which  he  did  not  possess  in  an  eminent 
degree.  Of  all  the  philosophical  systems  of  antiquity,  that  of 
Aristotle  was  the  best  adapted  to  the  physical  wants  of  mankind. 
His  works  consisted  of  treatises  on  natural,  moral,  and  political 
philosophy,  history,  rhetoric,  criticism,  —  indeed,  there  was 
scarcely  a  branch  of  knowledge  which  his  vast  and  comprehen- 
sive genius  did  not  embrace.  His  greatest  claim  to  our  admira- 
tion is  as  a  logician.  He  perfected  and  brought  into  form  those 
elements  of  the  dialectic  art  which  had  been  struck  out  by  Soc- 
rates and  Plato,  and  wrought  them,  by  his  additions,  into  so  com- 
plete a  system,  that  he  may  be  regarded  as,  at  once,  the  founder 
and  perfecter  of  logic  as  an  art,  which  has  since,  even  down  to 
our  own  days,  been  but  very  little  improved.  The  style  of  Aris- 
totle has  nothing  to  attract  those  who  prefer  the  embellishments 
of  a  work  to  its  subject-matter  and  the  scientific  results  which  it 
presents. 

PEEIOD  TRIED. 

THE  EPOCH  OF  THE  DECLINE  OP  GREEK  LITERATURE,  322  B.  c.- 
1453  A.  D. 

1.  ORIGIN  OF  THE  ALEXANDRIAN"  LITERATURE.  — As  the  lit- 
erary predominance  of  Athens  was  due  mainly  to  the  political 
importance  of  Attica,  the  downfall  of  Athenian  independence 
brought  with  it  a  deterioration,  and  ultimately  an  extinction  of 
that  intellectual  centralization  which  for  more  than  a  century 
had  fostered  and  developed  the  highest  efforts  of  the  genius  and 
culture  of  the  Greeks.  While  the  living  literature  of  Greece  was 
thus  dying  away,  the  conquests  of  Alexander  prepared  a  new 
home  for  the  muses  on  the  coast  of  that  wonderful  country,  to 
which  all  the  nations  of  antiquity  had  owed  a  part  of  their  sci- 
ence and  religious  belief.  In  Egypt,  as  in  other  regions,  Alex- 


108       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

ander  gave  directions  for  the  foundation  of  a  city  to  be  called 
after  his  own  name,  which  became  the  magnificent  metropolis  of 
the  Hellenic  world.  This  capital  was  the  residence  of  a  family 
who  attracted  to  their  court  all  the  living  representatives  of  the 
literature  of  Greece,  and  stored  up  in  their  enormous  library  all 
the  best  works  of  the  classical  period.  It  was  chiefly  during  the 
reigns  of  the  first  three  Ptolemies  that  Alexandria  was  made 
the  new  home  of  Greek  literature.  Ptolemy  Soter  (306-285 
B.  c.)  laid  the  foundations  of  the  library,  and  instituted  the  mu- 
seum, or  temple  of  the  muses,  where  the  literary  men  of  the  age 
were  maintained  by  endowments.  This  encouragement  of  litera- 
ture was  continued  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  (285-247  B.  c.). 
He  had  the  celebrated  Callimachus  for  his  librarian,  who  bought 
up  not  only  the  whole  of  Aristotle's  great  collection  of  works, 
but  transferred  the  native  annals  of  Egypt  and  Judea  to  the  do- 
main of  Greek  literature  by  employing  the  priest  Manetho  to 
translate  the  hieroglyphics  of  his  own  temple-archives  into  the 
language  of  the  court,  and  by  procuring  from  the  Sanhedrim  of 
Jerusalem  the  first  part  of  that  celebrated  version  of  the  Hebrew 
sacred  books,  which  was  afterw.ards  completed  and  known  as  the 
Septuagint,  or  version  of  the  Seventy.  Ptolemy  Euergetes 
(247-222  B.  c.)  increased  the  library  by  depriving  the  Athenians 
of  their  authentic  editions  of  the  great  dramatists.  In  the 
course  of  time  the  library  founded  at  Pergamos  was  transferred 
to  Egypt,  and  thus  we  are  indebted  to  the  Ptolemies  for  pre- 
serving to  our  times  all  the  best  specimens  of  Greek  literature 
which  have  come  down  to  us.  This  encouragement  of  letters, 
however,  called  forth  no  great  original  genius ;  but  a  few  emi- 
nent men  of  science,  many  second-rate  and  artificial  poets,  and 
a  host  of  grammarians  and  literary  pedants. 

2.  THE  ALEXANDRIAN  POETS.  —  Among  the  poets  of  the  pe- 
riod, Philetas,  Callimachus,  Lycophron,  Apollonius,  and  the  writ- 
ers of  idyls,  Theocritus,  Bion,  and  Moschus  are  the  most  emi- 
nent. The  founder  of  a  school  of  poetry  at  Alexandria,  and  the 
model  for  imitation  with  the  Roman  writers  of  elegiac  poetry, 
was  Philetas  of  Cos  (fl.  260  B.  c),  whose  extreme  emaciation  of 
person  exposed  him  to  the  imputation  of  wearing  lead  in  the 
soles  of  his  shoes,  lest  he  should  be  blown  away.  He  was  chiefly 
celebrated  as  an  elegiac  poet,  in  whom  ingenious,  elegant,  and 
harmonious  versification  took  the  place  of  higher  poetry.  Cal- 
limachus (fl.  260  B.  C.)  was  the  type  of  an  Alexandrian  man  of 
letters,  distinguished  by  skill  rather  than  genius,  the  most  fin- 
ished specimen  of  what  might  be  effected  by  talent,  learning,  and 
ambition,  backed  by  the  patronage  of  a  court.  He  was  a  living 
representative  of  the  great  library  over  which  he  presided  ;  he 
was  not  only  a  writer  of  all  kinds  of  poetry,  but  a  critic,  gram- 


GREEK  LITERATURE.  109 

marian,  historian,  and  geographer.  Of  his  writings,  a  few  poems 
only  are  extant.  Next  to  Callimachus,  as  a  representative  of 
the  learned  poetry  of  Alexandria,  stands  the  dramatist  Lyco- 
phron  (fl.  250  B.  c.).  All  his  works  are  lost,  with  the  exception 
of  the  oracular  poem  called  the  "  Alexandra,"  or  "  Cassandra," 
on  the  merits  of  which  very  opposite  opinions  are  entertained. 
Apollonius,  known  as  the  Rhodian  (fl.  240  B.  c.),  was  a  native 
of  Alexandria,  and  a  pupil  of  Callimachus,  through  whose  influ- 
ence he  was  driven  from  his  native  city,  when  he  established 
himself  in  the  island  of  Rhodes,  where  he  was  so  honored  and 
distinguished  that  he  took  the  name  of  the  Rhodian.  On  the 
death  of  Callimachus,  he  was  appointed  to  succeed  him  as  libra- 
rian at  Alexandria.  His  reputation  depends  on  his  epic  poem, 
the  "  Argonautic  Expedition." 

Of  all  the  writers  of  the  Alexandrian  period,  the  bucolic  poets 
have  enjoyed  the  most  popularity.  Their  pastoral  poems  were 
called  Idyls,  from  their  pictorial  and  descriptive  character,  that 
is,  little  pictures  of  common  life,  a  name  for  which  the  later  writ- 
ers have  sometimes  substituted  the  term  Eclogues,  that  is,  selec- 
tions, which  is  applicable  to  any  short  poem,  whether  complete 
and  original,  or  appearing  as  an  extract.  The  name  of  Idyls, 
however,  was  afterwards  applicable  to  pastoral  poems.  The- 
ocritus (fl.  272  B.  c.)  gives  his  name  to  the  most  important  of 
these  extant  bucolics.  He  had  an  original  genius  for  poetry  of 
the  highest  kind  ;  the  absence  of  the  usual  affectation  of  the 
Alexandrian  school,  constant  appeals  to  nature,  a  fine  perception 
of  character,  and  a  keen  sense  of  both  the  beautiful  and  the 
ludicrous,  indicate  the  high  order  of  his  literary  talent,  and  ac- 
count for  his  universal  and  undiminished  popularity.  The  two 
other  bucolic  poets  of  the  Alexandrian  school  were  Bion  (fl.  275 
B.  c.),  born  near  Smyrna,  and  his  pupil  Moschus  of  Syracuse 
(fl.  273  B.  c.).  It  appears,  from  an  elegy  by  Moschus,  that  Bion 
migrated  from  Asia  Minor  to  Sicily,  where  he  was  poisoned. 
He  wrote  harmonious  verses  with  a  good  deal  of  pathos  and  ten- 
derness, but  he  is  as  inferior  to  Theocritus  as  he  is  superior  to 
Moschus,  whose  artificial  style  characterizes  him  rather  as  a 
learned  versifier  than  a  true  poet. 

3.  PROSE  WRITERS  OF  ALEXANDRIA.  —  Many  of  the  most 
eminent  poets  were  also  prose  writers,  and  they  exhibited  their 
versatility  by  writing  on  almost  every  subject  of  literary  interest. 
The  progress  of  prose  writing  manifested  itself  from  grammar 
and  criticism  to  the  more  elaborate  and  learned  treatment  of 
history  and  chronology,  and  to  observations  and  speculations  in 
pure  and  mixed  mathematics.  Demetrius  the  Phalerian  (fl.  295 
B.  C.),  Zenodotus  (fl.  279  B.  c.),  Aristophanes  (fl.  200  B.  c.),  and 
Aristarchus  (fl.  156  B.  c.),  the  three  last  of  whom  were  success- 


110       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

ively  intrusted  with  the  management  of  the  Library,  were  the 
representatives  of  the  Alexandrian  school  of  grammar  and  criti- 
cism. They  devoted  themselves  chiefly  to  the  revision  of  the 
text  of  Homer,  which  was  finally  established  by  Aristarchus. 

In  the  historical  department  may  be  mentioned  Ptolemy 
Soter,  who  wrote  the  history  of  the  wars  of  Alexander  the  Great ; 
Apollodorus  (fl.  200  B.  c.),  whose  "  Bibliotheca "  contains  a 
general  sketch  of  the  mystic  legends  of  the  Greeks  ;  Eratosthe- 
nes (fl.  235  B.  c.),  the  founder  of  scientific  chronology  in  Greek 
history  ;  Manetho  (fl.  280  B.  C.),  who  introduced  the  Greeks  to 
a  knowledge  of  the  Egyptian  religion  and  annals ;  and  Berosus 
of  Babylon,  his  contemporary,  whose  work,  fragments  of  which 
were  preserved  by  Josephus,  was  known  as  the  "  Babylonian 
Annals."  While  the  Greeks  of  Alexandria  thus  gained  a 
knowledge  of  the  religious  books  of  the  nations  conquered  by 
Alexander,  the  same  curiosity,  combined  with  the  necessities  of 
the  Jews  of  Alexandria,  gave  birth  to  the  translation  of  the 
Bible  into  Greek,  known  under  the  name  of  Septuagint,  which 
has  exercised  a  more  lasting  influence  on  the  civilized  world  than 
that  of  any  book  that  has  ever  appeared  in  a  new  tongue.  The 
beginning  of  that  translation  was  probably  made  in  the  reigns 
of  the  first  Ptolemies  (320-249  B.  c.),  while  the  remainder  was 
completed  at  a  later  period. 

The  wonderful  advance,  which  took  place  in  pure  and  applied 
mathematics,  is  chiefly  due  to  the  learned  men  who  settled  in 
Alexandria ;  the  greatest  mathematicians  and  the  most  eminent 
founders  of  scientific  geography  were  all  either  immediately  or 
indirectly  connected  with  the  school  of  Alexandria.  Euclid  (fl. 
300  B.  c.)  founded  a  famous  school  of  geometry  in  that  city,  in 
the  reign  of  the  first  Ptolemy.  Almost  the  only  incident  of  his 
life  which  is  known  to  us  is  a  conversation  between  him  and 
that  king,  who,  having  asked  if  there  was  no  easier  method  of 
learning  the  science,  is  said  to  have  been  told  by  Euclid,  that 
"  there  was  no  royal  path  to  geometry."  His  most  famous  work 
is  his  "  Elements  of  Pure  Mathematics,"  at  the  present  time  a 
manual  of  instruction  and  the  foundation  of  all  geometrical 
treatises.  Archimedes  (287-212  B.  c.)  was  a  native  of  Syra- 
cuse, in  Sicily,  but  he  traveled  to  Egypt  at  an  early  age,  and 
studied  mathematics  there  in  the  school  of  Euclid.  He  not  only 
distinguished  himself  as  a  pure  mathematician  and  astronomer, 
and  as  the  founder  of  the  theory  of  statics,  but  he  discovered 
the  law  of  specific  gravity,  and  constructed  some  of  the  most 
useful  machines  in  the  mechanic  arts,  such  as  the  pulley  and  the 
hydraulic  screw.  His  works  are  written  in  the  Doric  dialect. 
Apollonius  of  Perga  (221-204  B.  c.)  distinguished  himself  in  the 
mathematical  department  by  his  work  on  "Conic  Elements." 


GREEK  LITERATURE.  Ill 

Eratosthenes  was  not  only  prominent  in  the  science  of  chro- 
nology, but  was  also  the  founder  of  astronomical  geography,  and 
the  author  of  many  valuable  works  in  various  branches  of  philos- 
ophy. Hipparchus  (fl.  150  B.  c.)  is  considered  the  founder  of 
the  science  of  exact  astronomy,  from  his  great  work,  the  "  Cata- 
logue of  the  Fixed  Stars,"  his  discovery  of  the  precession  of  the 
equinoxes,  and  many  other  valuable  astronomical  observations 
and  calculations. 

4.  ALEXANDRIAN  PHILOSOPHY. —  Athens,  which  had  been  the 
centre  of  Greek  literature  during  the  second  or  classical  period 
of  its  development,  had  now,  in  all  respects  but  one,  resigned 
the  intellectual  leadership  to  the  city  of  the  Ptolemies.  While 
Alexandria  was  producing  a  series  of  learned  poets,  scholars, 
and  discoverers  in  science,  Athenian  literature  was  mainly  rep- 
resented by  the  establishment  of  certain  forms  of  mental  and 
moral  philosophy  founded  on  the  various  Socratic  schools.  Two 
schools  of  philosophy  were  established  at  Athens  at  the  time  of 
the  death  of  Aristotle  :  that  of  the  Academy,  in  which  he  him- 
self had  studied,  and  that  of  the  Lyceum,  which  he  had  founded, 
as  the  seat  of  his  peripatetic  system.  But  the  older  schools  soon 
reappeared  under  new  names :  the  Megarics,  with  an  infusion 
of  the  doctrines  of  Democritus,  revived  in  the  skeptic  philosophy 
of  Pyrrhon  (375-285  B.  c.).  Epicurus  (342-370  B.  c.)  founded 
the  school  to  which  he  gave  his  name,  by  a  similar  combination 
of  Democritean  philosophy  with  the  doctrines  of  the  Cyrenaics  ; 
the  Cynics  were  developed  into  Stoics  by  Zeno  (341-260  B.  c.), 
who  borrowed  much  from  the  Megaric  school  and  from  the  Old 
Academy ;  and,  finally,  the  Middle  and  New  Academy  arose 
from  a  combination  of  doctrines  which  were  peculiar  to  many  of 
these  sects. 

Though  these  different  schools,  which  flourished  at  Athens, 
had  early  representatives  in  Alexandria,  their  different  doctrines, 
coming  in  contact  with  the  ancient  religious  systems  of  the  Per- 
sians, Jews,  and  Hindus,  underwent  essential  modifications,  and 
gave  birth  to  a  kind  of  electicism,  which  became  later  an  im- 
portant element  in  the  development  of  Christian  history.  The 
rationalism  of  the  Platonic  school  and  the  supernaturalism  of  the 
Jewish  Scriptures  were  chiefly  mingled  together,  and  from  this 
amalgamation  sprang  the  system  of  Neo-Platonism.  When  the 
early  teachers  of  Christianity  at  Alexandria  strove  to  show  the 
harmony  of  the  Gospel  with  the  great  principles  of  the  Greco- 
Jewish  philosophy,  it  underwent  new  modifications,  and  the 
Neo-Platonic  school,  which  sprang  up  in  Alexandria  three  cen- 
turies B.  c.,  was  completed  in  the  first  and  second  centuries  of 
the  Christian  era.  The  common  characteristic  of  the  Neo-Pla- 
tonists  was  a  tendency  to  mysticism.  Some  of  them  believed  that 


112       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

they  were  the  subjects  of  divine  inspiration  and  illumination ; 
able  to  look  into  the  future  and  to  work  miracles.  Philo-Judaeus 
(fl.  20  B.  c.),  Numenius  (fl.  150  A.  D.),  Ammonius  Saccas  (fl.  200 
A.  D.),  Plotinus  (fl.  260  A.  D.),  Porphyry  (fl.  260  A.  D.),  and  sev- 
eral fathers  of  the  Greek  Church  are  among  the  principal  dis- 
ciples of  this  school. 

5.  ANTI-NEO-PLATOXIC  TENDENCIES.  —  While  the  Neo-Pla- 
tonism  of  Alexandria  introduced  into  Greek  philosophy  Oriental 
ideas  and  tendencies,  other  positive  and  practical  doctrines  also 
prevailed,  founded  on  common  sense  and  conscience.  First 
among  these  were  the  tenets  of  the  Stoics,  who  owed  their  sys- 
tem mainly  and  immediately  to  the  teaching  of  Epictetus  (fl.  60 
A.  D),  who  opposed  the  Oriental  enthusiasm  of  the  Neo-Platonists. 
He  was  originally  a  slave,  and  became  a  prominent  teacher  of 
philosophy  in  Rome,  in  the  reign  of  Domitian.  He  left  nothing 
in  writing,  and  we  are  indebted  for  a  knowledge  of  his  doctrines 
to  Arrian,  who  compiled  his  lectures  or  philosophical  disserta- 
tions in  eight  books,  of  which  only  four  are  preserved,  and  the 
"  Manual  of  Epictetus,"  a  valuable  compendium  of  the  doctrines 
of  the  Stoics.  The  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius  not  only  lectured 
at  Rome  on  the  principles  of  Epictetus,  but  he  left  us  his  pri- 
vate meditations,  composed  in  the  midst  of  a  camp,  and  exhibit- 
ing the  serenity  of  a  mind  which  had  made  itself  independent 
of  outward  actions  and  warring  passions  within.  Lucian  (fl. 
150  A.  D.)  may  be  compared  to  Voltaire,  whom  he  equaled  in 
his  powers  both  of  rhetoric  and  ridicule,  and  surpassed  in  his 
more  conscientious  and  courageous  love  of  truth.  Though  the 
results  of  his  efforts  against  heathenism  were  merely  negative, 
he  prepared  the  way  for  Christianity  by  giving  the  death-blow 
to  declining  idolatry.  Lucian,  as  a  man  of  letters,  is  on  many 
accounts  interesting,  and  in  reference  to  his  own  age  and  to  the 
literature  of  Greece  he  is  entitled  to  an  important  position  both 
with  regard  to  the  religious  and  philosophical  results  of  his 
works,  and  to  the  introduction  of  a  purer  Greek  style,  which  he 
taught  and  exemplified.  Longinus  (fl.  230  A.  D.),  both  as  an 
opponent  of  Neo-Platonism  and  as  a  sound  and  sensible  critic, 
occupies  a  position  similar  to  that  of  Lucian,  in  the  declining 
period  of  Greek  literary  history.  During  a  visit  to  the  East, 
he  became  known  to  Zenobia,  queen  of  Palmyra,  who  adopted 
the  celebrated  scholar  as  her  instructor  in  the  language  and  lit- 
erature of  Greece,  her  adviser  and  chief  minister  ;  and  when 
Palmyra  fell  before  the  Roman  power  he  was  put  to  death  by 
the  Roman  emperor.  To  his  treatise  on  "  The  Sublime  "  he  is 
chiefly  indebted  for  his  fame.  When  France,  in  the  reign  of 
Louis  XIV.,  gave  a  tone  to  the  literary  judgments  of  Europe, 
this  work  was  translated  by  Boileau,  and  received  by  the  wits  of 


GREEK  LITERATURE.  113 

Paris  as  an  established  manual  in  all  that  related  to  the  sublime 
and  beautiful. 

6.  GREEK  LITERATURE  EST  ROME.  —  After  the  subjugation  of 
Greece  by  the  Romans,  Greek  authors  wrote  in  their  own  lan- 
guage and  published  their  works  in  Rome  ^  illustrious  Romans 
chose  the  idiom  of  Plato  as  the  best  medium  for  the  expression 
of  their  own  thoughts ;  dramatic  poets  gained  a  reputation  by 
imitating  the  tragedies  and  comedies  of  Athens,  and  every  ver- 
sifier felt  compelled  by  fashion  to  revive  the  metres  of  ancient 
Greece.  This  naturalization  of  Greek  literature  at  Rome  was 
due  to  the  rudeness  and  poverty  of  the.  national  literature  of 
Italy,  to  the  influence  exerted  by  the  Greek  colonies,  and  to  the 
political  subjugation  of  Greece.  In  Rome,  Greek  libraries  werp 
established  by  the  Emperor  Augustus  and  his  successors ;  and 
the  knowledge  of  the  Greek  language  was  considered  a  necessary 
accomplishment.  Cicero  made  his  countrymen  acquainted  with 
the  philosophical  schools  of  Athens,  and  Rome  became  more  and 
more  the  rival  of  Alexandria,  both  as  a  receptacle  for  the  best 
Greek  writings  and  as  a  seat  of  learning,  where  Greek  authors 
found  appreciation  and  patronage.  The  Greek  poets,  who  were 
fostered  and  encouraged  at  Rome,  were  chiefly  writers  of  epi- 
grams, and  their  poems  are  preserved  in  the  collections  called 
"  Anthologies."  The  growing  demand  for  forensic  eloquence 
naturally  led  the  Roman  orators  to  find  their  examples  in  those 
of  Athens,  and  to  the  study  of  rhetoric  in  the  Grecian  writers. 

Among  the  writers  on  rhetoric  whose  works  seem  to  have 
produced  the  greatest  effect  at  the  beginning  of  the  Roman  pe- 
riod, we  mention  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  (fl.  7  B.  c.).  As  a 
critic,  he  occupies  the  first  rank  among  the  ancients.  Besides 
his  rhetorical  treatises,  he  wrote  a  work  on  "  Roman  Archaeol- 
ogy," the  object  of  which  was  to  show  that  the  Romans  were 
not,  after  all,  barbarians,  as  was  generally  supposed,  but  a  pure 
Greek  race,  whose  institutions,  religion,  and  manners  were  trace- 
able to  an  identity  with  those  of  the  noblest  Hellenes. 

What  Dionysius  endeavored  to  do  for  the  gratification  of  his 
own  countrymen,  by  giving  them  a  Greek  version  of  Roman  his- 
tory, an  accomplished  Jew,  who  lived  about  a  century  later,  at- 
tempted, from  the  opposite  point  of  view,  for  his  own  fallen 
race,  in  a  work  which  was  a  direct  imitation  of  that  just  de- 
scribed. Flavius  Josephus  (fl.  60  A.  D.)  wrote  the  "Jewish 
Archaeology  "  in  order  to  show  the  Roman  conquerors  of  Jeru- 
salem that  the  Jews  did  not  deserve  the  contempt  with  which 
they  were  universally  regarded.  His  "  History  of  the  Jewish 
Wars  "  is  an  able  and  valuable  work. 

At  an  earlier  period,  Polybius  (204-122  B.  c.)  y^ote  to  ex- 
plain to  the  Greeks  how  the  power  of  the  Romans  had  estab- 


114       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL   LITERATURE. 

lished  itself  in  Greece.  His  great  work  was  a  universal  history, 
but  of  the  forty  books  of  which  it  consisted  only  five  have  been 
preserved ;  perhaps  no  historical  work  has  ever  been  written 
with  such  definiteness  of  purpose  or  unity  of  plan,  or  with  such 
self-consciousness  qn  the  part  of  the  writer.  The  object  to  which 
he  directs  attention  is  the  manner  in  which  fortune  or  provi- 
dence uses  the  ability  and  energy  of  man  as  instruments  in  car- 
rying out  what  is  predetermined,  and  specially  the  exemplifica- 
tion of  these  principles  in  the  wonderful  growth  of  the  Roman 
power  during  the  fifty-three  years  of  which  he  treats.  Taking 
his  history  as  a  whole,  it  is  hardly  possible  to  speak  in  too  high 
terms  of  it,  though  the  style  has  many  blemishes,  such  as  endless 
digressions,  wearisome  repetition  of  his  own  principles  and  collo- 
quial vulgarisms. 

Diodorus,  a  native  of  Sicily,  generally  known  as  the  Sicilian 
(Siculus),  flourished  in  the  time  of  the  first  two  Caesars.  In  his 
great  work,  the  "  Historical  Library,"  it  was  his  object  to  write 
a  history  of  the  world  down  to  the  commencement  of  Caesar's 
Gallic  wars.  He  is  content  to  give  a  bare  recital  of  the  facts, 
which  crowded  upon  him  and  left  him  no  time  to  be  diffuse  or 
ornamental. 

The  geography  of  Strabo  (fl.  10  A.  D.),  which  has  made  his 
name  familiar  to  modern  scholars,  has  come  down  to  us  very 
nearly  complete.  Its  merits  are  literary  rather  than  scientific. 
His  object  was  to  give  an  instructive  and  readable  account  of 
the  known  world,  from  the  point  of  view  taken  by  a  Greek  man 
of  letters?.  His  style  is  simple,  unadorned,  and  unaffected. 

Plutarch  (40-120  A.  D.)  may  be  classed  among  the  philoso- 
phers as  well  as  among  the  historians.  Though  he  has  left  many 
essays  and  works  on  different  subjects,  he  is  best  known  as  a  bi- 
ographer. His  lives  of  celebrated  Greeks  and  Romans  have 
made  his  name  familiar  to  the  readers  of  every  country.  The 
universal  popularity  of  his  biographies  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
they  are  dramatic  pictures,  in  which  each  personage  is  repre- 
sented as  acting  according  to  his  leading  characteristics. 

Pausanias  (fl.  184  A.  D.),  a  professed  describer  of  countries 
and  of  their  antiquities  and  works  of  art,  in  his  "  Gazetteer  of 
Hellas  "  has  left  the  best  repertory  of  information  for  the  topog- 
raphy, local  history,  religious  observances,  architecture,  and 
sculpture  of  the  different  states  of  Greece. 

Among  the  scientific  men  of  this  period  we  find  Ptolemy, 
whose  name  for  more  than  a  thousand  years  was  coextensive 
with  the  sciences  of  astronomy  and  geography.  He  was  a  native 
of  Alexandria,  and  flourished  about  the  latter  part  of  the  second 
century.  The  best  known  of  his  works  is  his  "  Great  Construc- 
tion of  Astronomy."  He  was  the  first  to  indicate  the  true  shape 


GREEK  LITERATURE.  115 

of  Spain,  Gaul,  and  Ireland ;  as  a  writer,  he  deserves  to  be  held 
in  high  estimation.  — Galyir  (fl.  •  130  A.  D.)  was  a  writer  on  phi- 
losophy and  medicine,  with  whom  few  could  vie  in  productive- 
.ness.  It  was  his  object  to  combine  philosophy  with  medical 
science,  and  his  works  for  fifteen  centuries  were  received  as 
oracular  authorities  throughout  the  civilized  world. 

7.  CONTINUED   DECLINE   OF   GREEK   LITERATURE.  —  The 
adoption  of  the  Christian  religion  by  Constantine,  and  his  estab- 
lishment of  the  seat  of  government  in  his  new  city  of  Constanti- 
nople, concurred  in  causing  the  rapid  decline  of  Greek  literature 
in  the  fourth  and   following  centuries.     Christianity,  no  longer 
the  object  of  persecution,  became  the  dominant  religion  of  the 
state,  and  the   profession  of  its  tenets  was  the   shortest  road  to 
influence  and  honor.     The  old  literature,  with  its  mythological 
allusions,  became  less  and  less  fashionable,  and  the  Greek  poets, 
philosophers,  and  orators  of  the  better  periods   gradually  lost 
their  attractions.    Greek,  the  official  language  of  Constantinople, 
was  spoken  there,  with  different  degrees  of  corruption,  by  Syr- 
ians, Bulgarians,  and  Goths  ;   and  thus,  as  Christianity  under- 
mined the  old  classical  literature,  the  political  condition  of  the 
capital  deteriorated  the    language   itself.     Other   causes   accel- 
erated the  decadence  of  Greek  learning :  the  great  library  at 
Alexandria,  and  the  school  which  had  been  established  in  con- 
nection with  it,  were  destroyed  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  century 
by  the  edict  of  Theodosius,  and  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by  the 
Saracens  in  the  seventh  century  only  completed  the  work  of  de- 
struction.   Justinian  closed  the  schools  of  Athens,  and  prohibited 
the  teaching  of  philosophy ;  the  Arabs  overthrew  those  estab- 
lished elsewhere,  and  there  remained  ouly  the  institutions  of  Con- 
stantinople.    But  long  before  the  establishment  of  the  Turks  on 
the  ruins  of  the   Byzantine  empire,  Greek  literature  had  ceased 
to  claim  any  original  or  independent  existence.     The  opposition 
between  the  literary  spirit  of  heathen  Greece  and  the  Christian 
scholarship  of  the  time  of  Constantine  and  his  immediate  suc- 
cessors, which  grew  up  very  gradually,  was  the  result  of  the 
Oriental  superstitions  which  distorted  Christianity  and  disturbed 
the  old  philosophy.     The  abortive  attempt  of  the  Emperor  Jul- 
ian to  create  a  reaction  in  favor  of  heathenism  was  the  cause  of 
the  open  antagonism  between  the  classical  and  Christian  forms 
of  literature.     The  church,  however,  was  soon  enabled  not  only 
to  dictate  its  own  rules  of  literary  criticism,  but  to  destroy  the 
writings  of  its  most  formidable  antagonists.     The  last  rays  of 
heathen  cultivation  in  Italy  were   extinguished  in  the    gloomy 
dungeon  of  Boethius,  and  the  period  so  justly  designated  as  the 
Dark  Ages  began  both  in  eastern  and  western  Europe. 

8.  LAST  ECHOES  OF  THE  OLD  LITERATURE.  —  From  the  time 


116       HANDBOOK   OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

when  Christianity  placed  itself  in  opposition  to  the  old  culture 
of  heathen  Greece  and  Rome,  down  to  the  period  of  the  revival 
of  classical  literature  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries, 
the  classical  spirit  was  nearly  extinct  both  in  eastern  and  west- 
ern Europe.  In  Italy,  the  triumph  of  barbarism  was  more  sud- 
den and  complete.  In  the  eastern  empire  there  was  a  certain 
literary  activity,  and  in  the  department  of  history,  Byzantine 
literature  was  conspicuously  prolific. 

The  imperial  family  of  the  Comneni,  in  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries,  and  the  Palaeologi,  who  reigned  from  the  thir- 
teenth century  to  the  end  of  the  eastern  empire,  endeavored  to 
revive  the  taste  for  literature  and  learning.  But  the  echoes  of 
the  past  became  fainter  and  fainter,  and  when  Constantinople 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  1453  A.  D.,  the  wandering 
Greeks  who  found  their  way  into  Italy  could  only  serve  as  lan- 
guage-masters to  a  race  of  scholars,  who  thus  recovered  the 
learning  that  had  ceased  to  exist  among  the  Greeks  themselves. 

The  last  manifestations  of  the  old  classical  learning  by  the 
Alexandrian  school,  which  had  done  so  much  in  the  second  and 
first  centuries  before  our  era.  may  be  divided  into  three  classes. 
In  the  first  are  placed  the  mathematical  and  geographical  stud- 
ies, which  had  been  brought  to  such  perfection  by  Euclid,  his 
successors,  and  after  them  by  Ptolemy.  In  the  second  class  we 
have  the  substitution  of  prose  romances  for  the  bucolic  and 
erotic  poetry  of  the  Alexandrian  and  Sicilian  writers.  In  the 
third  class  the  revival,  by  Nonnus  and  his  followers,  of  a  learned 
epos,  of  much  the  same  kind  as  the  poems  of  Callimachus. 
Among  the  representatives  of  the  mathematical  school  of  Alex- 
andria was  Theon,  whose  celebrity  is  obscured  by  that  of  his 
daughter  Hypatia  (fl.  415  A.  D.),  whose  sex,  youth,  beauty,  and 
cruel  fate  have  made  her  a  most  interesting  martyr  of  philoso- 
phy. She  presided  in  the  public  school  at  Alexandria,  where 
she  taught  mathematics  and  the  philosophy  of  Ammonius  and 
Plotinus.  Her  influence  over  the  educated  classes  of  that  city 
excited  the  jealousy  of  the  archbishop.  She  was  given  up  to  the 
violence  of  a  superstitious  and  brutal  mob,  attacked  as  she  was 
passing  through  the  streets  in  her  chariot,  torn  in  pieces,  and 
her  mutilated  body  thrown  to  the  flames. 

When  rhetorical  prose  superseded  composition  in  verse,  the 
greater  facility  of  style  naturally  led  to  more  detailed  narratives, 
and  the  sophist  who  would  have  been  a  poet  in  the  time  of  Calli- 
machus, became  a  writer  of  prose  romances  in  the  final  period  of 
Greek  literature.  The  first  ascertained  beginning  of  this  style 
of  light  reading,  which  occupies  so  large  a  space  in  the  cata- 
logues of  modern  libraries,  was  in  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Tra- 
jan, when  a  Syrian  or  Babylonian  freedman,  named  lamblichus, 


GREEK  LITERATURE.  117 

published  a  love  story  called  the  "  Babylonian  Adventures." 
Among  his  successors  is  Longus,  of  whose  work,  "  The  Lesbian 
Adventure,"  it  is  sufficient  to  say,  that  it  was  the  model  of  the 
"  Diana  "  of  Montemayor,  the  "  Aminta  "  of  Tasso,  the  "  Pas- 
tor Fido  "  of  Guarini,  and  the  "  Gentle  Shepherd  "  of  Allan 
Ramsay. 

While  the  sophists  were  amusing  themselves  by  clothing  erotic 
and  bucolic  subjects  in  rhetorical  prose,  an  Egyptian  boldly 
revived  the  epos  which  had  been  cultivated  at  Alexandria  in 
the  earliest  days  of  the  Museum.  Nonnus  probably  flourished 
at  the  commencement  of  the  fifth  century  A.  D.  His  epic  poem, 
which,  in  accordance  with  the  terminology  of  the  age,  is  called 
"  Dionysian  Adventures,"  is  an  enormous  farrago  of  learning  on 
the  well- worked  subject  of  Bacchus.  The  most  interesting  of 
the  epic  productions  of  the  school  of  Nonnus  is  the  story  of 
"  Hero  and  Leander,"  in  340  verses,  which  bears  the  name  of 
Musaeus.  For  grace  of  diction,  metrical  elegance,  and  simple 
pathos,  this  little  canto  stands  far  before  the  other  poems  of  the 
same  age.  The  Hero  and  Leander  of  Musseus  is  the  dying 
swan-note  of  Greek  poetry,  the  last  distinct  note  of  the  old  music 
of  Hellas. 

In  the  Byzantine  literature,  there  are  works  which  claim  no 
originality,  but  have  a  higher  value  than  their  contemporaries, 
because  they  give  extracts  or  fragments  of  the  lost  writings  of 
the  best  days  of  Greece.  Next  in  value  foUow  the  lexicogra- 
phers, the  grammarians,  and  commentators.  The  most  volumi- 
nous department,  however,  of  Byzantine  literature,  was  that 
of  the  historians,  annalists,  chroniclers,  biographers,  and  anti- 
quarians, whose  works  form  a  continuous  series  of  Byzantine 
annals  from  the  time  of  Constantine  the  Great  to  the  taking  of 
the  capital  by  the  Turks.  This  literature  was  also  enlivened  by 
several  poets,  and  enriched  by  some  writers  on  natural  history 
and  medicine. 

9.  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  AND  THE  GREEK  FATHERS.  —  The 
history  of  Greek  literature  would  be  imperfect  without  some 
allusion  to  a  class  of  writings  not  usually  included  in  the  range 
of  classical  studies.  The  first  of  these  works,  the  Septuagint 
version  of  the  Old  Testament,  before  mentioned,  and  the  Greek 
Apocrypha,  may  properly  be  termed  Hebrew-Grecian.  Their 
spirit  is  wholly  at  variance  with  that  of  pagan  literature,  and  it 
cannot  be  doubted  that  they  exerted  great  influence  when  made 
known  to  the  pagans  of  Alexandria.  Many  of  the  b;>oks  termed 
the  Apocrypha  were  originally  written  in  Greek,  and  mostly 
before  the  Christian  era.  Many  of  them  contain  authentic  nar- 
ratives, and  are  valuable  as  illustrating  the  circumstances  of  the 
age  to  which  they  refer.  The  other  class  of  writings  alluded 


118       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

to  comprehends  the  works  of  the  Christian  authors.  As  the  in- 
fluence of  Christianity  became  more  diffused  during  the  first  and 
second  centuries,  its  regenerating  power  became  visible.  After 
the  time  of  Christ,  there  appeared,  in  both  the  Greek  and  Latin 
tongues,  works  wholly  different  in  their  spirit  and  character 
from  all  that  is  found  in  pagan  literature.  The  collection  of 
sacred  writings  contained  in  the  New  Testament  and  the  works 
of  the  early  fathers  constitute  a  distinct  and  interesting  feature 
in  the  literature  of  the  age  in  which  they  appeared.  The  writ- 
ings of  the  New  Testament,  considered  simply  in  their  literary 
aspect,  are  distinguished  by  a  simplicity,  earnestness,  natural- 
ness, and  beauty  that  find  no  parallel  in  the  literature  of  the 
world.  But  the  consideration  must  not  be  overlooked,  that  they 
were  the  work  of  those  men  who  wrote  as  they  were  moved  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  that  they  contain  the  life  and  the  teachings 
of  the  great  Founder  of  our  faith,  and  that  they  come  to  us 
invested  with  divine  authority.  Their  influence  upon  the  ages 
which  have  succeeded  them  is  incalculable,  and  it  is  still  widen- 
ing as  the  knowledge  of  Christianity  increases.  The  composition 
of  the  New  Testament  is  historical,  epistolary,  and  prophetic. 
The  first  five  books,  or  the  historical  division,  contain  an  account 
of  the  life  and  death  of  our  Saviour,  and  some  account  of  the 
first  movements  of  the  Apostles.  The  epistolary  division  con- 
sists of  letters  addressed  by  the  Apostles  to  the  different  churches 
or  to  individuals.  The  last,  the  book  of  Revelation,  the  only 
part  that  is  considered  prophetic,  differs  from  the  others  in  its 
use  of  that  symbolical  language  which  had  been  common  to  the 
Hebrew  prophets,  in  the  sublimity  and  majesty  of  its  imagery, 
and  in  its  prediction  of  the  final  and  universal  triumph  of 
Christianity. 

The  writings  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers,  or  the  immediate  suc- 
cessors of  the  Apostles,  were  held  in  high  estimation  by  the 
primitive  Christians.  Of  those  who  wrote  under  this  denomina- 
tion, the  venerable  Eoljxarp  and  Ignatius,  after  they  had  both 
attained  the  age  of  eighty  years,  sealed  their  faith  in  the  blood 
of  martyrdom.  The  former  was  burned  at  the  stake  in  Smyrna, 
and  the  latter  devoured  by  lions  in  the  amphitheatre  of  Rome. 
In  the  second  and  third  centuries,  Christianity  numbered  among 
its  advocates  many  distinguished  scholars  and  philosophers,  par- 
ticularly among  the  Greeks.  Their  productions  may  be  classed 
under  the  heads  of  biblical,  controversial,  doctrinal,  historical, 
and  homiletical.  Among  the  most  distinguished  of  the  Greek 
fathers  were  Justin  Martyr  (fl.  89  A.  D.),  an  eminent  Christian 
philosopher  and  speculative  thinker ;  Clement  of  Alexandria 
(fl.  190  A.  D.),  who  has  left  us  a  collection  of  works,  which,  for 
learning  and  literary  talent,  stand  unrivaled  among  the  writings 


GREEK  LITERATURE.  119 

of  the  early  Christian  fathers ;  Origen  (184-253  A.  D.),  who, 
in  his  numerous  works,  attempted  to  reconcile  philosophy  with 
Christianity;  Eusebius  (fl.  325  A.  D.),  whose  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory is  ranked  among  the  most  valuable  remains  of  Christian 
antiquity  ;  Athanasius,  famous  for  his  controversy  with  Arius  ; 
Gregory  Nazianzen  (329-390  A.  D.),  distinguished  for  his  rare 
union  of  eloquence  and  piety,  a  great  orator  and  theologian  ; 
Basil  (329-379  A.  D.)  whose  works,  mostly  of  a  purely  theolog- 
ical character,  exhibit  occasionally  decided  proofs  of  his  strong 
feeling  for  the  beauties  of  nature  ;  and  John  Chrysostom  (347— 
407  A.  D.),  the  founder  of  the  art  of  preaching,  whose  extant 
homilies  breathe  a  spirit  of  sincere  earnestness  and  of  true 
genius.  To  these  may  be  added  Nemesius  (fl.  400  A.  D.),  whose 
work  on  the  "  Nature  of  Man  "  is  distinguished  by  the  purity  of 
its  style  and  by  the  traces  of  a  careful  study  of  classical  authors, 
and  Synesius  (378^30  A.  D.),  who  maintained  the  parallel  im- 
portance of  pagan  and  Christian  literature,  and  who  has  always 
been  held  in  high  estimation  for  his  epistles,  hymns,  and  dramas. 

MODERN  LITERATURE. 

At  the  time  of  the  fall  of  Constantinople,  ancient  Greek  was 
still  the  vehicle  of  literature,  and  as  such  it  has  been  preserved 
to  our  day.  After  the  political  changes  of  the  present  century, 
however,  it  was  felt  by  the  best  Greek  writers  that  the  old  forms 
were  no  longer  fitted  to  express  modern  ideas,  and  hence  it  has 
become  transfused  with  those  better  adapted  to  the  clear  and 
rapid  expression  of  modern  literature,  though  at  the  same  time 
the  body  and  substance,  as  well  as  the  grammar,  of  the  language 
have  been  retained. 

From  an  early  age,  along  with  the  literary  language  of 
Greece,  there  existed  a  conversational  language,  which  varied  in 
different  localities,  and  out  of  this  grew  the  Modern  Greek  or 
Neo-Hellenic. 

After  the  fall  of  Constantinople,  the  Greeks  were  prominent 
in  spreading  a  knowledge  of  their  language  through  Europe,  and 
but  few  works  of  importance  were  produced.  During  the  eight- 
eenth century  a  revival  of  enthusiasm  for  education  and  litera- 
ture took  place,  and  a  period  of  great  literary  activity  has  since 
followed.  Perhaps  no  nation  now  produces  so  much  literature  in 
proportion  to  its  numbers,  although  the  number  of  readers  is 
small  and  there  are  great  difficulties  in  publishing.  In  these  cir- 
cumstances, the  Ralli  and  other  distinguished  Greeks  have  nobly 
come  forward  and  published  books  at  their  own  expense,  and 
great  activity  prevails  in  every  department  of  letters. 

Since  the  establishment  of  Greek  independence,  three  writers 


120       HANDBOOK   OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

have  secured  for  themselves  a  permanent  place  in  literature  as 
men  of  true  genius :  the  two  brothers  Panagiotis  and  Alexander 
Santsos,  and  Alexander  Rangabe.  The  brothers  Santsos  threw 
all  their  energies  into  the  war  for  independence  and  sang  of  its 
glories.  Panagiotis  (d.  1868)  was  always  lyrical,  and  Alexan- 
der (d.  1863)  always  satirical.  Both  were  highly  ideal  in  their 
conceptions,  and  both  had  a  rich  command  of  musical  language. 
The  other  great  poet  of  regenerated  Greece  is  Alexander  Ran- 
gabe, whose  works  range  through  almost  every  department  of 
literature,  though  it  is  on  his  poems  that  his  claim  to  remem- 
brance will  specially  rest.  They  are  distinguished  by  fine  poetic 
feeling,  rare  command  of  exquisite  and  harmonious  language, 
and  singular  beauty  and  purity  of  thought.  His  poetical  works 
consist  of  hymns,  odes,  songs,  narrative  poems,  ballads,  trage- 
dies, comedies,  and  translations.  There  is  no  department  in 
prose  literature  which  is  not  well  represented  in  modern  Greek, 
and  many  women  have  particularly  distinguished  themselves. 


ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION. — 1.  Roman  Literature  and  its  Divisions. — 2.  The  Language;  Ethno- 
graphical Elements  of  the  Latin  Language  ;  the  Umhrian ;  Oscan ;  Etruscan  :  the  Old 
Roman  Tongue  ;  Saturnian  Verse  ;  Peculiarities  of  the  Latin  Language.  —  3.  The  Roman 
Religion. 

PERIOD  FIRST.  —  1.  Early  Literature  of  the  Romans  ;  the  Fescennine  Songs  ;  the  Fabulae 
Atellan-». — 2.  Early  Latin  Poets  ;  Livius  Andronicus,  Nsevius,  and  Ennius.  —  3.  Roman 
Comedy. — 4.  Comic  Poets;  Plautus,  Terence,  and  Statius. — 5.  Roman  Tragedy. — 
6.  Tragic  Poets  ;  Pacuvius  and  Attius.  —  7.  Satire  ;  Lucilius.  — 8.  History  and  Oratory ; 
Fabius  Pictor ;  Cencius  Alimentus  ;  Cato  ;  Varro  ;  M.  Antouius ;  Crassus  ;  Hortensius. — 
9.  Roman  Jurisprudence.  —10.  Grammarians. 

PERIOD  SECOND.  —  1.  Development  of  the  Roman  Literature.  —  2.  Mimes,  Mimogra- 
phers,  Pantomime  ;  Laberius  and  P.  Lyrus.  —  3.  Epic  Poetry ;  Virgil ;  The  jEneid.  — 
4.  Didactic  Poetry  ;  the  Bucolics  ;  the  Georgics  ;  Lucretius  —  5.  Lyric  Poetry ;  Catullus ; 
Horace. —6.  Elegy;  Tibullus  ;  Propertius;  Ovid. —7.  Oratory  and  Philosophy  ;  Cicero. 
—  8.  History;  J.' Caesar;  Sallust;  Livy.  —  9.  Other  Prose  Writers. 

PERIOD  THIRD.  —  1.  Decline  of  Roman  Literature. — 2.  Fable;  Phaedrus. — 3.  Satire 
and  Epigram;  Persius,  Juvenal,  Martial.  —  4.  Dramatic  Literature;  the  Tragedies  of 
Seneca.  —  5.  Epic  Poetry  ;  Lucan  ;  Silius  Italicus  ;  Valerius  Flaccus ;  P.  Statius.  — 
6.  History;  Patsrculus;  Tacitus;  Suetonius;  Q.Curtius;  Valerius  Maximus.  —7.  Rhetoric 
and  Eloquence;  Quintilian ;  Pliny  the  Younger. — 8.  Philosophy  and  Science;  Seneca; 
Pliny  the  Elder ;  Celsus ;  P.  Mala ;  Columella ;  Frontinus.  —  9.  Roman  Literature  from 
Hadrian  to  Theodoric  ;  Claudian  ;  Eutropius  ;  A.  Marcellinus;  S.  Sulpicius ;  Gellius; 
Macrobius ;  L.  Apuleius  ;  fioethius ;  the  Latin  Fathers.  —  10.  Roman  Jurisprudence. 

INTRODUCTION. 

1.  ROMAN  LITERATURE  AND  ITS  DIVISIONS.  —  Inferior  to 
Greece  in  the  genius  of  its  inhabitants,  and,  perhaps,  in  the  in- 
trinsic greatness  of  the  events  of  which  it  was  the  theatre,  un- 
questionably inferior  in  the  fruits  of  intellectual  activity,  Italy 
holds  the  second  place  in  the  classic  literature  of  antiquity. 
Etruria  could  boast  of  arts,  legislation,  scientific  knowledge,  a 
fanciful  mythology,  and  a  form  of  dramatic  spectacle,  before  the 
foundations  of  Rome  were  laid.  But,  like  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
the  Etrurians  made  no  progress  in  composition.  Verses  of  an 
irregular  structure  and  rude  in  sense  and  harmony  appear  to 
have  formed  the  highest  limit  of  their  literaiy  achievements. 
Nor  did  even  the  opulent  and  luxurious  Greeks  of  Southern 
Italy,  while  they  retained  their  independence,  contribute  much 
to  the  glory  of  letters  in  the  West.  It  was  only  in  their  fall 
that  they  did  good  service  to  the  cause,  when  they  redeemed  the 
disgrace  of  their  political  humiliation  by  the  honor  of  communi- 
cating the  first  impulse  towards  intellectual  refinement  to  the 
bosoms  of  their  conquerors.  When,  in  the  process  of  time,  Sic- 
ily, Macedonia,  and  Achaia  had  become  Roman  provinces,  some 
acquaintance  with  the  language  of  their  new  subjects  proved  to 
be  a  matter  almost  of  necessity  to  the  victorious  people  ;  but 


122       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

the  first  impression  made  at  Rome  by  the  productions  of  the 
Grecian  Muse,  and  the  first  efforts  to  create  a  similar  literature, 
must  be  traced  to  the  conquest  of  Tarentum  (272  B.  c.).  From 
that  memorable  period,  the  versatile  talents  which  distinguished 
the  Greeks  in  every  stage  of  national  decline  began  to  exercise 
a  powerful  influence  on  the  Roman  mind,  which  was  particularly 
felt  in  the  departments  of  education  and  amusement.  The  in- 
struction of  the  Roman  youth  was  committed  to  the  skill  and 
learning  of  Greek  slaves ;  the  spirit  of  the  Greek  drama  was 
transferred  into  the  Latin  tongue,  and,  somewhat  later,  Roman 
genius  and  ambition  devoted  their  united  energies  to  the  study 
of  Greek  rhetoric,  which  long  continued  to  be  the  guide  and 
model  of  those  schools,  in  whose  exercises  the  abilities  of  Cicero 
himself  were  trained.  Prejudice  and  patriotism  were  powerless 
to  resist  this  flood  of  foreign  innovation  ;  and  for  more  than  a 
century  after  the  Tarentine  war,  legislative  influence  strove  in 
vain  to  counteract  the  predominance  of  Greek  philosophy  and 
eloquence.  But  this  imitative  tendency  was  tempered  by  the 
pride  of  Roman  citizenship.  That  sentiment  breaks  out,  not 
merely  in  the  works  of  great  statesmen  and  warriors,  but  quite 
as  strikingly  in  the  productions  of  those  in  whom  the  literary 
character  was  all  in  all.  It  is  as  prominent  in  Virgil  and  Hor- 
ace as  in  Cicero  and  Caesar ;  and  if  the  language  of  Rome,  in 
other  respects  so  inferior  to  that  of  Greece,  has  any  advantage 
over  the  sister  tongue,  it  lies  in  that  accent  of  dignity  and  com- 
mand which  seems  inherent  in  its  tones.  The  austerity  of  power 
is  not  shaded  down  by  those  graceful  softenings  so  agreeable  to 
the  disposition  of  the  most  polished  Grecian  communities.  In 
the  Latin  forms  and  syntax  we  are  everywhere  conscious  of  a 
certain  energetic  majesty  and  forcible  compression.  We  hear,  as 
it  were,  the  voice  of  one  who  claims  to  be  respected,  and  resolves 
to  be  obeyed. 

The  Roman  classical  literature  may  be  divided  into  three  peri- 
ods. The  first  embraces  its  rise  and  progress,  oral  and  tradi- 
tional compositions,  the  rude  elements  of  the  drama,  the  intro- 
duction of  Greek  literature,  and  the  construction  and  perfection 
of  comedy.  To  this  period  the  first  five  centuries  of  the  repub- 
lic may  be  considered  as  introductory,  for  Rome  had,  properly 
speaking,  no  literature  until  the  conclusion  of  the  first  Punic  war 
(241  B.  c.),  and  the  first  period,  commencing  at  that  time,  ex- 
tends through  160  years — that  is,  to  the  first  appearance  of 
Cicero  iii  public  life,  74  B.  c. 

The  second  period  ends  with  the  death  of  Augustus,  14  A.  D. 
It  comprehends  the  age  of  which  Cicero  is  the  representative  as 
the  most  accomplished  orator,  philosopher,  and  prose-writer  of 
his  time,  as  well  as  that  of  Augustus,  which  is  commonly  called 
the  Golden  Age  of  Latin  poetry. 


ROMAN  LITERATURE.  123 

-  The  third  and  last  period  terminates  with  the  death  of  The- 
odoric,  526  A.  D.  Notwithstanding  the  numerous  excellences 
which  distinguished  the  literature  of  this  time,  its  decline  had 
evidently  commenced,  and,  as  the  age  of  Augustus  has  been  dis- 
tinguished by  the  epithet  "  golden,"  the  succeeding  period,  to 
the  death  of  Hadrian,  138  A.  D.,  on  account  of  its  comparative 
inferiority,  has  been  designated  "  the  Silver  Age."  From  this 
time  to  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Theodoric,  only  a  few  distin- 
guished names  are  to  be  found. 

2.  THE  LANGUAGE. — The  origin  of  the  Latin  language  is 
necessarily  connected  with  that  of  the  Romans  themselves.  In 
the  most  distant  ages  to  which  tradition  extends,  Italy  appears 
to  have  been  inhabited  by  three  stocks  or  tribes  of  the  great 
Indo-European  family.  One  of  these  is  commonly  known  by 
the  name  of  Oscans  ;  another  consisted  of  two  branches,  the 
Sabelians  or  Sabines,  and  the  Umbrians ;  the  third  was  called 
Sikeli,  sometimes  Vituli  or  Itali. 

The  original  settlements  of  the  Umbrians  extended  over  the 
district  bounded  on  one  side  by  the  Tiber,  and  on  the  other  by 
the  Po.  All  the  country  to  the  south  was  in  possession  of  the 
Oscans,  with  the  exception  of  Latium,  which  was  inhabited  by 
the  Sikeli.  But,  in  process  of  time,  the  Oscans,  pressed  upon 
by  the  Sabines,  invaded  the  abodes  of  this  peaceful  and  rural 
people,  some  of  whom  submitted,  and  amalgamated  with  their 
conquerors ;  the  rest  were  driven  across  the  narrow  sea  into  Sic- 
ily, and  gave  their  name  to  the  island. 

These  tribes  were  not  left  in  undisturbed  possession  of  their 
rich  inheritance.  More  than  1000  B.  c.  there  arrived  in  the 
northern  part  of  Italy  the  Pelasgians  (or  dark  Asiatics),  an  en- 
terprising race,  famed  for  their  warlike  spirit  and  their  skill  in 
the  arts  of  peace,  who  became  the  civilizers  of  Italy.  They 
were  far  advanced  in  the  arts  of  civilization  and  refinement,  and 
in  the  science  of  politics  and  social  life.  They  enriched  their 
newly  acquired  country  with  commerce,  and  filled  it  with 
strongly  fortified  and  populous  cities,  and  their  dominion  rapidly 
spread  over  the  whole  peninsula.  Entering  the  territory  of  the 
Umbrians,  they  drove  them  into  the  mountainous  districts,  or 
compelled  them  to  live  among  them  as  a  subject  people,  while 
they  possessed  themselves  of  the  rich  and  fertile  plains.  The 
headquarters  of  the  invaders  was  Etruria,  and  that  portion  of 
them  who  settled  there  were  known  as  Etrurians.  Marching 
southward,  they  vanquished  the  Oscans  and  occupied  the  plains 
of  Latium.  They  did  not,  however,  remain  long  at  peace  in  the 
districts  which  they  had  conquered.  The  old  inhabitants  re- 
turned from  the  neighboring  highlands  to  which  they  had  been 
driven,  and  subjugated  the  northern  part  of  Latium,  and  estab- 


124       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

lished  a  federal  union  between  the  towns  of  the  north,  of  which 
Alba  was  the  capital,  while  of  the  southern  confederacy  the  chief 
city  was  Lavinium. 

At  a  later  period,  a  Latin  tribe,  belonging  to  the  Alban  fed- 
eration, established  itself  on  the  Mount  Palatine,  and  founded 
Rome,  while  a  Sabine  community  occupied  the  neighboring 
heights  of  the  Quirinal.  Mutual  jealousy  of  race  kept  them,  for 
some  time,  separate  from  each  other ;  but  at  length  the  two 
communities  became  one  people,  called  the  Romans.  These 
were,  at  an  early  period,  subjected  to  Etruscan  rule,  and  when 
the  Etruscan  dynasty  passed  away,  its  influence  still  remained, 
and  permanently  affected  the  Roman  language. 

The  Etruscan  tongue  being  a  compound  of  Pelasgian  and 
Umbrian,  the  language  of  Latium  may  be  considered  as  the  re- 
sult of  those  two  elements  combined  with  the  Oscan,  and  brought 
together  by  the  mingling  of  those  different  tribes.  These  ele- 
ments, which  entered  into  the  formation  of  the  Latin,  may  be 
classified  under  two  heads  :  the  one  which  has,  the  other  which 
has  not  a  resemblance  to  the  Greek.  All  Latin  words  which 
resemble  the  Greek  are  Pelasgian,  and  all  which  do  not  are 
Etruscan,  Oscan,  or  Umbrian.  From  the  first  of  these  classes 
must  be  excepted  those  words  which  are  directly  derived  from 
the  Greek,  the  origin  of  which  dates  partly  from  the  time  when 
Rome  began  to  have  intercourse  with  the  Greek  colonies  of 
Magna  Graecia,  partly  after  the  Greeks  exercised  a  direct  influ- 
ence on  Roman  literature. 

Of  the  ancient  languages  of  Italy,  which  concurred  in  the 
formation  of  the  Latin,  little  is  known.  The  Eugubine  Tables 
are  the  only  extant  fragments  of  the  Umbrian  language.  These 
were  found  in  the  neighborhood  of  Ugubio,  in  the  year  1444 
A.  D.  ;  they  date  as  early  as  354  B.  c.,  and  contain  prayers  and 
rules  for  religious  ceremonies.  Some  of  these  tables  were  en- 
graved in  Etruscan  or  Umbrian  characters,  others  in  Latin  let- 
ters. The  remains  which  have  come  down  to  us  of  the  Oscan 
language  belong  to  a  composite  idiom  made  up  of  the  Sabine 
and  Oscan,  and  consist  chiefly  of  an  inscription  engraved  on  a 
brass  plate,  discovered  in  1793  A.  D.  As  the  word  Bansse 
occurs  in  this  inscription,  it  has  been  supposed  to  refer  to  the 
town  of  Bantia,  which  was  situated  not  far  from  the  spot  where 
the  tablet  was  found,  and  it  is,  therefore,  called  the  Bantine 
Table.  The  similarity  between  some  of  the  words  found  in  the 
Eugubine  Tables  and  in  Etruscan  inscriptions,  shows  that  the 
Etruscan  language  was  composed  of  the  Pelasgian  and  Umbrian, 
and  from  the  examples  given  by  ethnographers,  it  is  evident 
that  the  Etruscan  element  was  most  influential  in  the  formation 
of  the  Latin  language. 


ROMAN  LITERATURE.  125 

The  old  Roman  tongue,  or  lingua  prisca,  as  it  was  composed 
of  these  materials,  and  as  it  existed  previous  to  coming  in  con- 
tact with  the  Greek,  has  almost  entirely  perished  ;  it  did  not 
grow  into  the  new,  like  the  Greek,  by  a  process  of  intrinsic 
development,  but  it  was  remoulded  by  external  and  foreign  in- 
fluences. So  different  was  the  old  Roman  from  the  classical 
Latin,  that  some  of  those  ancient  fragments  were  with  difficulty 
intelligible  to  the  cleverest  and  best  educated  scholars  of  the 
Augustan  age. 

An  example  of  the  oldest  Latin  extant  is  contained  in  the 
sacred  chant  of  the  Fratres  Arvales.  These  were  a  college  of 
priests,  whose  function  was  to  offer  prayers  for  plenteous  har- 
vests, in  solemn  dances  and  processions  at  the  opening  of  spring. 
Their  song  was  chanted  in  the  temple  with  closed  doors,  accom- 
panied by  that  peculiar  dance  which  was  termed  the  tripudium, 
from  its  containing  three  beats.  The  inscription  which  embodied 
this  litany  was  discovered  in  Rome  in  1778  A.  D.  The  monu- 
ment belongs  to  the  reign  of  Heliogabalus,  218  A.  D.,  but  al- 
though the  date  is  so  recent,  the  permanence  of  religious  formu- 
las renders  it  probable  that  the  inscription  contains  the  exact 
words  sung  by  this  priesthood  in  the  earliest  times.  The  "  Car- 
men Saliare,"  or  the  Salian  hymn,  the  leges  regice,  the  Tiburtine 
inscription,  the  inscription  on  the  sarcophagus  of  L.  Cornelius 
Scipio  Barbatus,  the  great-grandfather  of  the  conqueror  of  Han- 
nibal, the  epitaph  of  Lucius  Scipio,  his  son,  and,  above  all,  the 
Twelve  Tables,  are  the  other  principal  extant  monuments  of 
ancient  Latin.  The  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables  were  engraven 
on  tablets  of  brass,  and  publicly  set  up  in  the  comitium  ;  they 
were  first  made  public  449  B.  c. 

Most  of  these  literary  monuments  were  written  in  Saturnian 
verse,  the  oldest  measure  used  by  the  Latin  poets.  It  was  prob- 
ably derived  from  the  Etruscans,  and  until  Ennius  introduced 
the  heroic  hexameter,  the  strains  of  the  Italian  bards  flowed  in 
this  metre.  The  structure  of  the  Saturnian  is  very  simple,  and 
its  rhythmical  arrangement  is  found  in  the  poetry  of  every  age 
and  country.  Macaulay  adduces,  as  an  example  of  this  meas- 
ure, the  following  line  from  the  well-known  nursery  song,  — 

"  The  queen  was  in  her  parlor,  |  edting  bredd  and  honey." 

From  this  species  of  verse,  which  probably  prevailed  among  the 
natives  of  Provence  (the  Roman  Provincia),  and  into  which,  at 
a  later  period,  rhyme  was  introduced  as  an  embellishment,  the 
Troubadours  derived  the  metre  of  their  ballad  poetry,  and  thence 
introduced  it  into  the  rest  of  Europe. 

A  wide  gap  separates  this  old  Latin  from  the  Latin  of  Ennius, 
whose  style  was  formed  by  Greek  taste  ;  another  not  so  wide  is 


126       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

interposed  between  the  age  of  Ennius  and  that  of  Plautus  and 
Terence,  and  lastly,  Cicero  and  the  Augustan  poets  mark  an- 
other age.  But  in  all  its  periods  of  development,  the  Latin 
bears  a  most  intimate  relation  with  the  Greek.  This  similarity 
is  the  result  both  of  their  common  origin  from  the  primitive 
Pelasgian  and  of  the  intercourse  which  the  Romans  at  a  later 
period  held  with  the  Greeks.  Latin,  however,  had  not  the 
plastic  property  of  the  Greek,  the  faculty  of  transforming  itself 
into  every  variety  of  form  and  shape  conceived  by  the  fancy  and 
imagination  ;  it  partook  of  the  spirit  of  Roman  nationality,  of 
the  conscious  dignity  of  the  Roman  citizen,  of  the  indomitable 
will  that  led  that  people  to  the  conquest  of  the  world.  In  its 
construction,  instead  of  conforming  to  the  thought,  it  bends  the 
thought  to  its  own  genius.  It  is  a  fit  language  for  expressing 
the  thoughts  of  an  active  and  practical,  but  not  of  an  imaginative 
and  speculative  people.  It  was  propagated,  like  the  dominion 
of  Rome,  by  conquest.  It  either  took  the  place  of  the  language 
of  the  conquered  nation,  or  became  ingrafted  upon  it,  and  grad- 
ually pervaded  its  composition  ;  hence  its  presence  is  discernible 
in  all  European  languages. 

3.  THE  RELIGION.  —  The  religion  and  mythology  of  Etruria 
left  an  indelible  stamp  on  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  Roman 
people.  At  first  they  worshiped  heaven  and  earth,  personified 
in  Saturn  and  Ops,  by  whom  Juno,  Vesta,  and  Ceres  were  gen- 
erated, symbolizing  marriage,  family,  and  fertility  ;  soon  after, 
other  Etruscan  divinities  were  introduced,  such  as  Jupiter,  Mi- 
nerva, and  Janus ;  and  Sylvanus  and  Faunus,  who  delighted  in 
the  simple  occupations  of  rural  and  pastoral  life.  From  the 
Etrurians  the  Romans  borrowed,  also,  the  institution  of  the  Ves- 
tals, whose  duty  was  to  watch  and  keep  alive  the  sacred  fire 
of  Vesta  ;  the  Lares  and  Penates,  the  domestic  gods,  which 
presided  over  the  dwelling  and  family  ;  Terminus,  the  god  of 
property  and  the  rites  connected  with  possession  ;  and  the  orders 
of  Augurs  and  Aruspices,  whose  office  was  to  consult  the  flight 
of  birds  or  to  inspect  the  entrails  of  animals  offered  in  sacrifice, 
in  order  to  ascertain  future  events.  The  family  of  the  Roman 
gods  continued  to  increase  by  adopting  the  divinities  of  the  con- 
quered nations,  and  more  particularly  by  the  introduction  of 
those  of  Greece.  The  general  division  of  the  gods  was  twofold, 
—  the  superior  and  inferior  deities.  The  first  class  contained 
the  Consentes  and  the  Selecti ;  the  second,  the  Indigetes  and 
Semones.  The  Consentes,  so  called  because  they  were  supposed 
to  form  the  great  council  of  heaven,  consisted  of  twelve  :  Jupiter, 
Neptune,  Apollo,  Mars,  Mercury,  Vulcan,  Juno,  Minerva.  Ceres. 
Diana,  Venus,  and  Vesta.  The  Selecti  were  nearly  equal  to  them 
in  rank,  and  consisted  of  eight :  Saturn,  Pluto,  Bacchus,  Janus. 


ROMAN  LITERATURE.  127 

Sol,  Genius,  Rhea,  and  Luna.  The  Indigites  were  heroes  who 
were  ranked  among  the  gods,  and  included  particularly  Hercules, 
Castor  and  Pollux,  and  Quirinus  or  Romulus.  The  Semones 
comprehended  those  deities  that  presided  over  particular  objects, 
as  Pan,  the  god  of  shepherds  ;  Flora,  the  goddess  of  flowers,  etc. 
Besides  these,  there  were  among  the  inferior  gods  a  numerous 
class  of  deities,  including  the  virtues  and  vices  and  other  objects 
personified. 

The  religion  of  the  Romans  was  essentially  political,  and  em- 
ployed as  a  means  of  promoting  the  designs  of  the  state.  It 
was  prosaic  in  its  character,  and  in  this  respect  differed  essen- 
tially from  the  artistic  and  poetical  religion  of  the  Greeks.  The 
Greeks  conceived  religion  as  a  free  and  joyous  worship  of  na- 
ture, a  centre  of  individuality,  beauty,  and  grace,  as  well  as  a 
source  of  poetry,  art,  and  independence.  With  the  Romans,  on 
the  contrary,  religion  conveyed  a  mysterious  and  hidden  idea, 
which  gave  to  this  sentiment  a  gloomy  and  unattractive  charac- 
ter, without  either  moral  or  artistic  influence. 

PERIOD  FIRST. 

FROM  THE  CONCLUSION   OF   THE   FIRST  PUNIC  WAE  TO  THE  AGE  OF 
CICERO  (241-74  B.  c.) 

1.  EARLY  LITERATURE  OF  THE  ROMANS.  —  The  Romans, 
like  all  other  nations,  had  oral  poetical  compositions  before  they 
possessed  any  written  literature.  Cicero  speaks  of  the  banquet 
being  enlivened  by  the  songs  of  bards,  in  which  the  exploits  of 
heroes  were  recited  and  celebrated.  By  these  lays  national  pride 
and  family  vanity  were  gratified,  and  the  anecdotes,  thus  pre- 
served, furnished  sources  of  early  legendary  history.  But  these 
legends  must  not  be  compared  to  those  of  Greece,  in  which  the 
religious  sentiment  gave  a  supernatural  glory  to  the  effusions  of 
the  bard,  painted  men  as  heroes  and  heroes  as  deities,  and,  while 
it  was  the  natural  growth  of  the  Greek  intellect,  twined  itself 
around  the  affections  of  the  people.  The  Roman  religion  was 
a  ceremonial  for  the  priests,  and  not  for  the  people,  and  in  Ro- 
man tradition  there  are  no  traces  of  elevated  genius  or  poetical 
inspiration.  The  Romans  possessed  the  germs  of  those  faculties 
which  admit  of  cultivation  and  improvement,  such  as  taste  and 
genius,  and  the  appreciation  of  the  beautiful;  but  they  did  not 
possess  those  natural  gifts  of  fancy  and  imagination  which  formed 
part  of  the  Greek  mind,  and  which  made  that  nation  in  a  state 
of  infancy,  almost  of  barbarism,  a  poetical  people.  With  them 
literature  was  not  of  spontaneous  growth  ;  it  was  chiefly  the  re- 
sult of  the  influence  exerted  by  the  Etruscans,  who  were  their 
teachers  in  everything  mental  and  spiritual. 


128       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

The  tendency  of  the  Roman  mind  was  essentially  utilitarian. 
Even  Cicero,  with  all  Us  varied  accomplishments,  will  recognize 
but  one  end  and  object  of  all  study,  namely,  those  sciences  which 
will  render  man  useful  to  his  country,  and  the  law  of  literary 
development  is  modified  according  to  this  ruling  principle.  From 
the  very  beginning,  the  first  cause  of  Roman  literature  will  be 
found  to  have  been  a  view  to  utility  and  not  to  the  satisfaction 
of  an  impulsive  feeling. 

In  other  nations,  poetry  has  been  the  first  spontaneous  pro- 
duction. With  the  Romans,  the  first  written  literary  effort  was 
history ;  but  even  their  early  history  was  a  simple  record  of 
facts,  not  of  ideas  or  sentiments,  and  valuable  only  for  its  truth 
and  accuracy.  Their  original  documents,  mere  records  of  mem- 
orable events  anterior  to  the  capture  of  Rome  by  the  Gauls,  per- 
ished in  the  conflagration  of  the  city. 

The  earliest  attempt  at  versification  made  by  the  rude  inhab- 
itants of  Latium  was  satire  in  a  somewhat  dramatic  form.  The 
Fescennine  songs  were  metrical,  for  the  accompaniments  of  mu- 
sic and  dancing  necessarily  restricted  them  to  measure,  and,  like 
the  dramatic  exhibitions  of  the  Greeks,  they  had  their  origin 
among  the  rural  population,  not  like  them  in  any  religious  cere- 
monial, but  in  the  pastimes  of  the  village  festival.  At  first  they 
were  innocent  and  gay,  but  liberty  at  length  degenerated  into 
license,  and  gave  birth  to  malicious  and  libelous  attacks  upon 
persons  of  irreproachable  character.  This  infancy  of  song  illus- 
trates the  character  of  the  Romans  in  its  rudest  and  coarsest 
form.  They  loved  strife,  both  bodily  and  mental,  and  they  thus 
early  displayed  that  taste  which,  in  more  polished  ages,  and  in 
the  hands  of  cultivated  poets,  was  developed  in  the  sharp,  cut- 
ting wit,  and  the  lively  but  piercing  points  of  Roman  satire. 

In  the  Fescennine  songs  the  Etruscans  probably  furnished  the 
spectacle,  all  that  which  addresses  itself  to  the  eye,  while  the 
habits  of  Italian  rural  life  supplied  the  sarcastic  humor  and 
ready  extemporaneous  gibe,  which  are  the  essence  of  the  true 
comic.  The  next  advance  in  point  of  art  must  be  attributed  to 
the  Oscans,  whose  entertainments  were  most  popular  among  the 
Italian  nations.  They  represented  in  broad  caricature  national 
peculiarities.  Their  language  was,  originally,  Oscan,  as  well 
as  the  characters  represented.  The  principal  one  resembled  the 
clown  of  modern  pantomime  ',  another  was  a  kind  of  pantaloon 
or  charlatan,  and  much  of  the  rest  consisted  of  practical  jokes, 
like  that  of  the  Italian  Polincinella.  After  their  introduction 
at  Rome,  they  received  many  improvements ;  they  lost  their  na- 
tive rusticity  ;  their  satire  was  good-natured  ;  their  jests  were 
seemly,  and  kept  in  check  by  the  laws  of  good  taste.  They 
were  not  acted  by  common  professional  performers,  and  even  a 


ROMAN  LITERATURE.  129 

Roman  citizen  might  take  part  in  them  without  disgrace.  They 
were  known  by  the  name  of  "  Fabulae  Atellanae,"  from  Attela,  a 
town  in  Campania,  where  they  were  first  performed.  They  re- 
mained in  favor  with  the  Roman  people  for  centuries.  Sylla 
amused  his  leisure  hours  in  writing  them,  and  Suetonius  bears 
testimony  to  their  having  been  a  popular  amusement  under  the 
empire. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  fourth  century,  the  Etruscan  histri- 
ones  were  introduced,  whose  entertainments  consisted  of  grace- 
ful national  dances,  accompanied  with  the  music  of  the  flute,  but 
without  either  songs  or  dramatic  action.  With  these  dances  the 
Romans  combined  the  old  Fescennine  songs,  and  the  varied  me- 
tres, which  their  verse  permitted  to  the  vocal  parts,  gave  to 
this  mixed  entertainment  the  name  of  Satura  (a  hodge-podge  or 
potpourri),  from  which,  in  after  times,  the  word  satire  was  de- 
rived. 

2.  EARLY  LATLST  POETS.  —  At  the  conclusion  of  the  first 
Punic  war,  when  the  influence  of  Greek  intellect,  which  had  al- 
ready lonj  been  felt  in  Italy,  had  extended  to  the  capital,  the 
Romans  were  prepared  for  the  reception  of  a  more  regular 
drama.  But  not  only  did  they  owe  to  Greece  the  principles  of 
literary  taste ;  their  earliest  poet  was  one  of  that  nation.  Livius 
Andronicus  (fl.  240  B.  c^,  though  born  in  Italy,  and  educated  at 
Rome,  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  the  Greek  colony  of 
Tarentum.  He  was  at  first  a  slave,  probably  a  captive  taken  in 
war,  but  was  finally  emancipated  by  his  master,  in  whose  family 
he  occupied  the  position  of  instructor  to  his  children.  He  wrote 
a  translation,  or  perhaps  an  imitation  of  the  Odyssey,  in  the  old 
Saturnian  metre,  and  also  a  few  hymns.  His  principal  works, 
however,  were  tragedies  ;  but,  from  the  few  fragments  of  his 
writings  extant,  it  is  impossible  to  form  an  estimate  of  his  ability 
as  a  poet.  According  to  Livy,  Andronicus  was  the  first  who 
substituted,  for  the  rude  extemporaneous  effusions  of  the  Fescen- 
nine verse,  plays  with  a  regular  plot  and  fable.  In  consequence 
of  losing  his  voice,  from  being  frequently  encored,  he  obtained 
permission  to  introduce  a  boy  to  sing  the  ode  or  air  to  the  ac- 
companiment of  the  flute,  while  he  himself  represented  the  ac- 
tion of  the  song  by  his  gestures  and  dancing. 

Naevius  (fl.  235  B.  c.)  was  the  first  poet  who  really  deserves 
the  name  of  Roman.  He  was  not  a  servile  imitator,  but  applied 
Greek  taste  and  cultivation  to  the  development  of  Roman  senti- 
ments, and  was  a  true  Roman  in  heart,  unsparing  in  his  censure 
of  immorality  and  his  admiration  for  heroic  self-devotion.  His 
honest  principles  cemented  the  strong  friendship  between  him  and 
the  upright  and  unbending  Cato,  a  friendship  which  probably 
contributed  to  form  the  political  and  literary  character  of  that 


130       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

stern  old  Roman.  The  comedies  of  Naevius  had  undoubted  pre- 
tensions to  originality  ;  he  held  up  to  public  scorn  the  vices  and 
follies  of  his  day,  and,  being  a  warm  supporter  of  the  people 
against  the  encroachments  of  the  nobility,  and  unable  to  resist 
indulgence  in  his  satiric  vein,  he  was  exiled  to  Utica,  where  he 
died.  He  was  the  author  of  an  epic  poem  on  the  Punic  war. 
Ennius  and  Virgil  unscrupulously  copied  and  imitated  him,  and 
Horace  writes  that  in  his  day  the  poems  of  Naevius  were  in  the 
hands  and  hearts  of  everybody.  The  fragments  of  his  writings 
extant  are  not  more  numerous  than  those  of  Livius. 

Naevius,  the  last  of  the  older  school  of  writers,  by  introducing 
new  principles  of  taste  to  his  countrymen,  altered  their  stand- 
ards ;  and  Greek  literature  having  now  driven  out  its  predeces- 
sor, a  new  school  of  poetry  arose,  of  which  Ennius  (239-169  B.  c.) 
was  the  founder.  He  earned  a  subsistence  as  a  teacher  of  Greek, 
was  the  friend  of  Scipio,  and,  at  his  death,  was  buried  in  the 
family  tomb  of  the  Scipios,  at  the  request  of  the  great  conqueror 
of  Hannibal,  whose  fame  he  contributed  to  hand  down  to  pos- 
terity. Cicero  always  uses  the  appellation,  "  our  own  Ennius," 
when  he  quotes  his  poetry.  Horace  calls  him  "  Father  Ennius," 
a  term  which  implies  reverence  and  regard,  and  that  he  was 
the  founder  of  Latin  poetry.  He  was,  like  his  friends  Cato  the 
censor,  and  Scipio  Africanus  the  elder,  a  man  of  action  as  well 
as  philosophical  thought,  and  not  only  a  poet,  but  a  brave  sol- 
dier, with  all  the  singleness  of  heart  and  simplicity  of  manners 
which  marked  the  old  times  of  Roman  virtue.  Ennius  possessed 
great  power  over  words,  and  wielded  that  power  skillfully.  He 
improved  the  language  in  its  harmony  and  its  grammatical  forms, 
and  increased  its  copiousness  and  power.  What  he  did  was  im- 
proved upon,  but  was  never  undone  ;  and  upon  the  foundations  he 
laid,  the  taste  of  succeeding  ages  erected  an  elegant  and  beautiful 
superstructure.  His  great  epic  poem,  the  "  Annals,"  gained  him 
the  attachment  and  admiration  of  his  countrymen.  In  this  he 
first  introduced  the  hexameter  to  the  notice  of  the  Romans,  and 
detailed  the  rise  and  progress  of  their  national  glory,  from  the 
earliest  legendary  period  down  to  his  own  times.  The  fragments 
of  this  work  which  rehiain  are  amply  sufficient  to  show  that  he 
possessed  picturesque  power,  both  in  sketching  his  narratives 
and  in  portraying  his  characters,  which  seem  to  live  and  breathe  ; 
his  language,  dignified,  chaste,  and  severe,  rises  as  high  as  the 
most  majestic  eloquence,  but  it  does  not  soar  to  the  sublimity  of 
poetry.  As  a  dramatic  poet,  Ennius  does  not  deserve  a  high 
reputation.  In  comedy,  as  in  tragedy,  he  never  emancipated 
himself  from  the  Greek  originals. 

3.  ROMAN  COMEDY.  —  The  rude  comedy  of  the  early  Romans 
made  little  progress  beyond  personal  satire,  burlesque  extrava- 


•ROMAN  LITERATURE.  131 

-. 

gance  and  licentious  jesting,  but  upon  this  was  ingrafted  the 
new  Greek  comedy,  and  hence  arose  that  phase  of  the  drama,  of 
which  the  representatives  were  Plautus,  Statius,  and  Terence. 
The  Roman  comedy  was  calculated  to  produce  a  moral  result, 
although  the  morality  it  inculcated  was  extremely  low.  Its 
standard  was  worldly  prudence,  its  lessons  utilitarian,  and  its 
philosophy  Epicurean.  There  is  a  want  of  variety  in  the  plots, 
but  this  defect  is  owing  to  the  social  and  political  condition  of 
ancient  Greece,  which  was  represented  in  the  Greek  comedies 
and  copied  by  the  Romans.  There  is  also  a  sameness  in  the 
dramatis  personce,  the  principal  characters  being  always  a  mo- 
rose or  a  gentle  father,  who  is  sometimes  also  the  henpecked 
husband  of  a  rich  wife,  an  affectionate  or  domineering  wife,  a 
good-natured  profligate,  a  roguish  servant,  a  calculating  slave- 
dealer  and  some  others. 

The  actors  wore  appropriate  masks,  the  features  of  which 
were  not  only  grotesque,  but  much  exaggerated  and  magnified. 
This  was  rendered  necessary  by  the  immense  size  of  the  theatre 
and  stage,  and  the  mouth  of  the  mask  answered  the  purpose  of 
a  speaking  trumpet,  to  assist  in  conveying  the  voice  to  every 
part  of  the  vast  building.  The  characters  were  known  by  a  con- 
ventional costume  ;  old  men  wore  robes  of  white,  young  men 
were  attired  in  gay  clothes,  rich  men  in  purple,  soldiers  in  scar- 
let, poor  men  and  slaves  in  dark  and  scanty  dresses.  The  com- 
edy had  always  a  musical  accompaniment  of  flutes  of  different 
kinds. 

In  order  to  understand  the  principles  which  regulated  the 
Roman  comic  metres,  it  is  necessary  to  observe  the  manner  in 
which  the  language  itself  was  affected  by  the  common  conver- 
sational pronunciation.  Latin,  as  it  was  pronounced,  was  very 
different  from  Latin  as  it  is  written  ;  this  difference  consisted  in 
abbreviation,  either  by  the  omission  of  sounds  altogether,  or  by 
the  contraction  of  two  sounds  into  one,  and  in  this  respect  the 
conversational  language  of  the  Romans  resembled  that  of  modern 
nations  ;  with  them,  as  with  us,  the  mark  of  good  taste  was  ease 
and  the  absence  of  pedantry  and  affectation.  In  the  comic 
writers  we  have  a  complete  representation  of  Latin  as  it  was 
commonly  pronounced  and  spoken,  and  but  little  trammeled  or 
confined  by  a  rigid  adhesion  to  Greek  metrical  laws. 

4.  COMIC  POETS.  —  Plautus  (227-184  B.  c.)  was  a  contem- 
porary of  Ennius  ;  he  was  a  native  of  Umbria,  and  of  humble 
origin.  Education  did  not  overcome  his  vulgarity,  although  it 
produced  a  great  effect  upon  his  language  and  style.  He  must 
have  lived  and  associated  with  the  people  whose  manners  he 
describes,  hence  his  pictures  are  correct  and  truthful.  The 
class  from  which  his  representations  are  taken  consisted  of 


132       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

clients,  the  sons  of  freedmen  and  the  half-enfranchised  natives 
of  Italian  towns.  He  had  no  aristocratic  friends,  like  Ennius 
and  Terence ;  the  Roman  public  were  his  patrons,  and  notwith- 
standing their  faults,  his  comedies  retained  their  popularity  even 
in  the  Augustan  age,  and  were  acted  as  late  as  the  reign  of 
Diocletian.  Life,  bustle,  surprise,  unexpected  situations,  sharp, 
sparkling  raillery  that  knew  no  restraint  nor  bound,  left  his 
audience  no  time  for  dullness  or  weariness.  Although  Greek 
was  the  fountain  from  which  he  drew  his  stores,  his  wit,  thought, 
and  language  were  entirely  Roman,  and  his  style  was  Latin  of 
the  purest  and  most  elegant  kind  —  not,  indeed,  controlled  by 
much  deference  to  the  laws  of  metrical  harmony,  but  full  of  pith 
and  sprightliness,  bearing  the  stamp  of  colloquial  vivacity,  and 
suitable  to  the  general  briskness  of  his  scenes.  Yet  in  the  tone 
of  his  dialogue  we  miss  all  symptoms  of  deference  to  the  taste 
of  the  more  polished  classes  of  society.  Almost  all  his  comedies 
were  adopted  from  the  new  comedy  of  the  Greeks,  and  though 
he  had  studied  both  the  old  and  the  middle  comedy,  Menander 
and  others  of  the  same  school  furnished  him  the  originals  of  his 
plots.  The  popularity  of  Plautus  was  not  confined  to  Rome, 
either  republican  or  imperial.  Dramatic  writers  of  modern  times, 
as  Shakspeare,  Dryden,  and  Moliere.  have  recognized  the  effec- 
tiveness of  his  plots,  and  have  adopted  or  imitated  them.  About 
twenty  of  his  plays  are  extant,  among  which  the  Captivi,  the 
Epidicus,  the  Cistellaria,  the  Aulularia,  and  the  Rudens  are 
considered  the  best. 

Terence  (193-158  B.  c.)  was  a  slave  in  the  family  of  a  Roman 
senator,  and  was  probably  a  native  of  Carthage.  His  genius 
presented  the  rare  combination  of  all  the  fine  and  delicate  quali- 
ties which  characterized  Attic  sentiment,  without  corrupting  the 
native  purity  of  the  Latin  language.  The  elegance  and  grace- 
fulness of  his  style  show  that  the  conversation  of  the  accom- 
plished society,  in  which  he  was  a  welcome  guest,  was  not  lost 
upon  his  correct  ear  and  quick  intuition.  So  far  as  it  can  be  so, 
comedy  was,  in  the  hands  of  Terence,  an  instrument  of  moral 
teaching.  Six  of  his  comedies  only  remain,  of  which  the  Andrian 
and  the  Adelphi  are  the  most  interesting.  If  Terence  was  infe- 
rior to  Plautus  in  life,  bustle,  and  intrigue,  and  in  the  delinea- 
tion of  national  character,  he  is  superior  in  elegance  of  language 
and  refinement  of  taste.  The  justness  of  his  reflections  more 
than  compensates  for  the  absence  of  his  predecessor's  humor ; 
he  touches  the  heart  as  well  as  gratifies  the  intellect. 

Of  the  few  other  writers  of  comedy  among  the  Romans,  Sta- 
tius  may  be  mentioned,  who  flourished  between  Plautus  and 
Terence.  He  was  an  emancipated  slave,  born  in  Milan.  Cicero 
and  Varro  have  pronounced  judgment  upon  his  merits,  the  sub- 


ROMAN  LITERATURE.  133 

stance  of  which  appears  to  bef  that  his  excellences  consisted  in 
the  conduct  of  the  plot,  in  dignity,  and  in  pathos,  while  his  fault 
was  too  little  care  in  preserving  the  purity  of  the  Latin  style. 
The  fragments,  however,  of  his  works,  which  remain  are  not 
sufficient  to  test  the  opinion  of  the  ancient  critics. 

5.  ROMAN  TRAGEDY.  —  While  Roman  comedy  was  brought 
to  perfection  under  the  influence  of  Greek  literature,  Roman 
tragedy,  on  the  other  hand,  was  transplanted  from  Athens,  and, 
with  few  exceptions,  was  never  anything  more  than  translation 
or  imitation.  In  the  century  during  which,  together  with  com- 
edy, it  flourished  and  decayed,  it  boasted  of  five  distinguished 
writers,  Livius,  Naevius,  Ennius  (already  spoken  of),  Pacuvius, 
and  Attius.  In  after  ages,  Rome  did  not  produce  one  tragic 
poet,  unless  Varius  be  considered  an  exception.  The  tragedies 
attributed  to  Seneca  were  never  acted,  and  were  only  composed 
for  reading  and  recitation. 

Among  the  causes  which  prevented  tragedy  from  flourishing 
at  Rome  was  the  little  influence  the  national  legends  exerted 
over  the  people.  These  legends  were  more  often  private  than 
public  property,  and  ministered  more  to  the  glory  of  private 
families  than  to  that  of  the  nation  at  large.  They  were  em- 
balmed by  their  poets  as  curious  records  of  antiquity,  but  they 
did  not,  like  the  venerable  traditions  of  Greece,  twine  them- 
selves around  the  heart  of  the  nation.  Another  reason  why 
Roman  legends  had  not  the  power  to  move  the  affections  of  the 
Roman  populace  is  to  be  found  in  the  changes  the  masses  had 
undergone.  The  Roman  people  were  no  longer  the  descendants 
of  those  who  had  maintained  the  national  glory  in  the  early 
period  ;  the  patrician  families  were  almost  extinct ;  war  and 
poverty  had  extinguished  the  middle  classes  and  miserably 
thinned  the  lower  orders.  Into  the  vacancy  thus  caused,  poured 
thousands  of  slaves,  captives  in  the  bloody  wars  of  Gaul,  Spain, 
Greece,  and  Africa.  These  and  their  descendants  replaced  the 
ancient  people,  and  while  many  of  them  by  their  talents  and 
energy  arrived  at  wealth  and  station,  they  could  not  possibly  be 
Romans  at  heart,  or  consider  the  past  gloTies  of  their  adopted 
country  as  their  own.  It  was  to  the  rise  of  this  new  element  of 
population,  and  the  displacement  or  absorption  of  the  old  race, 
that  the  decline  of  patriotism  was  owing,  and  the  disregard  of 
everything  except  daily  sustenance  and  daily  amusement,  which 
paved  the  way  for  the  empire  and  marked  the  downfall  of  lib- 
erty. With  the  people  of  Athens,  tragedy  formed  a  part  of  the 
national  religion.  By  it  the  people  were  taught  to  sympathize 
with  their  heroic  ancestors  ;  the  poet  was  held  to  be  inspired, 
and  poetry  the  tongue  in  which  the  natural  held  communion  with 
the  supernatural.  With  the  Romans,  the  theatre  was  merely  a 


134       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

place  for  secular  amusement,  and  poetry  only  an  exercise  of  the 
fancy.  Again,  the  religion  of  the  Romans  was  not  ideal,  like 
that  of  the  Greeks.  The  old  national  faith  of  Italy,  not  being 
rooted  in  the  heart,  soon  became  obsolete,  and  readily  admitted 
the  ingrafting  of  foreign  superstitions,  which  had  no  hold  on  the 
belief  or  love  of  the  people.  Nor  was  the  genius  of  the  Roman 
people  such  as  to  sympathize  with  the  legends  of  the  past ;  they 
lived  only  in  the  present  and  the  future ;  they  did  not  look  back 
on  their  national  heroes  as  demigods ;  they  were  pressing  for- 
ward to  extend  the  frontiers  of  their  empire,  to  bring  under  their 
yoke  nations  which  their  forefathers  had  not  known.  If  they 
regarded  their  ancestors  at  all,  it  was  not  in  the  light  of  men  of 
heroic  stature  as  compared  with  themselves,  but  as  those  whom 
they  could  equal  or  even  surpass. 

The  scenes  of  real  life,  the  bloody  combats  of  the  gladiators, 
the  captives,  and  malefactors  stretched  on  crosses,  expiring  in 
excruciating  agonies  or  mangled  by  wild  beasts,  were  the  trage- 
dies which  most  deeply  interested  a  Roman  audience. 

The  Romans  were  a  rough  people,  full  of  physical  rather  than 
of  intellectual  energy,  courting  peril  and  setting  no  value  on  hu- 
man life  or  suffering.  Their  very  virtues  were  stern  and  severe ; 
they  were  strangers  to  both  the  passions  which  it  was  the  object 
of  tragedy  to  excite  —  pity  and  terror.  In  the  public  games  of 
Greece,  the  refinements  of  poetry  mingled  with  those  exercises 
which  were  calculated  to  invigorate  the  physical  powers,  and 
develop  manly  beauty.  Those  of  Rome  were  sanguinary  and 
brutalizing,  the  amusements  of  a  nation  to  whom  war  was  a 
pleasure  and  a  pastime. 

It  cannot  be  asserted,  however,  that  tragedy  was  never  to  a 
certain  extent  an  acceptable  entertainment  at  Rome,  but  only 
that  it  never  flourished  there  as  it  did  at  Athens,  and  that  no 
Roman  tragedies  can  be  compared  with  those  of  Greece. 

6.  TRAGIC  POETS.  —  Three  separate  eras  produced  tragic 
poets.  In  the  first  flourished  Livius  Andronicus,  Naevius,  and 
Ennius  ;  in  the  second,  Pacuvius  and  Attius  ;  in  the  third,  Asi- 
nius  Pollio  wrote  tragedies,  the  plots  of  which  seem  to  have  been 
taken  from  Roman  history.  Ovid  attempted  a  "  Medea,"  and 
even  the  Emperor  Augustus,  with  other  men  of  genius,  tried 
his  hand,  though  unsuccessfully,  at  tragedy. 

In  the  second  of  the  eras  mentioned,  Roman  tragedy  reached 
its  highest  degree  of  perfection  simultaneously  with  that  of 
comedy.  While  Terence  was  successfully  reproducing  the  wit 
and  manners  of  the  new  Attic  comedy,  Pacuvius  (220-130  B.  c.) 
was  enriching  the  Roman  drama  with  free  translations  of  the 
Greek  tragedians.  He  was  a  native  of  Brundusium  and  a  grand- 
son of  the  poet  Ennius.  At  Rome  he  distinguished  himself  as 


ROMAN  LITERATURE.  135 

a  painter  as  well  as  a  dramatic  poet.  His  tragedies  were  not 
mere  translations,  but  adaptations  of  Greek  tragedies  to  the 
Roman  stage.  The  fragments  which  are  extant  are  full  of  new 
and  original  thoughts,  and  the  very  roughness  of  his  style  and 
audacity  of  his  expressions  have  somewhat  of  the  solemn  grand- 
eur and  picturesque  boldness  which  distinguish  the  father  of 
Attic  tragedy. 

Attius  (fl.  138  B.  c.),  though  born  later  than  Pacuvius,  was 
almost  his  contemporary,  and  a  competitor  for  popular  applause. 
He  is  said  to  have  written  more  than  fifty  tragedies,  of  which 
fragments  only  remain.  His  taste  is  chastened,  his  sentiments 
noble,  and  his  versification  elegant.  With  him,  Latin  tragedy 
disappeared.  The  tragedies  of  the  third  period  were  written 
expressly  for  reading  and  recitation,  and  not  for  the  stage : 
they  were  dramatic  poems,  not  dramas.  Amidst  the  scenes  of 
horror  and  violence  which  followed,  the  voice  of  the  tragic  muse 
was  hushed.  Massacre  and  rapine  raged  through  the  streets  of 
Rome,  itself  a  theatre  where  the  most  terrible  scenes  were  daily 
enacted. 

7.  SATIRE.  — The  invention  of  satire  is  universally  attributed 
to  the  Romans,  and  this  is  true  as  far  as  the  external  form  is 
concerned,  but  the  spirit  is  found  in  many  parts  of  the  litera- 
ture  of  Greece.     Ennius  was  the  inventor  of  the  name,  but 
Lucilius  (148-102  B.  c.)  was  the  father  of  satire,  in  the  proper 
sense.     His  satires  mark  an  era  in  Roman  literature,  and  prove 
that  a  love  for  this  species  of  poetry  had  already  made  great 
progress.     Hitherto,  literature,  science,  and  art  had  been  con- 
sidered the  province   of  slaves  and  freedmen.     The  stern  old 
Roman  virtue  despised  such  sedentary  employment  as  intellectual 
cultivation,  and  thought  it  unworthy  of  the  warrior  and  states- 
man.    Some  of  the  higher  classes  loved  literature  and  patron- 
ized it,  but  did  not  make  it  their  pursuit.     Lucilius  was  a  Ro- 
man  knight,  as  well  as    a  poet.     His  satires  were  comprised 
in  thirty  books,  numerous  fragments  of  which  are  still  extant. 
He  was  a  man  of  high  moral  principle,  though  stern  and  stoical ; 
a  relentless   enemy  of  vice  and  profligacy,  and  a  gallant  and 
fearless  defender  of  truth  and  honesty.      After  the  death  of 
Lucilius  satire  languished,  until  half  a  century  later,  when  it 
assumed  a  new  garb  in  the  descriptive  scenes  of  Horace,  and 
put  forth  its  original  vigor  in  the  burning  thoughts  of  Persius 
and  Juvenal. 

8.  HISTORY  AXD  ORATORY.  —  Prose  was  far  more  in  accord- 
ance with  the  genius  of  the  Romans  than  poetry.     As  a  nation, 
they  had  little  or  no  imaginative  power,  no  enthusiastic  love  of 
natural  beauty,  and  no    acute    perception  of  the  sympathy  be- 
tween man  and  the  external  world.     The  favorite  civil  pursuit 


136       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

of  an  enlightened  Roman  was  statesmanship,  and  the  subjects 
akin  to  it,  history,  jurisprudence,  and  oratory,  the  natural  lan- 
guage of  which  was  prose,  not  poetry.  And  their  practical  states- 
manship gave  an  early  encouragement  to  oratory,  which  is  pecul- 
iarly the  literature  of  active  life.  As  matter  was  more  valued 
than  manner  by  this  utilitarian  people,  it  was  long  before  it  was 
thought  necessary  to  embellish  prose  composition  with  the  graces 
of  rhetoric.  The  fact  that  Roman  literature  was  imitative 
rather  than  inventive,  gave  a  historical  bias  to  the  Roman  intel- 
lect, and  a  tendency  to  study  subjects  from  an  historical  point 
of  view.  But  even  in  history,  they  never  attained  that  compre- 
hensive and  philosophical  spirit  which  distinguished  the  Greek 
historians. 

The  most  ancient  writer  of  Roman  history  was  Fabius  Pictor 
(fl.  219  B.  c.).  His  principal  work,  written  in  Greek,  was  a  his- 
tory of  the  first  and  second  Punic  war,  to  which  subsequent 
writers  were  much  indebted.  Contemporary  with  Fabius  was 
Cincius  Alimentus,  also  an  annalist  of  the  Punic  war,  in  which 
he  was  personally  engaged.  He  was  a  prisoner  of  Hannibal, 
who  delighted  in  the  society  of  literary  men,  and  treated  him 
with  great  kindness  and  consideration,  and  himself  communi- 
cated to  him  the  details  of  his  passage  across  the  Alps.  Like 
Fabius,  he  wrote  his  work  in  Greek,  and  prefixed  to  it  a  brief 
abstract  of  Roman  history.  Though  the  works  of  these  anna- 
lists are  valuable  as  furnishing  materials  for  more  philosophical 
minds,  they  are  such  as  could  have  existed  only  in  the  infancy 
of  a  national  literature.  They  were  a  bare  compilation  of  facts 
—  the  mere  framework  of  history  —  diversified  by  no  critical 
remarks  or  political  reflections,  and  meagre  and  insipid  in  style. 

The  versatility  of  talent  displayed  by  Cato  the  censor  (224- 
144  B.  c.)  entitles  him  to  a  place  among  orators,  jurists,  econ- 
omists, and  historians.  His  life  extends  over  a  wide  and  impor- 
tant period  of  literary  history,  when  everything  was  in  a  state  of 
change,  —  morals,  social  habits,  and  literary  taste.  Cato  was 
born  in  Tusculum,  and  passed  his  boyhood  in  the  pursuits  of 
rural  life  at  a  small  Sabine  farm  belonging  to  his  father.  The 
skill  with  which  he  pleaded  the  causes  of  his  clients  before  the 
rural  magistracy  made  his  abilities  known,  and  he  rose  rapidly 
to  eminence  as  a  pleader.  He  filled  many  high  offices  of  state. 
His  energies  were  not  weakened  by  advancing  age,  and  he  was 
always  ready  as  the  advocate  of  virtue,  the  champion  of  the  op- 
pressed, and  the  punisher  of  vice.  With  many  defects,  Cato 
was  morally  and  intellectually  one  of  the  greatest  men  Rome 
ever  produced.  He  had  the  ability  and  the  determination  to 
excel  in  everything  which  he  undertook.  His  style  is  rude,  un- 
polished, ungraceful,  because  to  him  polish  was  superficial,  and, 


ROMAN  LITERATURE.  137 

therefore,  unreal.  His  statements,  however,  were  clear,  his  il- 
lustrations striking  ;  the  words  with  which  he  enriched  his  na- 
tive tongue  were  full  of  meaning ;  his  wit  was  keen  and  lively, 
and  his  arguments  went  straight  to  the  intellect,  and  carried  con- 
viction with  them. 

Cato's  great  historical  and  antiquarian  work,  "  The  Origins," 
was  a  history  of  Italy  and  Rome  from  the  earliest  times  to  the 
latest  events  which  occurred  in  his  own  lifetime.  It  was  a  work 
of  great  research  and  originality,  but  only  brief  fragments  of  it 
remain.  In  the  "  De  Re  Rustica,"  which  has  come  down  to  us 
in  form  and  substance  as  it  was  written,  Cato  maintains,  in  the 
introduction,  the  superiority  of  agriculture  over  other  modes  of 
gaining  a  livelihood.  The  work  itself  is  a  commonplace  book 
of  agriculture  and  domestic  economy ;  its  object  is  utility,  not 
science :  it  serves  the  purpose  of  a  farmer's  and  gardener's  man- 
ual, a  domestic  medicine,  herbal,  and  cookery  book.  Cato 
teaches  his  readers,  for  example,  how  to  plant  osier  beds,  to 
cultivate  vegetables,  to  preserve  the  health  of  cattle,  to  pickle 
pork,  and  to  make  savory  dishes. 

Of  the  "  Orations ''  of  Cato,  ninety  titles  are  extant,  together 
with  numerous  fragments.  In  style  he  despised  art.  He  was 
too  fearless  and  upright,  too  confident  in  the  justness  of  his 
cause  to  be  a  rhetorician ;  he  imitated  no  one,  and  no  one  was 
ever  able  to  imitate  him.  Niebuhr  pronounces  him  to  be  the 
only  great  man  in  his  generation,  and  one  of  the  greatest  and 
most  honorable  characters  in  Roman  history. 

Varro  (116-28  B.  c.)  was  an  agriculturist,  a  grammarian,  a 
critic,  a  theologian,  a  historian,  a  philosopher,  a  satirist.  Of  his 
miscellaneous  works  considerable  portions  are  extant,  sufficient 
to  display  his  erudition  and  acuteness,  yet,  in  themselves,  more 
curious  than  attractive. 

Eloquence,  though  of  a  rude,  unpolished  kind,  must  have  been, 
in  the  very  earliest  times,  a  characteristic  of  the  Roman  people. 
It  is  a  plant  indigenous  to  a  free  soil.  As  in  modern  times  it 
has  flourished  especially  in  England  and  America,  fostered  by 
the  unfettered  freedom  of  debate,  so  it  found  a  congenial  home 
in  free  Greece  and  republican  Rome.  Oratory  was,  in  Rome, 
the  unwritten  literature  of  active  life,  and  recommended  itself 
to  a  warlike  and  utilitarian  people  by  its  utility  and  its  antago- 
nistic spirit.  Long  before  the  art  of  the  historian  was  sufficiently 
advanced  to  record  a  speech,  the  forum,  the  senate,  the  battle- 
field, and  the  threshold  of  the  jurisconsult  had  been  nurseries  of 
Roman  eloquence,  or  schools  in  which  oratory  attained  a  vigor- 
ous youth,  and  prepared  for  its  subsequent  maturity. 

While  the  legal  and  political  constitution  of  the  Roman  people 
gave  direct  encouragement  to  deliberative  and  judicial  oratory, 


138       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

respect  for  the  illustrious  dead  furnished  opportunities  for  pane- 
gyric. The  song  of  the  bard  in  honor  of  the  departed  warrior 
gave  place  to  the  funeral  oration.  Among  the  orators  of  this 
time  were  the  two  Scipios,  and  Galba,  whom  Cicero  praises  as 
having  been  the  first  Roman  who  understood  how  to  apply  the 
theoretical  principles  of  Greek  rhetoric. 

All  periods  of  political  disquiet  are  necessarily  favorable  to 
eloquence,  and  the  era  of  the  Gracchi  was  especially  so.  After 
a  struggle  of  nearly  four  centuries  the  old  distinction  of  plebeian 
and  patrician  no  longer  existed.  Plebeians  held  high  offices, 
and  patricians,  like  the  Gracchi,  stood  forward  as  champions  of 
popular  rights.  These  stirring  times  produced  many  celebrated 
orators.  The  Gracchi  themselves  were  both  eloquent  and  pos- 
sessed of  those  qualities  and  endowments  which  would  recom- 
mend their  eloquence  to  their  countrymen.  Oratory  began  now 
to  be  studied  more  as  an  art,  and  the  interval  between  the 
Gracchi  and  Cicero  boasted  of  many  distinguished  names  ;  the 
most  illustrious  among  them  are  M.  Antonius,  Crassus,  and  Cic- 
ero's contemporary  and  most  formidable  rival,  Hortensius. 

M.  Antonius  (fl.  119  B.  c.)  entered  public  life  as  a  pleader, 
and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  his  brilliant  career ;  but  he  was 
through  life  greater  as  a  judicial  than  as  a  deliberative  orator. 
He  was  indefatigable  in  preparing  his  case,  and  made  every 
point  tell.  He  was  a  great  master  of  the  pathetic,  and  knew 
the  way  to  the  heart.  Although  he  did  not  himself  give  his 
speeches  to  posterity,  some  of  his  most  pointed  expressions  and 
favorite  passages  left  an  indelible  impression  on  the  memories 
of  his  hearers,  and  many  of  them  were  preserved  by  Cicero. 
In  the  prime  of  life  he  fell  a  victim  to  political  fury,  and  his 
bleeding  head  was  placed  upon  the  rostrum,  which  was  so  fre- 
quently the  scene  of  his  eloquent  triumphs. 

L.  Licinius  Crassus  was  four  years  younger  than  Antonius, 
and  acquired  great  reputation  for  his  knowledge  of  jurispru- 
dence, for  his  eminence  as  a  pleader,  and,  above  all,  for  his 
powerful  and  triumphant  orations  in  support  of  the  restoration 
of  the  judicial  office  to  the  senators.  From  among  the  crowd  of 
orators,  who  were  then  flourishing  in  the  last  days  of  expiring 
Roman  liberty,  Cicero  selected  Crassus  to  be  the  representative 
of  his  sentiments  in  his  imaginary  conversation  in  "  The  Orator." 
Like  Lord  Chatham,  Crassus  almost  died  on  the  floor  of  the 
Senate  house,  and  his  last  effort  was  in  support  of  the  aristo- 
cratic party. 

Q.  Hortensius  was  born  114  B.  c.  He  was  only  eight  years 
senior  to  the  greatest  of  all  Roman  orators.  He  early  com- 
menced his  career  as  a  pleader,  and  he  was  the  acknowledged 
leader  of  the  Roman  bar,  until  the  star  of  Cicero  arose.  His 


ROMAN  LITERATURE.  139 

political  connection  with  the  faction  of  Sylla,  and  his  unscru- 
pulous support  of  the  profligate  corruption  which  characterized 
that  administration,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  enlisted  his  legal 
talents  in  defense  of  the  infamous  Verres ;  but  the  eloquence  of 
Cicero,  together  with  the  justice  of  the  cause  which  he  espoused, 
prevailed ;  and  from  that  time  forward  his  superiority  over 
Hortensius  was  established  and  complete.  The  style  of  Hor- 
tensius  was  Asiatic  —  more  florid  and  ornate  than  polished  and 
refined. 

9.  ROMAN  JURISPRUDENCE.  —  The  framework  of  their  juris- 
prudence the  Romans  derived  from  Athens,  but  the  complete 
structure  was  built  up  by  their  own  hands.  They  were  the  au- 
thors of  a  system  possessing  such  stability  that  they  bequeathed 
it,  as  an  inheritance,  to  modern  Europe,  and  traces  of  Roman 
law  are  visible  in  the  legal  systems  of  the  whole  civilized  world. 

The  complicated  principles  of  jurisprudence  of  the  Roman 
constitution  became,  in  Rome,  a  necessary  part  of  a  liberal  edu- 
cation. When  a  Roman  youth  had  completed  his  studies,  under 
his  teacher  of  rhetoric,  he  not  only  frequented  the  forum,  in 
order  to  learn  the  application  of  the  rhetorical  principles  he  had 
acquired,  and  frequently  took  some  celebrated  orator  as  a  model, 
but  also  studied  the  principles  of  jurisprudence  under  eminent 
jurists,  and  attended  the  consultations  in  which  they  gave  to 
their  clients  their  expositions  of  law. 

The  earliest  systematic  works  on  Roman  law  were  the  "Man- 
ual "  of  Pomponius,  and  the  "  Institutes  "  of  Qaius,  who  flour- 
ished in  the  time  of  Hadrian  and  the  Antonines.  Both  of  these 
works  were,  for  a  long  time,  lost,  though  fragments  were  pre- 
served in  the  pandects  of  Justinian.  In  1816,  however,  Niebuhr 
discovered  a  palimpsest  MS.,  in  which  the  epistles  of  St.  Jerome 
were  written  over  the  erased  "  Institutes  "  of  Gaius.  From  the 
numerous  misunderstandings  of  the  Roman  historians  respecting 
the  laws  and  constitutional  history  of  their  country,  the  subject 
continued  long  in  a  state  of  confusion,  until  Vico,  in  his  "  Sci- 
enza  nuova,"  dispelled  the  clouds  of  error,  and  reduced  it  to  a 
system ;  and  he  was  followed  so  successfully  by  Niebuhr,  that 
modern  students  can  have  a  more  comprehensive  and  antiqua- 
rian knowledge  of  the  subject  than  the  writers  of  the  Augustan 
age. 

The  earliest  Roman  laws  were  the  "  Leges  Regise,"  which 
were  collected  and  codified  by  Sextus  Papirius,  and  were  hence 
called  the  Papirian  code ;  but  these  were  rude  and  unconnected, 
—  simply  a  collection  of  isolated  enactments.  The  laws  of  the 
"  Twelve  Tables  "  stand  next  in  point  of  antiquity.  They  ex- 
hibited the  first  attempt  at  regular  system,  and  embodied  not 
only  legislative  enactments,  but  legal  principles.  So  popular 


140       HANDBOOK   OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

were  they  that  when  Cicero  was  a  child  every  Roman  boy  com- 
mitted them  to  memory,  as  our  children  do  their  catechism,  and 
the  great  orator  laments  that  in  the  course  of  his  lifetime  this 
practice  had  become  obsolete. 

The  oral  traditional  expositions  of  these  laws  formed  the 
groundwork  of  the  Roman  civil  law.  To  these  were  added, 
from  time  to  time,  the  decrees  of  the  people,  the  acts  of  the  sen- 
ate, and  praetorian  edicts,  and  from  these  various  elements  the 
whole  body  of  Roman  law  was  composed.  So  early  was  the  sub- 
ject diligently  studied,  that  the  age  preceding  the  first  two  cen- 
turies of  our  era  was  rich  in  jurists  whose  powers  are  celebrated 
in  history. 

The  most  eminent  jurists  who  adorned  this  period  were  the 
Scsevolae,  a  family  hi  whom  the  profession  seems  to  have  been 
hereditary.  After  them  flourished  ^Elius  Gallus  (123-67  B.  c.), 
eminent  as  a  law  reformer,  C.  Juventius,  Sextus  Papirius,  and 
L.  Lucilius  Balbus,  three  distinguished  jurists,  who  were  a  few 
years  senior  to  Cicero. 

10.  GRAMMARIANS.  —  Towards  the  conclusion  of  this  literary 
period  a  great  increase  took  place  in  the  numbers  of  those 
learned  men  whom  the  Romans  at  first  termed  literati,  but 
afterwards,  following  the  custom  of  the  Greeks,  grammarians. 
To  them  literature  was  under  great  obligations.  Although  few 
of  them  were  authors,  and  all  of  them  possessed  acquired  learn- 
ing rather  than  original  genius,  they  exercised  a  powerful  influ- 
ence over  the  public  mind  as  professors,  lecturers,  critics,  and 
schoolmasters.  '  By  them  the  youths  of  the  best  families  not 
only  were  imbued  with  a  taste  for  Greek  philosophy  and  poetry, 
but  were  also  taught  to  appreciate  the  literature  of  their  own 
country.  Livius  Andronicus  and  Ennius  may  be  placed  at  the 
head  of  this  class,  followed  by  Crates  Mallotes,  C.  Octavius 
Lampadio,  Laelius,  Archelaus,  and  others,  most  of  whom  were 
emancipated  slaves,  either  from  Greece  or  from  other  foreign 
countries. 

PERIOD    SECOND. 
FROM  THE  AGE  OF  CICERO  TO  THE  DEATH  OF  AUGUSTUS  (74  B.  C.-14 

A.    D.) 

1.  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  ROMAN  LITERATURE.  —  Latin  lit- 
erature, at  first  rude,  and,  for  five  centuries,  unable  to  reach  any 
high  excellence,  was,  as  we  have  seen,  gradually  developed  by 
the  example  and  tendency  of  the  Greek  mind,  which  moulded 
Roman  civilization  anew.  The  earliest  Latin  poets,  historians, 
and  grammarians  were  Greeks.  The  metre  which  was  brought 
to  such  perfection  by  the  Latin  poets  was  formed  from  the 
Greek,  and  the  Latin  language  more  and  more  assimilated  to 
the  Hellenic  tongue. 


ROMAN  LITERATURE,  141 

As  civilization  advanced,  the  rude  literature  of  Rome  was 
compared  with  the  great  monuments  of  Greek  genius,  their  su- 
periority was  acknowledged,  and  the  study  of  them  encouraged. 
The  Roman  youth  not  only  attended  the  schools  of  the  Greeks, 
in  Rome,  but  their  education  was  considered  incomplete,  unless 
they  repaired  to  those  of  Athens,  Rhodes,  and  Mytilene.  Thus, 
whatever  of  national  character  existed  in  the  literature  was 
gradually  obliterated,  and  what  it  gained  in  harmony  and  finish 
it  lost  in  originality.  The  Roman  writers  imitated  more  partic- 
ularly the  writers  of  the  Alexandrian  school,  who,  being  more 
artificial,  were  more  congenial  than  the  great  writers  of  the  age 
of  Pericles. 

Roman  genius,  serious,  majestic,  and  perhaps  more  original 
than  at  a  later  period,  was  manifest  even  at  the  time  of  the 
Punic  wars,  but  it  had  not  yet  taken  form ;  and  while  thought 
was  vigorous  and  powerful,  expression  remained  weak  and  un- 
certain. But,  under  the  Greek  influence,  and  aided  by  the 
vigor  imparted  by  free  institutions,  the  union  of  thought  and 
form  was  at  length  consummated,  and  the  literature  reached  its 
culminating  point  in  the  great  Roman  orator.  The  fruits  which 
had  grown  and  matured  in  the  centuries  preceding  were  gath- 
ered by  Augustus ;  but  the  influences  that  contributed  to  the, 
splendor  of  his  age  belong  rather  to  the  republic  than  the  em- 
pire, and  with  the  fall  of  the  liberties  of  Rome,  Roman  literature 
declined. 

2.  MIMES,  MIMOGRAPHEBS,  AND  PANTOMIME.  —  Amidst  all 
the  splendor  of  the  Latin  literature  of  this  period,  dramatic 
poetry  never  recovered  from  the  trance  into  which  it  had  fallen, 
though  the  stage  had  not  altogether  lost  its  popularity,  ^sopus 
and  Roscius,  the  former  the  great  tragic  actor,  and  the  latter  the 
favorite  comedian,  in  the  time  of  Cicero,  enjoyed  his  friendship 
and  that  of  other  great  men,  and  both  amassed  large  fortunes. 
But  although  the  standard  Roman  plays  were  constantly  repre- 
sented, dramatic  literature  had  become  extinct.  The  entertain- 
ments, which  had  now  taken  the  place  of  comedy  and  tragedy, 
were  termed  mimes.  These  were  laughable  imitations  of  man- 
ners and  persons,  combining  the  features  of  comedy  and  farce, 
for  comedy  represents  the  characters  of  a  class,  farce  those  of 
individuals.  Their  essence  was  that  of  the  modern  pantomime, 
and  their  coarseness,  and  even  indecency,  gratified  the  love  of 
broad  humor  which  characterized  the  Roman  people.  After  a 
time,  when  they  became  established  as  popular  favorites,  the 
dialogue  occupied  a  more  prominent  position,  and  was  written  in 
verse,  like  that  of  tragedy  and  comedy.  During  the  dictator- 
ship of  Caesar,  a  Roman  knight  named  Laberius  (107-45  B.  c.) 
became  famous  for  his  mimes.  The  profession  of  an  actor  of 


142        HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

mimes  was  infamous,  but  Laberius  was  a  writer,  not  an  actor. 
On  one  occasion,  Csesar  offered  him  a  large  sum  of  money  to 
enter  the  lists  in  a  trial  of  his  improvisatorial  skill.  Laberius 
did  not  submit  to  the  degradation  for  the  sake  of  the  money,  but 
he  was  afraid  to  refuse.  The  only  method  of  retaliation  in  his 
power  was  sarcasm.  His  part  was  that  of  a  slave  ;  and  when 
his  master  scourged  him,  he  exclaimed :  "  Porro,  Quirites,  liber- 
tatem  perdimus  !  "  His  words  were  received  with  a  round  of 
applause,  and  all  eyes  were  fixed  on  Csesar.  The  dictator  re- 
stored him  to  the  rank  of  which  his  act  had  deprived  him,  but 
he  could  never  recover  the  respect  of  his  countrymen.  As  he 
passed  the  orchestra,  on  his  way  to  the  stalls  of  the  knights, 
Cicero  cried  out :  "  If  we  were  not  so  crowded,  I  would  make 
room  for  you  here."  Laberius  replied,  alluding  to  Cicero's  luke- 
warmness  as  a  political  partisan  :  "  I  am  astonished  that  you 
should  be  crowded,  as  you  generally  sit  on  two  stools." 

Another  writer  and  actor  of  mimes  was  Publius  Syrus,  orig- 
inally a  Syrian  slave.  Tradition  has  recorded  a  bon  mot  of  his 
which  is  as  witty  as  it  is  severe.  Seeing  an  ill-tempered  man 
named  Mucius  in  low  spirits,  he  exclaimed :  "  Either  some  ill 
fortune  has  happened  to  Mucius,  or  some  good  fortune  to  one  of 
his  friends !  " 

The  Roman  pantomime  differed  somewhat  from  the  mime. 
It  was  a  ballet  of  action,  performed  by  a  single  dancer,  who  not 
only  exhibited  the  human  figure  in  its  most  graceful  attitudes, 
but  represented  every  passion  and  emotion  with  such  truth  that 
the  spectators  could,  without  difficulty,  understand  the  story. 
The  pantomime  was  licentious  in  its  character,  and  the  actors 
were  forbidden  by  Tiberius  to  hold  any  intercourse  with  Romans 
of  equestrian  or  senatorial  dignity. 

These  were  the  exhibitions  which  threw  such  discredit  on  the 
stage,  which  called  forth  the  well-deserved  attacks  of  the  early 
Christian  fathers,  and  caused  them  to  declare  that  whoever  at- 
tended them  was  unworthy  of  the  name  of  Christian.  Had  the 
drama  not  been  so  abused,  had  it  retained  its  original  purity, 
and  carried  out  the  object  attributed  to  it  by  Aristotle,  they 
would  have  seen  it,  not  a  nursery  of  vice,  but  a  school  of  virtue  ; 
not  only  an  innocent  amusement,  but  a  powerful  engine  to  form 
the  taste,  to  improve  the  morals,  and  to  purify  the  feelings  of  a 
people. 

3.  EPIC  POETRY.  —  The  epic  poets  of  this  period  selected 
their  subjects  either  from  the  heroic  age  and  the  mythology  of 
Greece,  or  from  their  own  national  history.  The  Augustan  age 
abounds  in  representatives  of  these  two  poetical  schools,  though 
possessing  little  merit.  But  the  Romans,  essentially  practical 
and  positive  in  their  character,  felt  little  interest  in  the  descrip- 


ROMAN  LITERATURE.  143 

tions  of  manners  and  events  remote  from  their  associations,  and 
poetry,  restrained  within  the  limits  of  their  history,  could  not 
rise  to  that  height  of  imagination  demanded  by  the  epic  muse. 
Virgil  united  the  two  forms  by  selecting  his  subject  from  the 
national  history,  and  adorning  the  ancient  traditions  of  Rome 
with  the  splendor  of  Greek  imagination. 

— -f^Virgil  (70-19  B.  c.)  was  born  at  Andes,  near  Mantua ;  he 
was  educated  at  Cremona  and  at  Naples,  where  he  studied 
Greek  literature  and  philosophy.  After  this  he  came  to  Rome, 
where,  through  Maecenas,  he  became  known  to  Octavius,  and 
basked  in  the  sunshine  of  court  favor.  His  favorite  residence 
was  Naples.  On  his  return  from  Athens,  in  company  with 
Augustus,  he  was  seized  with  an  illness  of  which  he  died.  He 
was  buried  about  a  mile  from  Naples,  on  the  road  to  Pozzuoli ; 
and  a  tomb  is  still  pointed  out  to  the  traveler  which  is  said  to 
be  that  of  the  poet.  Virgil  was  deservedly  popular  both  as  a 
poet  and  as  a  man.  The  emperor  esteemed  him  and  people 
respected  him  ;  he  was  constitutionally  pensive  and  melancholy, 
temperate,  and  pure-minded  in  a  profligate  age,  and  his  popu- 
larity never  spoiled  his  simplicity  and  modesty.  In  his  last 
moments  he  was  anxious  to  burn  the  whole  manuscript  of  the 
JEneid,  and  directed  his  executors  either  to  improve  it  or  com- 
mit it  to  the  flames. 

The  idea  and  plan  of  the  TEneid  are  derived  from  Homer. 
As  the  wrath  of  Achilles  is  the  mainspring  of  the  Iliad,  so  the 
unity  of  the  ^Eneid  results  from  the  anger  of  Juno.  The  arrival 
of  JEneas  in  Italy  after  the  destruction  of  Troy,  the  obstacles 

•  that  opposed  him  through  the  intervention  of  Juno,  and  the 
adventures  and  the  victories  of  the  hero  form  the  subject  of  the 
poem.  Leaving  Sicily  for  Latium,  ^Eneas  is  driven  on  the 
coast  of  Africa  by  a  tempest  raised  against  him  by  Juno  ;  at 
Carthage  he  is  welcomed  by  the  queen,  Dido,  to  whom  he  relates 
his  past  adventures  and  sufferings.  By  his  narrative  he  wins 
her  love,  but  at  the  command  of  Jupiter  abandons  her.  Unable 
to  retain  him,  Dido,  in  the  despair  of  her  passion,  destroys  her- 
self. After  passing  through  many  dangers,  under  the  guidance 
of  the  Sibyl  of  Cumae,  he  descends  into  the  kingdom  of  the  dead 
to  consult  the  shade  of  his  father.  There  appear  to  him  the 
souls  of  the  future  heroes  of  Rome.  On  his  return,  he  becomes 
a  friend  of  the  king  of  Latium,  who  promises  to  him  the  hand 
of  his  daughter,  which  is  eagerly  sought  by  King  Turnus.  A 
fearful  war  ensues  between  the  rival  lovers,  which  ends  in  the 
victory  of  .ZEneas. 

Though  the  poem  of  Virgil  is  in  many  passages  an  imitation 
from  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey,  the  Roman  element  predomi- 
nates in  it,  and  the  ^Eneid  is  the  true  national  poem  of  Rome. 


14 i       HANDBOOK   OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

There  was  no  subject  more  adapted  to  flatter  the  vanity  of  the 
Romans,  than  the  splendor  and  antiquity  of  their  origin.  Au- 
gustus is  evidently  typified  under  the  character  of  ^Eneas ;  Cleo- 
patra is  boldly  sketched  as  Dido ;  and  Turnus  as  the  popular 
Antony.  The  love  and  death  of  Dido,  the  passionate  victim 
of  an  unrequited  love,  give  occasion  to  the  poet  to  sing  the 
victories  of  his  countrymen  over  their  Carthaginian  rivals  ;  the 
Pythagorean  metempsychosis,  which  he  adopts  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  Elysium,  affords  an  opportunity  to  exalt  the  heroes  of 
Rome ;  and  the  wars  of  ^Eneas  allow  him  to  describe  the  locali- 
ties and  the  manners  of  ancient  Latium  with  such  truthfulness 
as  to  give  to  his  verses  the  authority  of  historical  quotations. 
In  style,  the  jEneid  is  a  model  of  purity  and  elegance,  and  for 
the  variety  and  the  harmony  of  its  incidents,  for  the  power 
of  its  descriptions,  and  for  the  interest  of  its  plot  and  episodes, 
second  only  to  the  Iliad.  It  has  been  observed  that  Virgil's 
descriptions  are  more  like  landscape  painting  than  those  of  any 
of  his  predecessors,  whether  Greek  or  Roman,  and  it  is  a  re- 
markable fact,  that  landscape  painting  was  first  introduced  in 
his  time. 

4.  DIDATIC  POETRY.  —  The  poems,  which  first  established 
the  reputation  of  Virgil  as  a  poet,  belong  to  didactic  poetry. 
They  are  his  Bucolics  and  Georgics.  The  Bucolics  are  pastoral 
idyls ;  the  characters  are  Italian  in  all  their  sentiments  and 
feelings,  acting,  however,  the  unreal  and  assumed  part  of  Greek 
shepherds.  The  Italians  never  possessed  the  elements  of  pasto- 
ral life,  and  could  not  furnish  the  poet  with  originals  and  models 
from  which  to  draw  his  portraits.  When  represented  as  Virgil 
represents  them  in  his  Bucolics,  they  are  in  masquerade,  and 
the  drama  in  which  they  form  the  characters  is  of  an  allegorical 
kind.  Even  the  scenery  is  Sicilian,  and  does  not  truthfully 
describe  the  tame  neighborhood  of  Mantua.  In  fact,  these 
poems  are  imitations  of  Theocritus ;  but,  divesting  ourselves  of 
the  idea  of  the  outward  form  which  the  poet  has  chosen  to 
adopt,  we  are  touched  by  the  simple  narrative  of  disappointed 
loves  and  childlike  woes ;  we  appreciate  the  delicately-veiled 
compliments  paid  by  the  poet  to  his  patron ;  we  enjoy  the 
inventive  genius  and  poetical  power  which  they  display,  and  we 
are  elevated  by  the  exalted  sentiments  which  they  sometimes 
breathe. 

The  Georgics  are  poems  on  the  labors  and  enjoyments  of  rural 
life,  a  subject  for  which  Rome  offered  a  favorable  field.  Though 
in  this  style  Hesiod  was  the  model  of  Virgil,  his  system  is  per- 
fectly Italian,  so  much  so,  that  many  of  his  rules  may  be  traced 
in  modern  Italian  husbandry,  just  as  the  descriptions  of  imple- 
ments in  the  Greek  poet  are  frequently  found  to  agree  with  those 


ROMAN  LITERATURE.  145 

in  use  in  modern  Greece.  The  great  merit  of  the  Georgics  con- 
sists in  their  varied  digressions,  interesting  episodes,  and  in 
the  sublime  bursts  of  descriptive  vigor  which  are  interspersed 
throughout  them.  They  have  frequently  been  taken  as  models 
for  imitation  by  the  didactic  poets  of  all  nations,  and  more  par- 
ticularly of  England.  The  "  Seasons,"  for  instance,  is  a  thor- 
oughly Virgilian  poem. 

Lucretius  (95-51  B.  C.)  belongs  to  the  class  of  didactic  poets. 
He  might  claim  a  place  among  philosophers  as  well  as  poets,  for 
his  poem  marks  an  epoch  both  in  poetry  and  philosophy.  But 
his  philosophy  is  a  mere  reflection  from  that  of  Greece,  while 
his  poetry  is  bright  with  the  rays  of  original  genius.  His  poem 
on  "  The  Nature  of  Things  "  is  in  imitation  of  that  of  Empedo- 
cles.  Its  subject  is  philosophical  and  its  purpose  didactic  ;  but 
its  unity  of  design  gives  to  it  almost  the  rank  of  an  epic.  Its 
structure  prevents  it  from  being  a  complete  and  systematic  sur- 
vey of  the  whole  Epicurean  philosophy,  but  as  far  as  the  form 
of  the  poem  permitted,  it  presents  an  accurate  view  of  the  phi- 
losophy which  then  enjoyed  the  highest  popularity. 

The  object  of  the  poem  of  Lucretius  is  to  emancipate  man- 
kind from  the  debasing  effects  of  superstition  by  an  exposition 
of  philosophy,  and  though  a  follower  of  Epicurus,  he  is  not 
entirely  destitute  of  the  religious  sentiment,  for  he  deifies  nature 
and  has  a  veneration  for  her  laws.  His  infidelity  must  be  viewed 
rather  in  the  light  of  a  philosophical  protest  against  the  results 
of  heathen  superstition,  than  a  total  rejection  of  the  principles  of 
religious  faith. 

Lucretius  valued  the  capabilities  of  the  Latin  language.  He 
wielded  at  will  its  power  of  embodying  the  noblest  thoughts,  and 
showed  how  its  copious  and  flexible  properties  could  overcome 
the  hard  technicalities  of  science.  The  great  beauty  of  his 
poetry  is  its  variety ;  his  fancy  is  always  lively,  his  imagination 
has  always  free  scope.  He  is  sublime,  as  a  philosopher  who 
penetrates  the  secrets  of  the  natural  world,  and  discloses  to  the 
eyes  of  man  the  hidden  causes  of  its  wonderful  phenomena.  His 
object  was  a  lofty  one ;  for  although  the  absurdities  of  the 
national  creed  drove  him  into  skepticism,  his  aim  was  to  set  the 
intellect  free  from  the  trammels  of  superstition.  But  besides 
grandeur  and  sublimity,  we  find  the  totally  different  qualities  of 
softness  and  tenderness.  Rome  had  long  known  nothing  but 
war,  and  was  now  rent  by  civil  dissension.  Lucretius  yearned 
for  peace  ;  and  his  prayer,  that  the  fabled  goddess  of  all  that  is 
beautiful  in  nature  would  heal  the  wounds  which  discord  had 
made,  is  distinguished  by  tenderness  and  pathos  even  more  than 
by  sublimity.  He  is  superior  to  Ovid  in  force,  though  inferior 
in  facility  ;  not  so  smooth  or  harmonious  as  Virgil,  his  poetry 
10 


146       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

always  falls  upon  the  ear  with  a  swelling  and  sonorous  melody. 
Virgil  appreciated  his  excellence,  and  imitated  not  only  single 
expressions,  but  almost  entire  verses  and  passages  ;  and  Ovid 
exclaims,  that  the  sublime  strains  of  Lucretius  shall  never  perish 
until  the  world  shall  be  given  up  to  destruction. 

5.  LYRIC  POETRY.  —  The  Romans  had  not  the  ideality  and 
the  enthusiasm  which  are  the  elements  of  lyric  poetry,  and  in 
all  the  range  of  their  literature  there  are  only  two  poets  who, 
greatly  inferior  to  the  lyric  poets  of  Greece,  have  a  positive  claim 
to  a  place  in  this  department,  Catullus  and  Horace.  Catullus 
(86-46  B.  c.)  was  born  near  Verona.  At  an  early  age  he  went 
to  Rome,  where  he  plunged  into  all  the  excesses  of  the  capital, 
and  where  his  sole  occupation  was  the  cultivation  of  his  literary 
tastes  and  talents.  A  career  of  extravagance  and  debauchery 
terminated  in  the  ruin  of  his  fortune,  and  he  died  at  the  age  of 
forty.  The  works  of  Catullus  consist  of  numerous  short  pieces 
of  a  lyrical  character,  elegies  and  other  poems.  He  was  one 
of  the  most  popular  of  the  Roman  poets,  because  he  possessed 
those  qualities  which  the  literary  society  at  Rome  most  valued, 
polish  and  learning,  and  because,  although  an  imitator,  there 
was  a  truly  Roman  nationality  in  all  that  lie  wrote.  His  satire 
was  the  bitter  resentment  of  a  vindictive  spirit ;  his  love  and  his 
hate  were  both  purely  selfish,  but  his  excellences  were  of  the 
most  alluring  and  captivating  kind.  He  has  never  been  sur- 
passed in  gracefulness,  melody,  and  tenderness. 

Horace  (65-8  B.  c.),  like  Virgil  and  other  poets  of  his  time, 
enjoyed  the  friendship  and  intimacy  of  Maecenas,  who  procured 
for  him  the  public  grant  of  his  Sabine  farm,  situated  about  fif- 
teen miles  from  Tivoli.  At  Rome  he  occupied  a  house  on  the 
beautiful  heights  of  the  Esquiline.  The  rapid  alternation  of 
town  and  country  life,  which  the  fickle  poet  indulged  in,  gives  a 
peculiar  charm  to  his  poetry.  His  "  Satires  "  were  followed  by 
the  publication  of  the  "Odes"  and  the  "Epistles."  The  satires 
of  Horace  occupied  the  position  of  the  fashionable  novel  of  our 
day.  In  them  is  sketched  boldly,  but  good-humoredly,  a  picture 
of  Roman  social  life,  with  its  vices  and  follies.  They  have  noth- 
ing of  the  bitterness  of  Lucilius,  the  love  of  purity  and  honor 
that  adorns  Persius,  or  the  burning  indignation  of  Juvenal  at 
the  loathsome  corruption  of  morals.  Vice,  in  his  day,  had  not 
reached  that  appalling  height  which  it  attained  in  the  time  of 
the  emperors  who  succeeded  Augustus.  Deficient  in  moral 
purity,  nothing  would  strike  him  as  deserving  censure,  except 
such  excess  as  would  actually  defeat  the  object  which  he  pro- 
posed to  himself,  namely,  the  utmost  enjoyment  of  life.  In  the 
"  Epistles,"  he  lays  aside  the  character  of  a  moral  teacher  or 
censor,  and  writes  with  the  freedom  with  which  he  would  con- 


ROMAN  LITERATURE.  147 

verse  with  an  intimate  friend.  But  it  is  in  his  inimitable 
"  Odes  "  that  the  genius  of  Horace  as  a  poet  is  especially  dis- 
played ;  they  have  never  been  equaled  in  beauty  of  sentiment, 
gracefulness  of  language,  and  melody  of  versification  ;  they  com- 
prehend every  variety  of  subject  suitable  to  the  lyric  muse  ;  they 
rise  without  effort  to  the  most  elevated  topics  ;  and  they  descend 
to  the  simplest  joys  and  sorrows  of  every-day  life. 

The  life  of  Horace  is  especially  instructive,  as  a  mirror  in 
which  is  reflected  a  faithful  image  of  the  manners  of  his  day. 
He  is  the  representative  of  Roman  refined  society,  as  Virgil  is 
of  the  national  mind.  His  morals  were  lax,  but  not  worse  than 
those  of  his  contemporaries.  He  looked  at  virtue  and  vice  from 
a  worldly,  not  from  a  moral  point  of  view,  and  with  him  the  one 
was  prudence  and  the  other  folly. 

In  connection  with  Horace,  we  may  mention  Maecenas,  who, 
by  his  good  taste  and  munificence,  exercised  a  great  influence 
upon  literature,  and  literary  men  of  Rome  were  much  indebted 
to  him  for  the  use  he  made  of  his  friendship  with  Augustus,  to 
whom,  probably,  his  love  of  literature  and  of  pleasure  and  his 
imperturbable  temper  recommended  him  as  an  agreeable  com- 
panion. He  had  wealth  enough  to  gratify  his  utmost  wishes, 
and  his  mind  was  so  full  of  the  delights  of  refined  society,  of 
palaces,  gardens,  wit,  poetry,  and  art,  that  there  was  no  room  in 
it  for  ambition.  All  the  most  brilliant  men  of  Rome  were  found 
at  his  table,  —  Virgil,  Horace,  Propertius,  and  Varius  were 
among  his  friends  and  constant  associates.  He  was  a  fair  speci- 
men of  the  man  of  pleasure  and  society,  —  liberal,  kind-hearted, 
clever,  refined,  but  luxurious,  self-indulgent,  indolent,  and  vola- 
tile, with  good  impulses,  but  without  principle. 

6.  ELEGY.  —  Tibullus  (b.  54  B.  c.)  was  the  father  of  the  Ro- 
man elegy.  He  was  a  contemporary  of  Virgil  and  Horace. 
The  style  of  his  poems  and  their  tone  of  thought  are  like  his 
character,  deficient  in  vigor  and  manliness,  but  sweet,  smooth, 
polished,  tender,  and  never  disfigured  by  bad  taste.  He  passed 
his  short  life  in  peaceful  retirement,  and  died  soon  after  Virgil. 
The  poems  ascribed  to  Tibullus  consist  of  four  books,  of  which 
only  two  are  genuine. 

Propertius  (b.  150  B.  c.),  although  a  contemporary  and  friend 
of  the  Augustan  poets,  may  be  considered  as  belonging  to  a 
somewhat  different  school  of  poetry.  While  Horace,  Virgil,  and 
Tibullus  imitated  the  noblest  poets  of  the  Greek  age,  Propertius, 
like  the  minor  Roman  poets,  aspired  to  nothing  more  than  the 
imitation  of  the  graceful,  but  feeble  strains  of  the  Alexandrian 
poets.  If  he  excels  Tibullus  in  vigor  of  fancy,  expression,  and 
coloring,  he  is  inferior  to  him  in  grace,  spontaneity,  and  delicacy  ; 
he  cannot,  also,  be  compared  with  Catullus,  who  greatly  sur- 
passes him  in  his  easy  and  effective  style. 


148       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

Ovid  (43  B.  c.-6  A.  D.),  the  most  fertile  of  the  Latin  poets, 
not  only  in  elegy,  but  also  in  other  kinds  of  poetry,  was  enabled 
by  his  rank,  fortune,  and  talents  to  cultivate  the  society  of  men 
of  congenial  tastes.  A  skeptic  and  an  epicurean,  he  lived  a  life 
of  continual  indulgence  and  intrigue.  He  was  a  universal  ad- 
mirer of  the  female  sex,  and  a  favorite  among  women.  He  was 
popular  as  a  poet,  successful  in  society,  and  possessed  all  the 
enjoyments  that  wealth  could  bestow ;  but  later  in  life  he  in- 
curred the  anger  of  Augustus,  and  was  banished  to  the  very 
frontier  of  the  Roman  empire,  where  he  lingered  for  a  few  years 
and  died  in  great  misery.  The  "  Epistles  to  and  from  Women 
of  the  Heroic  Age  "  are  a  series  of  love-letters  ;  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  "  Metamorphoses,"  they  have  been  greater  favorites 
than  any  other  of  his  works.  Love,  in  the  days  of  Ovid,  had  in 
it  nothing  pure  or  chivalrous.  The  age  in  which  he  lived  was 
morally  polluted,  and  he  was  neither  better  nor  worse  than  his 
contemporaries  ;  hence  grossness  is  the  characteristic  of  his  "  Art 
of  Love."  His  "  Metamorphoses "  contain  a  series  of  mytho- 
logical narratives  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  translation  of 
the  soul  of  Julius  Caesar  from' earth  to  heaven,  and  his  metamor- 
phosis into  a  star.  In  this  poem  especially  may  be  traced  that 
study  and  learning  by  which  the  Roman  poets  made  all  the 
treasures  of  Greek  literature  their  own.  "  The  Fasti,"  a  poem 
on  the  Roman  calendar,  is  a  beautiful  specimen  of  simple  narra- 
tive in  verse,  and  displays,  more  than  any  of  his  works,  his  power 
of  telling  a  story  without  the  slightest  effort,  in  poetry  as  well  as 
prose.  The  five  books  of  the  "  Tristia,"  and  the  "  Epistles  from 
Pontus,"  were  the  outpourings  of  his  sorrowful  heart  during  the 
gloomy  evening  of  his  days. 

7.  ORATORY  AXD  PHILOSOPHY.  —  As  oratory  gave  to  Latin 
prose-writing  its  elegance  and  dignity,  Cicero  (106—43  B.  c.)  is 
not  only  the  representative  of  the  flourishing  period  of  the  lan- 
guage, but  also  the  instrumental  cause  of  its  arriving  at  per- 
fection. He  gave  a  fixed  character  to  the  Latin  tongue  ;  showed 
his  countrymen  what  vigor  it  possessed,  and  of  what  elegance 
and  polish  it  was  susceptible.  The  influence  of  Cicero  on  the 
language  and  literature  of  his  day  was  not  only  extensive,  but 
permanent,  and  it  survived  almost  until  the  language  was  cor- 
rupted by  barbarism.  After  traveling  in  Greece  and  Asia,  and 
holding  a  high  office  in  Sicily,  he  returned  to  Rome,  resumed 
his  forensic  practice,  and  was  made  consul.  The  conspiracy  of 
Catiline  was  the  great  event  of  his  consulship.  The  prudence 
and  tact  with  which  he  crushed  this  gained  him  the  applause 
and  gratitude  of  his  fellow-citizens,  who  hailed  him  as  the  father 
of  his  country ;  but  he  was  obliged,  by  the  intrigues  of  his  ene- 
mies, to  fly  from  Rome  ;  his  exile  was  decreed,  and  his  town 


ROM4N  LITERATURE.  149 

and  country  houses  given  up  to  plunder.  He  was,  however, 
recalled,  and  appointed  to  a  seat  in  the  college  of  Augurs.  In 
the  struggle  between  Pompey  and  Caesar,  he  followed  the  for- 
tunes of  the  former ;  but  Caesar,  after  his  triumph,  granted  him 
a  full  and  free  pardon.  After  the  assassination  of  Caesar,  Cicero 
delivered  that  torrent  of  indignant  and  eloquent  invective,  his 
twelve  Philippic  orations,  and  became  again  the  popular  idol ; 
but  when  the  second  triumvirate  was  formed,  and  each  member 
gave  up  his  friends  to  the  vengeance  of  his  colleagues,  Octavius 
did  not  hesitate  to  sacrifice  Cicero.  Betrayed  by  a  treacherous 
freedman,  he  would  not  permit  his  attendants  to  make  any 
resistance,  but  courageously  submitted  to  the  sword  of  the  as- 
sassins, who  cut  off  his  head  and  hands,  and  carried  them  to 
Antony,  whose  wife,  Julia,  gloated  with  inhuman  delight  upon 
the  pallid  features,  and  in  petty  spite  pierced  with  a  needle  the 
once  eloquent  tongue.  Cicero  had  numerous  faults  ;  he  was 
vain,  vacillating,  inconstant,  timid,  and  the  victim  of  morbid  sen- 
sibility ;  but  he  was  candid,  truthful,  just,  generous,  pure-minded, 
and  warm-hearted.  Gentle,  sympathizing,  and  affectionate,  he 
lived  as  a  patriot  and  died  as  a  philosopher. 

The  place  which  Cicero  occupies  in  the  history  of  Roman  lit- 
erature is  that  of  an  orator  and  philosopher.  The  effectiveness 
of  his  oratory  was  mainly  owing  to  his  knowledge  of  the  human 
heart,  and  of  the  national  peculiarities  of  his  countrymen.  Its 
charm  was  owing  to  his  extensive  acquaintance  with  the  stores 
of  literature  and  philosophy,  which  his  sprightly  wit  moulded  at 
will ;  to  the  varied  learning,  which  his  unpedantic  mind  made 
so  pleasant  and  popular  ;  and  to  his  fund  of  illustration,  at  once 
interesting  and  convincing.  He  carried  his  hearers  with  him  ; 
senate,  judges,  and  people  understood  his  arguments,  and  felt 
his  passionate  appeals.  Compared  with  the  dignified  energy 
and  majestic  vigor  of  Demosthenes,  the  Asiatic  exuberance  of 
some  of  his  orations  may  be  fatiguing  to  the  more  sober  and 
chaste  taste  of  modern  scholars  ;  but  in  order  to  form  a  just  ap- 
preciation, we  must  transport  ourselves  mentally  to  the  excite- 
ments of  the  thronged  forum,  to  the  senate,  composed  of  statesmen 
and  warriors  in  the  prime  of  life,  maddened  with  the  party-spirit 
of  revolutionary  times.  Viewed  in  this  light,  his  most  florid 
passages  will  appear  free  from  affectation  —  the  natural  flow  of 
a  speaker  carried  away  with  the  torrent  of  his  enthusiasm. 
Among  his  numerous  orations,  in  which,  according  to  the  crit- 
icisms of  Quintilian,  he  combined  the  force  of  Demosthenes,  the 
copiousness  of  Plato,  and  the  elegance  of  Isocrates,  we  mention 
the  six  celebrated  Verrian  harangues,  which  are  considered  mas- 
terpieces of  Tullian  eloquence.  In  the  speech  for  the  poet 
Archias,  he  had  evidently  expended  all  his  resources  of  art, 


150       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

taste,  and  skill ;  and  his  oration  in  defense  of  Milo,  for  force, 
pathos,  and  the  externals  of  eloquence,  deserves  to  be  reckoned 
among  his  most  wonderful  efforts.  The  oratory  of  Cicero  was 
essentially  judicial ;  even  his  political  orations  are  rather  judicial 
than  deliberative.  He  was  not  born  for  a  politician  ;  he  did 
not  possess  that  analytical  character  of  mind  which  penetrates 
into  the  remote  causes  of  human  action,  nor  the  synthetical 
power  which  enables  a  man  to  follow  them  out  to  their  farthest 
consequences.  Of  the  three  qualities  necessary  for  a  statesman, 
he  possessed  only  two,  —  honesty  and  patriotism  ;  he  had  not 
political  wisdom.  Hence,  in  the  finest  specimens  of  his  political 
orations,  his  Catilinarians  and  Philippics,  we  look  in  vain  for 
the  calm,  practical  weighing  of  the  subject  which  is  necessary 
in  addressing  a  deliberative  assembly.  Nevertheless,  so  irre- 
sistible was  the  influence  which  he  exercised  upon  the  minds  of 
his  hearers,  that  all  his  political  speeches  were  triumphs.  His 
panegyric  on  Pompey  carried  his  appointment  as  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  armies  of  the  East ;  he  crushed  in  Catiline  one  of 
the  most  formidable  traitors  that  had  ever  menaced  the  safety 
of  the  republic,  and  Antony's  fall  followed  the  complete  ex- 
posure of  his  debauchery  in  private  life,  and  the  factiousness  of 
his  public  career. 

In  his  rhetorical  works,  Cicero  left  a  legacy  of  practical  in- 
struction to  posterity.  The  treatise  "  On  Invention  "  is  merely 
interesting  as  the  juvenile  production  of  a  future  great  man. 
"The  Orator,"  "  Brutus,  or  the  illustrious  Orators,"  and  "The 
Orator  to  Marius  Brutus,"  are  the  results  of  his  matured  expe- 
rience. They  form  together  one  series,  in  which  the  principles 
are  laid  down,  and  their  development  carried  out  and  illus- 
trated ;  and  in  the  "  Orator  "  he  places  before  the  eyes  of  Bru- 
tus the  model  of  ideal  perfection.  In  his  treatment  of  that 
subject,  he  shows  a  mind  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  Plato ;  he 
invests  it  with  dramatic  interest,  and  transports  the  reader  into 
the  scene  which  he  so  graphically  describes. 

Roman  philosophy  was  neither  the  result  of  original  investi- 
gation, nor  the  gradual  development  of  the  Greek  system.  It 
arose  rather  from  a  study  of  ancient  philosophical  literature, 
than  from  an  emanation  of  philosophical  principles.  It  consisted 
in  a  kind  of  eclecticism  with  an  ethical  tendency,  bringing  to- 
gether doctrines  and  opinions  scattered  over  a  wide  field  in 
reference  to  the  political  and  social  relations  of  man.  Greek 
philosophy  was  probably  first  introduced  into  Rome  166  B.  c. 
But  although  the  Romans  could  appreciate  the  majestic  dignity 
and  poetical  beauty  of  the  style  of  Plato,  they  were  not  equal 
to  the  task  of  penetrating  his  hidden  meaning ;  neither  did  the 
peripatetic  doctrines  meet  with  much  favor.  The  philosophical 


ROMAN  LITERATURE.  151 

system  which  first  arrested  the  attention  of  the  Romans,  and 
gained  an  influence  over  their  minds,  was  the  Epicurean.  That 
of  the  Stoics  also,  the  severe  principles  of  which  were  in  har- 
mony with  the  stern  old  Roman  virtues,  had  distinguished  disci- 
ples. The  part  which  Cicero's  character  qualified  him  to  per- 
form in  the  philosophical  instruction  of  his  countrymen  was 
scarcely  that  of  a  guide ;  he  could  give  them  a  lively  interest  in 
the  subject,  but  he  could  not  mould  and  form  their  belief,  and 
train  them  in  the  work  of  original  investigation.  Not  being  de- 
voutly attached  to  any  system  of  philosophical  belief,  he  would 
be  cautious  of  offending  the  philosophical  prejudices  of  others. 
He  was  essentially  an  eclectic  in  accumulating  stores  of  Greek 
erudition,  while  his  mind  had  a  tendency,  in  the  midst  of  a  va- 
riety of  inconsistent  doctrines,  to  leave  the  conclusion  undeter- 
mined. He  brought  everything  to  a  practical  standard  ;  he  ad- 
mired the  exalted  purity  of  stoical  morality,  but  he  feared  that 
it  was  impractical.  He  believed  in  the  existence  of  one  supreme 
creator,  in  his  spiritual  nature,  and  the  immortality  of  the  soul ; 
but  his  belief  was  rather  the  result  of  instinctive  conviction,  than 
of  proof  derived  from  philosophy. 

The  study  of  Cicero's  philosophical  works  is  invaluable,  in 
order  to  understand  the  minds  of  those  who  came  after  him. 
Not  only  all  Roman  philosophy  after  his  time,  but  a  great  part 
of  that  of  the  Middle  Ages,  was  Greek  philosophy  filtered 
through  Latin,  and  mainly  founded  on  that  of  Cicero.  Among 
his  works  on  speculative  philosophy  are  "  The  Academics,  or  a 
history  and  defense  of  the  belief  of  the  new  Academy  ;  "  "  Dia- 
logues on  the  Supreme  Good,  the  end  of  all  moral  action ;  " 
"  The  Tusculan  Disputations,"  containing  five  treatises  on  the 
fear  of  death,  the  endurance  of  pain,  power  of  wisdom  over  sor- 
row, the  morbid  passions,  and  the  relation  of  virtue  to  happiness. 
His  moral  philosophy  comprehends  the  "  Duties,"  a  stoical  trea- 
tise on  moral  obligations,  and  the  unequaled  little  essays  on 
"  Friendship  and  Old  Age."  His  political  works  are  "  The  Re- 
public "  and  "  The  Law  ;  "  but  these  remains  are  fragmentary. 

The  extent  of  Cicero's  correspondence  is  almost  incredible. 
Even  those  epistles  which  remain  number  more  than  eight  hun- 
dred. In  them  we  find  the  eloquence  of  the  heart,  not  of  the 
rhetorical  school.  They  are  models  of  pure  Latinity,  elegant 
without  stiffness,  the  natural  outpourings  of  a  mind  which  could 
not  give  birth  to  an  ungraceful  idea.  In  his  letters  to  Atticus 
he  lays  bare  the  secret  of  his  heart ;  he  trusts  his  life  in  his 
hands  ;  he  is  not  only  his  friend  but  his  confidant,  his  second 
self.  In  the  letters  of  Cicero  we  have  the  description  of  the 
period  of  Roman  history,  and  the  portrait  of  the  inner  life  of 
Roman  society  in  his  day. 


152       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

8.  HISTORY. — In  their  historical  literature  the  Romans  exhib- 
ited a  faithful  transcript  of  their  mind  and  character.  History 
at  once  gratified  their  patriotism,  and  its  investigations  were  in 
accordance  with  their  love  of  the  real  and  the  practical.  In 
this  department,  they  were  enabled  to  emulate  the  Greeks  and 
to  be  thsir  rivals,  and  sometimes  their  superiors.  The  elagant 
simplicity  of  Caesar  is  as  attractive  as  that  of  Herodotus ;  none 
of  the  Greek  historians  surpasses  Livy  in  talent  for  the  pictur- 
esque and  in  the  charm  with  which  he  invests  his  spirited  and 
living  stories ;  while  for  condensation  of  thought,  terseness  of 
expression,  and  political  and  philosophical  acumen,  Tacitus  is  not 
inferior  to  Thucydides.  The  catalogue  of  Roman  historians  con- 
tains many  writers  whose  works  are  lost ;  such  as  L.  Lucretius, 
the  friend  and  correspondent  of  Cicero,  L.  Lucullus,  the  illus- 
trious conqueror  of  Mithridates,  and  Cornelius  Nepos,  of  whom 
only  one  work  was  preserved,  the  "  Lives  of  Eminent  Gen- 
erals." The  authenticity  of  this  work  is,  however,  disputed.  But 
at  the  head  of  this  department,  as  the  great  representatives  of 
Roman  history,  stand  Julius  Caesar,  Sallust,  Livy,  and  Tacitus, 
all  of  whom,  except  the  last,  belong  to  the  Augustan  age. 

Julius  Caesar  (100-44  B.  c.)  was  descended  from  one  of  the 
oldest  among  the  patrician  families  of  Rome.  He  attached  him- 
self to  the  popular  party,  and  his  good  taste,  great  tact,  and 
pleasing  manners  contributed,  together  with  his  talents,  to  insure 
his  popularity.  He  became  a  soldier  in  the  nineteenth  year  of 
his  age,  and  hence  his  works  display  all  the  best  qualities  which 
are  fostered  by  a  military  education  —  frankness,  simplicity,  and 
brevity.  His  earliest  literary  triumph  was  as  an  orator,  and, 
according  to  Quintilian,  he  was  a  worthy  rival  of  Cicero.  When 
he  obtained  the  office  of  Pontifex  Maximus,  he  diligently  ex- 
amined the  history  and  nature  of  the  Roman  belief  in  augury, 
and  published  his  investigations.  When  his  career  as  a  military 
commander  began,  whatever  leisure  his  duties  permitted  him  to 
enjoy  he  devoted  to  the  composition  of  his  memoirs,  or  commen- 
taries of  the  Gallic  and  civil  wars.  He  wrote,  also,  some  minor 
works  on  different  subjects,  and  he  left  behind  him  various  let- 
ters, Some  of  which  are  extant. 

But  by  far  the  most  important  of  the  works  of  Caesar  is  his 
"  Commentaries,"  which  have  come  down  to  us  in  a  tolerably 
perfect  state.  They  are  sketches  taken  on  the  spot,  in  the 
midst  of  action,  while  the  mind  was  full,  and  they  have  all  the 
graphic  power  of  a  master-mind  and  the  vigorous  touches  of  a 
master-hand.  The  Commentaries  are  the  materials  for  history, 
notes  jotted  down  for  future  historians.  The  veiy  faults  which 
may  justly  be  found  with  the  style  of  Caesar  are  such  as  reflect 
the  man  himself.  The  majesty  of  his  character  consists  chiefly 


ROMAN  LITERATURE.  153 

in  the  imperturbable  calmness  and  equanimity  of  his  temper ;  he 
had  no  sudden  bursts  of  energy  and  alternations  of  passion  and 
inactivity.  The  elevation  of  his  character  was  a  high  one,  but 
it  was  a  level  table-land.  This  calmness  and  equability  pervades 
his  writings,  and  for  this  reason  they  have  been  thought  to  want 
life  and  energy.  The  beauty  of  his  language  is,  as  Cicero  says, 
statuesque  rather  th?n  picturesque.  Simple  and  severe,  it  con- 
veys the  idea  of  perfect  and  well-proportioned  beauty,  while  it 
banishes  all  thoughts  of  human  passion.  In  relating  his  own 
deeds,  he  does  not  strive  to  add  to  his  own  reputation  by  de- 
tracting from  the  merits  of  those  who  served  under  him.  He  is 
honest,  generous,  and  candid,  not  only  towards  them,  but  also 
towards  his  brave  enemies.  He  recounts  his  successes  without 
pretension  or  arrogance,  though  he  has  evidently  no  objection  to 
be  the  hero  of  his  own  tale.  His  Commentaries  are  not  confes- 
sions, although  he  is  the  subject  of  them  ;  not  a  record  of  a 
weakness  appears,  nor  even  a  defect,  except  that  which  the  Ro- 
mans would  readily  forgive,  cruelty.  His  savage  waste  of  hu- 
lnan  life  he  recounts  with  perfect  self-complacency.  Vanity,  the 
crowning  error  in  his  career  as  a  statesman,  though  hidden  by 
the  reserve  with  which  he  speaks  of  himself,  sometimes  discovers 
itself  in  the  historian. 

The  Commentaries  of  Caesar  have  been  compared  with  the 
work  of  the  great  soldier-historian  of  Greece,  Xenophon.  Both 
are  eminently  simple  and  unaffected,  but  there  the  parallel  ends. 
The  severe  contempt  of  ornament,  which  characterizes  the  stern 
Roman,  is  totally  unlike  the  mellifluous  sweetness  of  the  Attic 
writer. 

Sallust  (85-35  B.  c.)  was  born  of  a  plebeian  family,  but,  hav- 
ing filled  the  offices  of  tribune  and  quaestor,  attained  senatorial 
rank.  He  was  expelled  from  the  Senate  for  his  profligacy,  but 
restored  again  to  his  rank  through  the  influence  of  Caesar,  whose 
party  he  espoused.  He  accompanied  his  patron  in  the  African 
war,  and  was  made  governor  of  Numidia.  While  in  that  capac- 
ity, he  accumulated  by  rapacity  and  extortion  enormous  wealth, 
which  he  lavished  in  expensive  but  tasteful  luxury.  The  gar- 
dens on  the  Quirinal  which  bore  his  name  were  celebrated  for 
their  beauty  ;  and  there,  surrounded  by  the  choicest  works  of 
art,  he  devoted  his  retirement  to  composing  the  historical  rec- 
ords which  survived  him.  As  a  politician,  he  was  a  mere  par- 
tisan of  Caesar,  and  therefore  a  strenuous  opponent  of  the  higher 
classes  and  of  the  supporters  of  Pompey.  The  object  of  his 
hatred  was  not  the  old  patrician  blood  of  Rome,  but  the  new 
aristocracy,  which  had  of  late  years  been  rapidly  rising  up  and 
displacing  it.  That  new  nobility  was  utterly  corrupt,  and  its 
corruption  was  encouraged  by  the  venality  of  the  masses,  whose 


154       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

poverty  and  destitution  tempted  them  to  be  the  tools  of  unscru- 
pulous ambition.  Sallust  strove  to  place  that  party  in  the  un- 
favorable light  which  it  deserved ;  but,  notwithstanding  the 
truthfulness  of  the  picture  which  he  draws,  selfishness  and  not 
patriotism  was  the  mainspring  of  his  politics  ;  he  was  not  an 
honest  champion  of  popular  rights,  but  a  vain  and  conceited 
man,  who  lived  in  an  immoral  and  corrupt  age,  and  had  not  the 
strength  of  principle  to  resist  the  force  of  example  and  tempta- 
tion. If,  however,  we  make  some  allowance  for  the  political 
bias  of  Sallust,  his  histories  have  not  only  the  charms  of  the  his- 
torical romance,  but  are  also  valuable  political  studies.  His 
characters  are  vigorously  and  naturally  drawn,  and  the  more  his 
histories  are  read,  the  more  obvious  it  is  that  he  always  writes 
with  an  object,  and  uses  his  facts  as  the  means  of  enforcing  a 
great  political  lesson. 

His  first  work  is  on  the  "  Jugurthine  War  ;  "  the  next  related 
to  the  period  from  the  consulship  of  Lepidus  to  the  praetorship 
of  Cicero,  and  is  unfortunately  lost.  This  was  followed  by  a 
history  of  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline,  "The  War  of  Catiline," 
in  which  he  paints  in  vivid  colors  the  depravity  of  that  order  of 
society  which,  bankrupt  in  fortune  and  honor,  still  plumes  itself 
on  its  rank  and  exclusiveness.  To  Sallust  must  be  conceded 
the  praise  of  having  first  conceived  the  notion  of  a  history,  in 
the  true  sense  of  the  term.  He  was  the  first  Roman  histo- 
rian, and  the  guide  of  future  historians.  He  had  always  an  ob- 
ject to  which  he  wished  all  his  facts  to  converge,  and  he  brought 
them  forward  as  illustrations  and  developments  of  principles. 
He  analyzed  and  exposed  the  motives  of  parties,  and  laid  bare 
the  inner  life  of  those  great  actors  on  the  public  stage,  in  the  in- 
teresting historical  scenes  which  he  describes.  His  style,  al- 
though ostentatiously  elaborate  and  artificial,  is,  upon  the  whole, 
pleasing,  and  almost  always  transparently  clear.  Following 
Thucydides,  whom  he  evidently  took  as  his  model,  he  strives  to 
imitate  his  brevity  ;  but  while  this  quality  with  the  Greek  his- 
torian is  natural  and  involuntary,  with  the  Roman  it  is  inten- 
tional and  studied.  The  brevity  of  Thucydides  is  the  result  of 
condensation,  that  of  Sallust  is  elliptical  expression. 

Livy  (59-18  B.  c.)  was  born  in  Padua,  and  came  to  Rome 
during  the  reign  of  Augustus,  where  he  resided  in  the  enjoy- 
ment of  the  imperial  favor  and  patronage.  He  was  a  warm  and 
open  admirer  of  the  ancient  institutions  of  the  country,  and  es- 
teemed Pompey  as  one  of  its  greatest  heroes  ;  but  Augustus  did 
not  allow  political  opinions  to  interfere  with  the  regard  which  he 
entertained  for  the  historian.  His  great  work  is  a  history  of 
Rome,  which  he  modestly  terms  "  Annals,"  in  one  hundred  and 
forty-two  books,  of  which  thirty-five  are  extant.  Besides  his 


ROMAN  LITERATURE.  155 

history,  Livy  is  said  to  have  written  treatises  and  dialogues, 
which  were  partly  philosophical  and  partly  historical. 

The  great  object  of  Livy's  history  was  to  celebrate  the  glories 
of  his  native  country,  to  which  he  was  devotedly  attached.  He 
was  a  patriot :  his  sympathy  was  with  Pompey,  called  forth  by 
the  disinterestedness  of  that  great  man,  and  perhaps  by  his  sad 
end.  He  delights  to  put  forth  his  powers  in  those  passages 
which  relate  to  the  affections.  He  is  a  biographer  quite  as  much 
as  a  historian ;  he  anatomizes  the  moral  nature  of  his  heroes, 
and  shows  the  motive  springs  of  their  noble  exploits.  His  char- 
acters stand  before  us  like  epic  heroes,  and  he  tells  his  story  like 
a  bard  singing  his  lay  at  a  joyous  festive  meeting,  checkered  by 
alternate  successes  and  reverses,  though  all  tending  to  a  happy 
result  at  last.  But  while  these  features  constitute  his  charm  as 
a  narrator,  they  render  him  less  valuable  as  a  historian.  Al- 
though he  would  not  be  willfully  inaccurate,  if  the  legend  he  was 
about  to  tell  was  interesting,  he  would  not  stop  to  inquire  whether 
or  not  it  was  true.  Taking  upon  trust  the  traditions  which  had 
been  handed  down  from  generation  to  generation,  the  more  flat- 
tering and  popular  they  were,  the  more  suitable  would  he  deem 
them  for  his  purposes.  He  loved  his  country,  and  he  would 
scarcely  believe  anything  derogatory  to  the  national  glory. 
Whenever  Rome  was  false  to  treaties,  unmerciful  in  victory,  or 
unsuccessful  in  arms,  he  either  ignores  the  facts  or  is  anxious  to 
find  excuses.  He  does  not  appear  to  have  made  researches  into 
the  many  original  documents  which  were  extant  at  his  time,  but 
he  trusted  to  the  annalists,  and  took  advantage  of  the  investiga- 
tions of  preceding  historians.  His  descriptions  of  military  af- 
fairs are  often  vague  and  indistinct,  and  he  often  shows  himself 
ignorant  of  the  localities  which  he  describes.  Such  are  the 
principal  defects  of  Livy,  who  otherwise  charms  his  readers 
with  his  romantic  narratives,  and  his  lively,  fresh,  and  fascinat- 
ing style. 

9.  OTHER  PROSE  WRITERS.  — Though  the  grammarians  of 
this  period  were  numerous,  they  added  little  or  nothing  to  its 
literary  reputation.  The  most  conspicuous  among  them  wero 
Atteius,  a  friend  of  Sallust ;  Epirota,  the  correspondent  of  Cic- 
ero ;  Julius  Hyginus,  a  friend  of  Ovid  ;  and  Nigidius  Figulus, 
an  orator  as  well  as  grammarian.  M.  Vitruvius  Pollio,  the  cele- 
brated architect,  deserves  to  be  mentioned  for  his  treatise  on  ar- 
chitecture. He  was  probably  native  of  Verona,  and  served 
under  Julius  Caesar  in  Africa,  as  a  military  engineer.  Notwith- 
standing the  defects  of  his  style,  the  language  of  Vitruvius  is  vig- 
orous, and  his  descriptions  bold  ;  his  work  is  valuable  as  exhibit- 
ing the  principles  of  Greek  architectual  taste  and  beauty,  of 
which  he  was  a  devoted  admirer. 


156       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 


PERIOD  THIRD. 

FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  AUGUSTUS  TO  THE  CLOSE  op  THE  REIGN  OF 
THEODORIC  (14-526  A.  D.). 

1.  DECLINE  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE.  —  With  the  death  of 
Augustus  began  the  decline  of  Roman  literature,  and  a  few 
names  only  rescue  the  first  years  of  this  period  from  the  charge 
of  a  corrupt  and  vitiated  taste.     After  a  while,  indeed,  political 
circumstances  again  became  more  favorable  ;  the  dangers,  which 
paralyzed  genius  and  talent,  and  prevented  their  free  exercise 
under  Tiberius  and  his  tyrannical  successors,  diminished,  and  a 
more  liberal  system  of  administration  ensued  under  Vespasian 
and  Titus.     Juvenal  and  Tacitus  then  stood  forth,  as  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  old  Roman  independence.     Vigor  of  thought 
communicated  itself  to  the  language  ;  a  taste  for  the  sublime  and 
beautiful,  to  a  certain  extent,  revived,  although  it  did  not  attain 
to  the  perfection  which  shed  a  lustre  over  the  Augustan  age. 
Between  the  ages  of  Horace  and  Juvenal,  Cicero  and  Tacitus, 
there  was  a  gap  of  half  a  century,  in  which  Roman  genius  was 
slumbei'ing.     The  gradual  growth  of  a  spirit  of  adulation  de- 
terred all  who  were  qualified  for  the  task  of  the  historian  from 
attempting  it.     Fear,  during  the  lifetime  of  Tiberius  and  Ca- 
ligula, Claudius   and   Nero,  and   hatred,  still  fresh  after  their 
deaths,  rendered  all  accounts  of  their  reigns  false.    And  the  same 
causes  which  silenced  the  voice  of  history  extinguished  the  gen- 
ius of  poetry  and  oratory.    As  liberty  declined,  natural  eloquence 
decayed  ;  the  orator  sought  only  to  please  the  corrupt  taste  of 
his  audiences  with    strange    and    exaggerated   statements ;   the 
poet  aimed  to  win  public  admiration  through  a  style  overladen 
with  ornament,  and  florid  and  diffuse  descriptions.     Literature, 
in  order  to  flourish,  requires  the  genial  sunshine  of  human  sym- 
pathy ;  it  needs  either  the  patronage  of  the  great,  or  the  favor 
of  the  people.     Immediately  after  the  death  of  Augustus,  pat- 
ronage was  withdrawn,  and  there  was  no  public  sympathy  to  sup- 
ply its  place.    In  the  reign  of  Nero,  literature  partially  revived  ; 
for,  though  the  bloodiest  of  tyrants,  he  had  a  taste  for  art  and 
poetry,  and  an  ambition  to  excel  in  refinement. 

2.  FABLE.  —  In  fable,  as  in  other  fields   of  literature,  Rome 
was  an  imitator  of  Greece,  but  nevertheless  Phsedrus  struck  out 
a  new  line  for  himself,  and,  through  his  fables,  became  not  only  a 
moral  instructor,  but  a  political  satirist.     Phzedrus  (fl.  16  A.  D.), 
the  originator  and  only  author  of  Roman  fable,  though  born  in 
the  reign  of  Augustus,  wrote  when  the  Augustan  age  had  passed 
away.     His  works  are,  as  it  were^  isolated  ;  he  had  no  contem- 
poraries.    Nevertheless,  his  solitary  voice  was  lifted  up  when 


ROMAN  LITERATURE.  157 

those  of  the  poet,  the  historian,  and  the  philosopher  were  silenced. 
The  moral  and  political  lessons  conveyed  in  his  fables  were  sug- 
gested by  the  evils  of  the  times  in  which  he  lived.  Some  of 
them  illustrate  the  danger  of  riches  and  the  comparative  safety 
of  obscurity  and  poverty,  in  an  age  when  the  rich  were  marked 
for  destruction,  in  order  that  the  confiscation  of  their  property 
might  glut  the  avarice  of  the  emperor  and  of  his  servants ; 
others  were  suggested  by  historical  events,  being  nevertheless 
satirical  strictures  on  individuals.  The  style  of  Phsedrus  is  pure 
and  classical,  and  combines  the  simple  neatness  and  graceful  ele- 
gance of  the  golden  age  with  the  vigor  and  terseness  of  the  sil- 
ver one.  He  has  the  facility  of  Ovid  and  the  brevity  of  Tacitus. 
In  the  construction  of  his  fables,  he  displays  observation  and  in- 
genuity ;  but  he  is  deficient  in  imagination.  He  makes  his  ani- 
mals the  vehicles  of  his  wisdom,  but  he  does  not  throw  himself 
into  them,  or  identify  himself  with  them ;  while  they  look  and 
act  like  animals,  they  talk  like  human  beings.  In  this  consists 
the  great  superiority  of  ^Esop  to  his  Roman  imitator  ;  his  brutes 
are  a  superior  race,  but  they  are  still  brutes,  and  it  would  seem 
that  the  fabulist  had  lived  among  them  as  one  of  themselves, 
had  adopted  their  mode  of  life,  and  conversed  with  them  in  their 
own  language.  In  Phaedrus  we  have  human  sentiments  trans- 
lated into  the  language  of  beasts,  while  in  -ZEsop  we  have  beasts 
giving  utterance  to  such  sentiments  as  would  be  naturally  theirs 
if  they  were  placed  in  the  position  of  men. 

3.  SATIRE  AND  EPIGRAM.  —  Roman  satire,  subsequently  to 
Horace,  is  represented  by  Persius  and  Juvenal.  Persius  (34—62 
A.  D.)  early  attached  himself  to  the  Stoic  philosophy.  He  was 
pure  in  mind,  and  free  from  the  corrupt  taint  of  an  immoral 
age.  Although  Lucilius.was,  to  a  certain  extent,  his  model,  he 
does  not  attack  vice  with  the  biting  severity  of  the  old  satirist, 
.nor  do  we  find  in  his  writings  the  enthusiastic  indignation  which 
burns  in  the  verses  of  Juvenal.  His  purity  of  mind  and  kindli- 
ness of  heart  disinclined  him  to  portray  vice  in  its  hideous  and 
loathsome  forms,  and  to  indulge  in  that  bitterness  of  invective 
which  the  prevalent  enormities  of  his  times  deserved.  His  up- 
rightness and  love  of  virtue  are  shown  by  the  uncompromising 
severity  with  which  he  rebukes  sins  of  not  so  deep  a  dye ;  and 
the  heart  which  was  capable  of  being  moulded  by  his  example, 
and  influenced  by  his  purity,  would  have  shrunk  from  the  fear- 
ful crimes  which  deform  the  pages  of  Juvenal.  The  greatest 
defect  in  Persius,  as  a  satirist,  is  that  the  Stoic  philosophy  in 
which  he  was  educated  rendered  him  indifferent  to  the  affairs  of 
the  world.  His  contemplative  habits  led  him  to  criticise,  as  his 
favorite  subjects,  false  taste  in  poetry  and  empty  pretensions  to 
philosophy.  Horace  mingled  in  the  society  of  the  profligate  wid 


158       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

considering  them  as  fools,  laughed  their  folly  to  scorn.  Juvenal 
looked  down  upon  the  corruption  of  the  age  from  the  eminence 
of  his  virtue,  and  punished  it  like  an  avenging  deity.  Persius, 
pure  in  heart  and  passionless  by  education,  while  he  lashes  wick- 
edness in  the  abstract,  almost  ignores  its  existence,  and  shrinks 
from  probing  to  the  bottom  the  vileness  of  the  human  heart. 
His  works  comprise  six  satires,  all  of  which  breathe  the  natural 
amiability  and  placid  cheerfulness  of  his  temper. 

Juvenal  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Domitian,  towards  the  close 
of  the  first  century  A.  D.,  a  dark  period,  which  saw  the  utter 
moral  degradation  of  the  people,  and  the  bloodiest  tyranny  and 
oppression  on  the  part  of  their  rulers.  The  picture  of  Roman 
manners,  as  painted  by  his  glowing  pencil,  is  truly  appalling. 
The  fabric  of  society  was  in  ruins,  the  popular  religion  was 
rejected  with  scorn,  and  the  creed  of  natural  religion  had  not 
occupied  its  place.  The  emperors  took  part  in  public  scenes  of 
folly  and  profligacy,  and  exposed  themselves  as  charioteers,  as 
dancers,  and  as  actors.  Nothing  was  respected  but  wealth, 
nothing  provoked  contempt  but  poverty.  Players  and  dancers 
had  all  honors  and  offices  at  their  disposal ;  the  city  swarmed 
with  informers,  who  made  the  rich  their  prey  ;  every  man  feared 
his  most  intimate  friend,  and  the  only  bond  of  friendship  was  to 
be  an  accomplice  in  crime.  The  teacher  would  corrupt  his  pupil, 
and  the  guardian  defraud  his  ward.  Crimes  which  cannot  be 
named  were  common,  and  the  streets  of  Rome  were  the  constant 
scene  of  robbery,  assault,  and  assassination.  The  morals  of 
women  were  as  depraved  as  those  of  men,  and  there  was  no  pub- 
lic amusement  so  immoral  or  so  cruel  as  not  to  be  countenanced 
by  their  presence.  In  this  period  of  moral  dearth,  the  fountains 
of  genius  and  literature  were  dried  up.  There  was  criticism, 
declamation,  panegyric,  and  verse  writing,  but  no  oratory,  his- 
tory, or  poetry.  Juvenal,  though  himself  not  free  from  the  de- 
clamatory affectation  of  the  day,  attacked  the  false  literary  taste 
of  his  contemporaries  as  unsparingly  as  he  did  their  depraved 
morality.  His  sixteen  satires  exhibit  an  enlightened,  truthful, 
and  comprehensive  view  of  Roman  manners,  and  of  the  inevita- 
ble result  of  such  depravity.  The  two  finest  of  them  are  those 
which  Dr.  Johnson  has  thought  worthy  of  imitation. 

The  historical  value  of  these  satires  must  not  be  forgotten. 
Tacitus  lived  in  the  same  perilous  times  as  Juvenal,  and  when 
they  had  come  to  an  end  and  it  was  not  unsafe  to  speak,  he 
wrote  their  public  history,  which  the  poet  illustrates  by  display- 
ing the  social  and  inner  life  of  the  Romans.  Their  works  are 
parallel,  and  each  forms  a  commentary  upon  the  other.  The 
style  of  Juvenal  is  vigorous  and  lucid  ;  his  morals  were  pure 
in  the  midst  of  a  debased  age,  and  his  language  shines  forth  in 


ROMAN  LITERATURE.  159 

classic  elegance,  in  the  midst  of  specimens  of  declining  and  de- 
generate taste. 

Juvenal  closes  the  list  of  Roman  satirists,  properly  speaking. 
The  satirical  spirit  animates  the  piquant  epigrams  of  his  friend 
Martial,  but  their  purpos^e  is  not  moral  or  didactic.  They  sting 
the  individual,  and  render  him  an  ohject  of  scorn  and  disgust, 
but  they  do  not  hold  up  vice  itself  to  ridicule  and  detestation. 

Martial  (43-104  A.  D.)  was  born  in  Spain.  He  early  emi- 
grated to  Rome,  where  he  became  a  favorite  of  Titus  and 
Domitian,  and  in  the  reign  of  the  latter  he  was  appointed  to 
the  office  of  court-poet.  During  thirty-five  years,  he  lived  at 
Rome  the  life  of  a  flatterer  and  a  dependent,  and  then  he  re- 
turned to  his  native  town,  where  his  death  was  hastened  by  his 
distaste  for  provincial  life.  Measured  by  the  corrupt  standard 
of  morals  which  disgraced  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  Martial 
was  probably  not  worse  than  most  of  his  contemporaries ;  for 
the  fearful  profligacy,  which  his  powerful  pen  describes  in  such 
hideous  terms,  had  spread  through  .Rome  its  loathsome  infection. 
Had  he  lived  in  better  times,  his  talents  might  have  been  devoted 
to  a  purer  object ;  as  it  was,  no  language  is  strong  enough  to 
denounce  the  impurities  of  his  page,  and  his  moral  taste  must 
have  been  thoroughly  depraved  not  to  have  turned  with  disgust 
from  the  contemplation  of  such  subjects.  But  not  all  his  poems 
are  of  this  character.  Amidst  some  obscurity  of  style  and  want 
of  finish,  many  are  redolent  of  Greek  sweetness  and  elegance. 
Here  and  there  are  pleasing  descriptions  of  the  beauties  of 
nature,  and  many  are  kind-hearted  and  full  of  varied  wit,  poeti- 
cal imagination,  and  graceful  expression.  To  the  original  char- 
acteristics of  the  Greek  epigram,  Martial,  more  than  any  other 
poet,  added  that  which  constitutes  an  epigram  in  the  modern 
sense  of  the  term  :  pointedness  either  in  jest  or  earnest,  and  the 
bitterness  of  personal  satire. 

4.  DRAMATIC  LITERATURE.  —  Dramatic  literature  never  flour- 
ished in  Rome,  and  still  less  under  the  empire.  During  this 
period  there  were  not  wanting  some  imitators  of  Greece  in  this 
noble  branch  of  poetry,  but  their  productions  were  rather  literary 
than  dramatic ;  they  were  poems  composed  in  a  dramatic  form, 
intended  to  be  read,  not  acted.  They  contain  noble  philosophi- 
cal sentiments,  lively  descriptions,  and  passages  full  of  tender- 
ness and  pathos,  but  they  are  deficient  In  dramatic  effect,  and 
positively  offend  against  those  laws  of  good  taste  which  regu- 
lated the  Athenian  stage.  In  the  Augustan  age,  a  few  writers 
attained  some  excellence  in  tragedy,  at  least  in  the  opinion  of 
ancient  critics. 

Under  the  tyrant  Nero,  dramatic  literature  reappeared,  speci- 
mens of  which  are  extant  in  the  ten  tragedies  attributed  to 


160       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

Seneca.  But  the  genius  of  the  author  never  grasps,  in  their 
wholeness,  the  characters  which  he  attempts  to  copy  ;  they  are 
distorted  images  of  the  Greek  originals,  and  the  shadowy  grand- 
eur of  the  godlike  heroes  of  .^Eschylus  stands  forth  in  corporeal 
vastness,  and  appears  childish  and  unnatural,  like  the  giants  of  a 
story-book.  The  Greeks  believed  in  the  gods  and  heroes  whose 
agency  and  exploits  constituted  the  machinery  of  tragedy,  but 
the  Romans  did  not,  and  we  cannot  sympathize  with  them,  be- 
cause we  see  that  they  are  insincere. 

An  awful  belief  in  destiny,  and  the  hopeless  yet  patient  strug- 
gle of  a  great  and  good  man  against  this  all-ruling  power,  are 
the  mainspring  of  Greek  tragedy.  This  belief  the  Romans  did 
not  transfer  into  their  imitations,  but  they  supplied  its  place  with 
the  stern  fatalism  of  the  Stoics.  The  principle  of  destiny  enter- 
tained by  the  Greek  poets  is  a  mythological,  even  a  religious 
one.  It  is  the  irresistible  will  of  God.  God  is  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  chain  of  causes  and  effects,  by  which  the  event 
is  brought  about  which  God  has  ordained ;  his  inspired  prophets 
have  power  to  foretell,  and  mortals  cannot  resist  or  avoid.  It 
is  rather  predestination  than  destiny.  The  fatalism  of  the  IStoics, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  the  doctrine  of  practical  necessity.  It 
ignores  the  almighty  power  of  the  Supreme  Being,  and  although 
it  does  not  deny  his  existence,  it  strips  him  of  his  attributes  as 
the  moral  governor  of  the  universe.  These  doctrines,  expressed 
equally  in  the  writings  of  Seneca  the  philosopher,  and  in  the 
tragedies  attributed  to  him,  lead  to  the  probability,  amounting 
almost  to  certainty,  that  he  was  their  author.  But  whatever  be 
the  case  in  regard  to  their  authorship,  it  is  certain  that,  notwith- 
standing their  false  rhetorical  taste  and  the  absence  of  all  ideal 
and  creative  genius,  they  have  found  many  admirers  and  imita- 
tors in  modern  times.  The  French  school  of  tragic  poets  took 
them  for  their  model ;  Corneille  evidently  considered  them  the 
ideal  of  tragedy,  and  Racine  servilely  imitated  them. 

5.  EPIC  POETRY.  —  At  the  head  of  the  epic  poets  who  flour- 
ished during  the  Silver  Age,  stands  Lucan  (39-66  A.  D.).  He 
was  born  at  Cordova,  in  Spain,  and  probably  came  to  Rome 
when  very  young,  where  his  literary  reputation  was  soon  estab- 
lished. But  Nero,  who  could  not  bear  the  idea  of  a  rival,  forbade 
him  to  recite  his  poems,  then  the  common  mode  of  publication. 
Neither  would  he  allow  him  to  plead  as  an  advocate.  Smarting 
under  this  provocation,  he  joined  in  a  conspiracy  against  tho 
emperor's  life.  The  plot  failed,  but  Lucan  was  pardoned  on 
condition  of  pointing  out  his  confederates,  and  in  the  vain  hope 
of  saving  himself  from  the  monster's  vengeance,  he  actually  im- 
peached his  mother.  This  noble  woman  was  incapable  of  trea- 
son. Tacitus  says,  "  the  scourge,  the  flames,  the  rage  of  the 


ROMAN  LITERATURE.  161 

executioners  who  tortured  her  the  more  savagely,  lest  they 
should  be  scorned  by  a  woman,  were  powerless  to  extort  a  false 
confession."  Lucan  never  received  the  reward  which  he  pur- 
chased by  treachery.  When  the  warrant  for  his  death  was  issued, 
he  caused  his"  veins  to  be  cut  asunder,  and  expired  in  the  twenty- 
seventh  year  of  his  age. 

The  only  one  of  his  works  which  survives  is  the  "  Pharsalia," 
an  epic  poem  on  the  subject  of  the  civil  war  between  Caesar  and 
Pompey.  It  bears  evident  marks  of  having  been  left  unfinished ; 
it  has  great  faults  and  at  the  same  time  great  beauties.  The 
sentiments  contained  in  this  poem  breathe  a  love  of  freedom  and 
an  attachment  to  the  old  Roman  republicanism.  Its  subject  is 
a  noble  one,  full  of  historic  interest,  and  it  is  treated  with  spirit, 
brilliancy,  and  animation.  The  characters  of  Caesar  and  Pom- 
pey are  masterpieces ;  but  while  some  passages  are  scarcely 
inferior  to  any  written  by  the  best  Latin  poets,  others  have 
neither  the  dignity  of  prose,  nor  the  melody  of  poetry.  Descrip- 
tion forms  the  principal  feature  in  the  poetry  of  Lucan ;  in  fact, 
it  constitutes  one  of  the  characteristic  features  of  Roman  litera- 
ture in  its  decline,  because  poetry  had  become  more  than  ever 
an  art,  and  the  epoch  one  of  erudition. 

Silius  Italicus  (fl.  54  A.  D.)  was  the  favorite  and  intimate  of 
two  emperors,  Nero  and  Vitellius.  He  left  a  poem,  the  "  Pu- 
nica,"  which  contains  the  history  in  heroic  verse  of  the  second 
Punic  war.  The  ^Eneid  of  Virgil  was  his  model,  and  the  nar- 
rative of  Livy  furnished  his  materials.  It  is  considered  the 
dullest  and  most  tedious  poem  in  the  Latin  language  though  its 
versification  is  harmonious,  and  will  often,  in  point  of  smooth- 
ness, bear  comparison  with  that  of  Virgil. 

Valerius  Flaccus  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Vespasian.  He  is 
author  of  the  "  Argonautica,"  an  imitation  and  in  some  parts  a 
translation  of  the  Greek  poem  of  Apollonius  Rhodius  on  the 
same  subject.  He  evidently  did  not  live  to  complete  his  original 
design.  In  the  Argonautica  there  are  no  glaring  faults  or 
blemishes,  but  there  is  also  no  genius,  no  inspiration.  He  has 
some  talents  as  a  descriptive  poet ;  his  versification  is  harmonious 
and  his  style  graceful. 

P.  Statius  (61-95  A.  D.)  was  the  author  of  the  Silviae,  The- 
baid,  and  Achilleid.  The  "  Silviae  "  are  the  rude  materials  of 
thought  springing  up  spontaneously  in  all  their  wild  luxuriance, 
from  the  rich,  natural  soil  of  the  imagination  of  the  poet.  The 
subject  of  the  uThebaid"  is  the  ancient  Greek  legend  respecting 
the  war  of  the  Seven  against  Thebes,  and  the  u Achilleid"  was 
intended  to  embrace  all  the  exploits  of  Achilles,  but  only  two 
books  were  completed.  The  poems  of  Statius  contain  many 
poetical  incidents,  which  might  stand  by  themselves  as  perfect 


162       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

fugitive  pieces.  In  these  we  see  his  natural  and  unaffected  ele- 
gance, his  harmonious  ear,  and  the  truthfulness  of  his  percep- 
tions. But,  as  an  epic  poet,  he  has  neither  grasp  of  mind  nor 
vigor  of  conception  ;  his  imaginary  heroes  do  not  inspire  and 
warm  his  imagination  ;  and  his  genius  was  unable  to  rise  to  the 
highest  departments  of  art. 

6.  HISTORY.  —  For  the  reasons  already  stated,  Rome  for  a 
long  period  could  boast  of  no  historian  ;  the  perilous  nature  of 
the  times,  and  the  personal  obligations  under  which  learned  men 
frequently  were  to  the  emperors,  rendered  contemporary  his- 
tory a  means  of  adulation  and  servility.  To  this  class  of  his- 
torians belongs  Paterculus  (fl.  30  A.  D.),  who  wrote  a  history  of 
Rome  which  is  partial,  prejudiced,  and  adulatory.  He  was  a 
man  of  lively  talents,  and  his  taste  was  formed  after  the  model 
of  Sallust,  of  whom  he  was  an  imitator.  His  style  is  often  over- 
strained and  unnatural. 

Under  the  genial  and  fostering  influence  of  the  Emperor 
Trajan,  the  fine  arts,  especially  architecture,  flourished,  and  lit- 
erature revived.  The  same  taste  and  execution  which  are  visible 
in  the  bas-reliefs  on  the  column  of  Trajan  adorn  the  literature 
of  -his  age  as  illustrated  by  its  two  great  lights,  Tacitus  and  the 
younger  Pliny.  There  is  not  the  rich,  graceful  manner  which 
invests  with  such  a  charm  the  writers  of  the  Golden  Age,  but 
the  absence  of  these  qualities  is  amply  compensated  by  dignity, 
gravity,  and  honesty.  Truthfulness  beams  throughout  the  writ- 
ings of  these  two  great  contemporaries,  and  incorruptible  virtue 
is  as  visible  in  the  pages  of  Tacitus  as  benevolence  and  tender- 
ness are  in  the  letters  of  Pliny.  They  mutually  influenced  each 
other's  characters  and  principles  ;  their  tastes  and  pursuits  were 
similar ;  they  loved  each  other  dearly,  corresponded  regularly, 
corrected  each  other's  works,  and  accepted  patiently  and  grate- 
fully each  other's  criticism. 

Tacitus  (60-135  A.  D.)  was  of  equestrian  rank,  and  served  in 
several  important  offices  of  the  empire.  His  works  now  extant 
are  a  life  of  his  father-in-law,  Agricola,  a  tract  on  the  manners 
and  nations  of  the  Germans,  a  small  portion  of  a  voluminous 
work  entitled  "Histories,"  about  two  thirds  of  another  historical 
work,  entitled  "  Annals,"  and  a  dialogue  on  the  decline  of  elo- 
quence. The  life  of  Agricola,  though  a  panegyric  rather  than  a 
biography,  is  a  beautiful  specimen  of  the  vigor  and  force  of  ex- 
pression with  which  this  greatest  painter  of  antiquity  could  throw 
off  any  portrait  which  he  attempted.  Even  if  the  likeness  be 
somewhat  flattered,  the  qualities  which  the  writer  possessed,  his 
insight  into  character,  his  pathetic  power,  and  his  affectionate 
heart,  render  this  short  piece  one  of  the  most  attractive  biogra- 
phies extant.  The  treatise  on  the  "  Geography,  Manners,  and 


ROMAN  LITERATURE.  163 

Nations  of  Germany,"  though  containing  geographical  descrip- 
tions often  vague  and  inaccurate,  and  accounts  evidently  founded 
on  mere  tales  of  travelers,  bears  Hhe  impress  of  truth  in  the 
salient  points  and  characteristic  features  of  the  national  manners 
and  institutions  of  Teutonic  nations.  The  ''  Histories,"  his  ear- 
liest historical  work,  of  which  only  four  books  and  a  portion  of 
the  fifth  are  extant,  extended  from  the  year  69  to  96  A.  D.,  and 
it  was  his  intention  to  include  the  reigns  of  Nero  and  Trajan. 
In  this  work  he  proposed  to  investigate  the  political  state  of  "the 
commonwealth,  the  feeling  of  its  armies,  the  sentiments  of  its 
provinces,  the  elements  of  its  strength  and  weakness,  and  the 
causes  and  reasons  for  each  historical  phenomenon.  The  prin- 
cipal fault  which  diminishes  the  value  of  his  history  as  a  record 
of  events  is  his  too  great  readiness  to  accept  evidence  unhesitat- 
ingly, and  to  record  popular  rumors  without  taking  sufficient 
pains  to  examine  into  their  truth.  His  incorrect  account  of  the 
history,  constitution,  and  manners  of  the  Jewish  people  is  one 
among  the  few  instances  of  this  fault,  scattered  over  a  vast  field 
of  faithful  history.  The  "  Annals "  consist  of  sixteen  books ; 
they  begin  with  the  death  of  Augustus,  and  conclude  with  that 
of  Nero  (14-68  A.  D.).  The  object  of  Tacitus  was  to  describe 
the  influence  which  the  establishment  of  tyranny  on  the  ruins 
of  liberty  exercised  for  good  or  for  evil  in  bringing  out  the 
character  of  the  individual.  In  the  extinction  of  freedom  there 
still  existed  in  Rome  bright  examples  of  heroism  and  courage, 
and  instances  not  less  prominent  of  corruption  and  degradation. 
In  the  annals  of  Tacitus  these  individuals  stand  out  in  bold  re- 
lief, either  singly  or  in  groups  upon  the  stage,  while  the  emperor 
forms  the  principal  figure,  and  the  moral  sense  of  the  reader  is 
awakened  to  admire  instances  of  patient  suffering  and  deter- 
mined bravery,  or  to  witness  abject  slavery  and  remorseless  des- 
potism. 

Full  of  sagacious  observation  and  descriptive  power,  Tacitus 
engages  the  most  serious  attention  of  the  reader  by  the  gravity 
of  his  condensed  and  comprehensive  style,  as  he  does  by  the 
wisdom  and  dignity  of  his  reflections.  Living  amidst  the  influ- 
ences of  a  corrupt  age,  he  was  uncontaminated.  By  his  virtue 
and  integrity,  and  his  chastened  political  liberality,  he  commands 
our  admiration  as  a  man,  while  his  love  of  truth  is  reflected  in 
his  character  as  a  historian.  In  his  style,  the  form  is  always 
subordinate  to  the  matter ;  his  sentences  are  suggestive  of  far 
more  than  they  express,  and  his  brevity  is  enlivened  by  copious- 
ness, variety,  and  poetry  ;  his  language  is  highly  figurative  ;  his 
descriptions  of  scenery  and  incidents  are  eminently  picturesque, 
his  characters  dramatic,  and  the  expression  of  his  own  senti- 
ments almost  lyrical. 


164       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

Suetonius  was  born  about  69  A.  D.  His  principal  extant 
works  are  the  "  Lives  of  the  Twelve  Caesars,"  "  Notices  of  Illus- 
trious Grammarians  and  Rhetoricians,"  and  the  Lives  of  the 
Posts  Terence,  Horace,  Persius,  Lucan,  and  Juvenal.  The  use 
which  he  makes  of  historical  documents  proves  that  he  was  a 
man  of  diligent  research,  and,  as  a  biographer,  industrious  and 
careful.  He  indulges  neither  in  ornament  of  style  nor  in  roman- 
tic exaggeration.  The  pictures  which  he  draws  of  some  of  the 
Caesars  are  indeed  terrible,  but  they  are  fully  supported  by  the 
contemporary  authority  of  Juvenal  and  Tacitus.  As  a  histo- 
rian, Suetonius  had  not  that  comprehensive  and  philosophical 
mind  which  would  qualify  him  for  taking  an  enlarged  view  of 
his  subject ;  he  has  no  definite  plan  or  method,  and  wanders  at 
will  from  one  subject  to  another  just  as  the  idea  seizes  him. 

Curtius  is  considered  by  some  writers  as  belonging  to  the  Sil- 
ver Age,  and  by  others  to  a  later  period.  His  biography  of 
Alexander  the  Great  is  deeply  interesting.  It  is  a  romance 
rather  than  a  history.  He  never  loses  an  opportunity,  by  the 
coloring  which  he  gives  to  historical  facts,  of  elevating  the  Mac- 
edonian conqueror  to  a  superhuman  standard.  His  florid  and 
ornamented  style  is  suitable  to  the  imaginary  orations  which  are 
introduced  in  the  narrative,  and  which  constitute  the  most  strik- 
ing portions  of  the  work. 

Valerius  Maximus  flourished  during  the  reign  of  Tiberius. 
His  work  is  a  collection  of  anecdotes  entitled  "  Memorable  Say- 
ings and  Deeds,"  the  object  of  which  was  to  illustrate  by  exam- 
ples the  beauty  of  virtue  and  the  deformity  of  vice.  The  style 
is  prolix  and  declamatory,  and  characterized  by  awkward  affec- 
tation and  involved  obscurity. 

7.  RHETORIC  AND  ELOQUENCE.  —  Under  the  empire,  schools 
of  rhetoric  were  multiplied,  as  harmless  as  tyranny  could  desire. 
In  these  the  Roman  youth  learned  the  means  by  which  the  ab- 
sence of  natural  endowments  could  be  compensated.  The  stu- 
dents composed  their  speeches  according  to  the  rules  of  rhetoric  ; 
they  were  then  corrected,  committed  to  memory,  and  recited, 
partly  with  a  view  to  practice,  partly  in  order  to  amuse  an  ad- 
miring audience.  Nor  were  these  declamations  confined  to 
mere  students.  Public  recitations  had,  since  the  days  of  Juve- 
nal, been  one  of  the  crying  nuisances  of  the  times.  Seneca,  the 
father  of  the  philosopher  of  the  same  name,  a  famous  rhetorician 
himself,  left  two  works  containing  a  series  of  exercises  in  ora- 
tory, which  show  the  hollow  and  artificial  system  of  those  schools. 
He  was  born  in  Cordova  in  Spain  (61  A.  D.),  and  as  a  profes- 
sional rhetorician  amassed  a  considerable  fortune. 

Quintilian  (40-118  A.  D.)  was  the  most  distinguished  teacher 
of  rhetoric  of  this  age.  He  attempted  to  restore  a  purer  and 


ROMAN  LITERATURE.  165 

more  classical  taste,  but,  although  to  a  certain  extent  he  was 
successful,  the  effect  which  he  produced  was  only  temporary. 
For  the  instruction  of  his  elder  son  he  wrote  his  great  work, 
"  Institutes  of  Oratory,"  a  complete  system  of  instruction  in  the 
art  of  oratory ;  and  in  it  he  shows  himself  far  superior  to  Cicero 
as  a  teacher,  though  he  was  inferior  to  him  as  an  orator. 

His  work  is  divided  into  twelve  books,  in  which  he  traces  the 
progress  of  the  orator  from  the  very  cradle  until  he  arrives  at 
perfection.  In  this  monument  of  his  taste  and  genius  he  fully 
and  completely  exhausted  the  subject,  and  left  a  text-book  of 
the  science  and  art  of  nations,  as  well  as  a  masterly  sketch  of 
the  eloquence  of  antiquity. 

The  disposition  of  Quintilian  was  as  affectionate  and  tender  as 
his  genius  was  brilliant  and  his  taste  pure  ;  few  passages  through- 
out the  whole  range  of  Latin  literature  can  be  compared  to  that 
in  which  he  mourns  the  loss  of  his  wife  and  children.  It  is  the 
touching  eloquence  of  one  who  could  not  write  otherwise  than 
gracefully.  . 

Among  the  pupils  of  Quintilian,  Pliny  the  younger  took  the 
highest  place  in  the  literature  of  his  age.  He  was  born  in  Como, 
61  A.  D.,  and  adopted  and  educated  by  his  maternal  uncle,  the 
elder  Pliny.  He  attained  great  celebrity  as  a  pleader,  and  stood 
high  in  favor  with  the  emperor.  His  works  consist  of  a  pane- 
gyric on  Trajan,  and  a  collection  of  letters  in  ten  books.  The 
panegyric  is  a  piece  of  courtly  flattery  in  accordance  with  the 
cringing  and  fawning  manners  of  the  times.  The  letters  are 
very  valuable,  not  only  for  the  insight  which  they  give  into  his 
own  character,  but  also  into  the  manners  and  modes  of  thought 
of  his  illustrious  contemporaries,  as  well  as  the  politics  of  the 
day.  For  liveliness,  descriptive  power,  elegance,  and  simplicity 
of  style,  they  are  scarcely  inferior  to  those  of  Cicero,  whom  he 
evidently  took  for  his  model.  These  letters  show  how  accurate 
and  judicious  was  the  mind  of  Pliny,  how  prudent  his  adminis- 
tration in  the  high  offices  which  he  filled  under  the  reign  of  Tra- 
jan, and  how  refined  his  taste  for  the  beautiful.  The  tenth  book, 
which  consists  of  the  letters  to  Trajan,  together  with  the  em- 
peror's rescripts,  will  be  read  with  the  greatest  interest.  The 
following  passages  from  his  dispatch  respecting  the  Christians, 
written  while  he  was  procurator  of  the  province  of  Bithynia, 
and  the  emperor's  answer,  are  worthy  of  being  transcribed, 
both  because  reference  is  so  often  made  to  them,  and  because 
they  throw  light  upon  the  marvelous  and  rapid  propagation  of 
the  gospel,  the  manners  of  the  early  Christians,  the  treatment 
to  which  their  constancy  exposed  them,  and  the  severe  jealousy 
with  which  they  were  regarded  :  — 

"  It  is  my  constant  practice,  sire,  to  refer  to  you  all  subjects 


166       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

on  which  I  entertain  doubt.  For  who  is  better  able  to  direct 
my  hesitation,  or  to  instruct  my  ignorance  ?  I  have  never  been 
present  at  the  trials  of  Christians,  and,  therefore,  I  do  not  know 
in  what  way,  or  to  what  extent  it  is  usual  to  question  or  to 
punish  them.  I  have  also  felt  no  small  difficulty  in  deciding 
whether  age  should  make  any  difference,  or  whether  those  of  the 
tenderest  and  those  of  mature  years  should  be  treated  alike  ; 
whether  pardon  should  be  accorded  to  repentance,  or  whether, 
where  a  man  has  once  been  a  Christian,  recantation  should  profit 
him  ;  whether,  if  the  name  of  Christian  does  not  imply  crimi- 
nality, still  the  crimes  peculiarly  belonging  to  the  name  should 
be  punished.  Meanwhile,  in  the  case  of  those  against  whom 
informations  have  been  laid  before  me,  I  have  pursued  the  fol- 
lowing line  of  conduct :  I  have  put  to  them,  personally,  the 
question  whether  they  were  Christians.  If  they  confessed,  I 
interrogated  them  a  second  and  third  time,  and  threatened  them 
with  punishment.  If  they  still  persevered,  I  ordered  their  com- 
mitment ;  for  I  had  no  doubt  whatever,  that  whatever  they  con- 
fessed, at  any  rate,  dogged  and  inflexible  obstinacy  deserved  tQ 
be  punished.  There  were  others  who  displayed  similar  madness  ; 
but,  as  they  were  Roman  citizens,  I  ordered  them  to  be  sent 
back  to  the  city.  Soon,  persecution  itself,  as  is  generally  the 
case,  caused  the  crime  to  spread,  and  it  appeared  in  new  forms. 
An  anonymous  information  was  laid  against  a  large  number  of 
persons,  but  they  deny  that  they  are,  or  ever  have  been,  Chris- 
tians. As  they  invoked  the  gods,  repeating  the  form  after  me, 
and  offered  prayer  with  incense  and  wine,  to  your  image,  which 
I  had  ordered  to  be  brought  together  with  those  of  the  deities, 
and  besides,  cursed  Christ,  while  those  who  are  true  Christians, 
it  is  said,  cannot  be  compelled  to  do  any  one  of  these  things,  I 
thought  it  right  to  set  them  at  liberty.  Others,  when  accused 
by  an  informer,  confessed  that  they  were  Christians,  and  soon 
after  denied  the  fact.  They  said  they  had  been,  but  had  ceased 
to  be,  some  three,  some  more,  not  a  few  even  twenty  years  pre- 
viously. All  these  worshiped  your  image  and  those  of  the  gods, 
and  cursed  Christ.  But  they  affirmed  that  the  sum-total  of  their 
fault,  or  their  error,  was  that  they  were  accustomed  to  assemble 
on  a  fixed  day,  before  dawn,  and  sing  an  antiphonal  hymn  to 
Christ  as  God  ;  that  they  bound  themselves  by  an  oath,  not  to 
the  commission  of  any  wickedness,  but  to  abstain  from  theft, 
robbery,  and  adultery ;  never  to  break  a  promise,  or  to  deny  a 
deposit,  when  it  was  demanded  back.  When  these  ceremonies 
were  concluded,  it  was  their  custom  to  depart,  and  again  assem- 
ble together  to  take  food  harmlessly  and  in  common.  That 
after  my  proclamation,  in  which,  in  obedience  to  your  command, 
I  had  forbidden  associations,  they  had  desisted  from  this  prac- 


ROMAN  LITERATURE.  167 

tice.  For  these  reasons,  I  the  more  thought  it  necessary  to  in- 
vestigate the  real  truth,  by  putting  to  the  torture  two  maidens 
who  were  called  deaconessos  ;  but  I  discovered  nothing,  but  a 
perverse  and  excessive  superstition.  I  have,  therefore,  deferred 
taking  cognizance  of  the  matter  until  I  had  consulted  you  ;  for 
it  seemed  to  me  a  case  requiring  advice,  especially  on  account 
of  the  number  of  those  in  peril.  For  many  of  every  age,  sex, 
and  rank  are,  and  will  continue  to  be  called  in  question.  The 
infection,  in  fact,  has  spread  not  only  through  the  cities,  but  also 
through  the  villages  and  open  country  ;  but  it  seems  that  its 
progress  can  be  arrested.  At  any  rate,  it  is  clear  that  the  tem- 
ples, which  were  almost  deserted,  begin  to  be  frequented ;  and 
solemn  sacrifices,  which  had  been  long  intermitted,  are  again 
performed,  and  victims  are  being  sold  everywhere,  for  which, 
up  to  this  time,  a  purchaser  could  rarely  be  found.  It  is,  there- 
fore, easy  to  conceive  that  crowds  might  be  reclaimed,  if  an  op- 
portunity for  repentance  were  given." 

Trajan  to  Pliny  :  "  In  sifting  the  cases  of  those  who  have 
been  indicted  on  the  charge  of  Christianity,  you  have  adopted, 
my  dear  Secundus,  the  right  course  of  proceeding ;  for  no  cer- 
tain rule  can  be  laid  down  which  will  meet  all  cases.  They 
must  not  be  sought  after,  but  if  they  are  informed  against,  and 
convicted,  they  must  be  punished ;  with  this  proviso,  however, 
that  if  any  deny  that  he  is  a  Christian,  and  proves  the  point  by 
offering  prayers  to  our  deities,  notwithstanding  the  suspicions 
under  which  he  has  labored,  he  shall  be  pardoned  on  his  re- 
pentance. On  no  account  should  any  anonymous  charges  be 
attended  to,  for  it  would  be  the  worst  possible  precedent,  and  is 
inconsistent  with  the  habits  of  our  time." 

8.  PHILOSOPHY  AND  SCIENCE.  —  Philosophy,  and  particularly 
moral  philosophy,  became  a  necessary  study  at  this  time,  when 
the  popular  religion  had  lost  its  influence.  In  the  general  ruin 
of  public  and  private  morals,  virtuous  men  found  in  this  science 
a  guide  in  the  dangers  by  which  they  were  continually  threat- 
ened, and  a  consolation  in  all  their  sorrows.  The  Stoic  among 
the  other  schools  met  with  most  favor  from  this  class  of  men, 
for  it  offered  better  security  against  the  evils  of  life,  and  taught 
men  how  to  take  shelter  from  baseness  and  profligacy  under  the 
influence  of  virtue  and  courage.  The  doctrines  of  the  Stoics 
suited  the  rigid  sternness  of  the  Roman  character.  They  em- 
bodied that  spirit  of  self-devotion  and  self-denial  with  which  the 
Roman  patriot,  in  the  old  times  of  simple  republican  virtue, 
threw  himself  into  his  public  duties,  and  they  enabled  him  to 
meet  death  with  a  courageous  spirit  in  this  degenerate  age,  in 
which  many  of  the  best  and  noblest  willingly  died  by  their  own 
hands,  at  the  imperial  mandate,  in  order  to  save  their  name  from 
infamy,  and  their  inheritance  from  confiscation. 


168       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

Seneca  (12-69  A.  D.),  a  native  of  Cordova  in  Spain,  was  the 
greatest  philosopher  of  this  age.  He  early  displayed  great  tal- 
ent as  a  pleader,  but  in  the  reign  of  Claudius  he  was  banished 
to  Corsica,  where  he  solaced  his  exile  with  the  study  of  the  Stoic 
philosophy ;  and  though  its  severe  precepts  exercised  no  moral 
influence  on  his  conduct,  he  not  only  professed  himself  a  Stoic, 
but  imagined  that  he  was  one.  A  few  years  after,  he  was  re- 
called by  Agrippina,  to  become  tutor  to  her  son  Nero.  He  was 
too  unscrupulous  a  man  of  the  world  to  attempt  the  correction 
of  the  vicious  propensities  of  his  pupil,  or  to  instill  into  him  high 
principles.  After  the  accession  of  Nero,  he  endeavored  to  ar- 
rest his  depraved  career,  but  it  was  too  late.  Seneca  had,  by 
usury  and  legacy-hunting,  amassed  one  of  those  large  fortunes 
of  which  so  many  instances  are  met  with  in  Roman  history  ;  feel- 
ing the  dangers  of  wealth,  he  offered  his  property  to  Nero,  who 
refused  it,  but  resolved  to  rid  himself  of  his  former  tutor,  and 
easily  found  a  pretext  for  his  destruction.  In  adversity  the  char- 
acter of  Seneca  shone  with  brighter  lustre.  Though  he  had  lived 
ill,  he  could  die  well.  He  met  the  messengers  of  death  without 
trembling.  His  noble  wife,  Paulina,  determined  to  die  with  him. 
The  veins  of  both  were  opened  at  the  same  time,  but  the  little 
blood  which  remained  in  his  emaciated  frame  refused  to  flow. 
He  suffered  excruciating  agony.  A  warm  bath  was  tried,  but  in 
vain  ;  and  a  draught  of  poison  was  equally  ineffectual.  At  last 
he  was  suffocated  by  the  vapor  of  a  stove. 

Seneca  lived  in  a  perilous  atmosphere.  He  had  not  firmness 
to  act  up  to  the  high  moral  standard  which  he  proposed  to  him- 
self. He  was  avaricious,  but  avarice  was  the  great  sin  of  his 
times.  The  education  of  one  who  was  a  brute  rather  than  a 
man  was  a  task  to  which  no  one  would  have  been  equal ;  he 
therefore  retained  the  influence  which  he  had  not  the  upright- 
ness to  command,  by  miserable  and  sinful  expedients.  He  had 
great  abilities,  and  some  of  the  noble  qualities  of  the  old  Ro- 
mans ;  and  had  he  lived  in  the  days  of  the  republic,  he  would 
have  been  a  great  man. 

Seneca  was  the  author  of  twelve  ethical  treatises,  the  best  of 
which  are  entitled,  "  On  Providence,"  "  On  Consolation,"  and 
"  On  the  Perseverance  of  Wise  Men."  He  cared  little  for  ab- 
stract speculation,  and  delighted  to  inculcate  precepts  rather  than 
to  investigate  principles.  He  was  always  a  favorite  with  Chris- 
tian writers,  and  some  of  his  sentiments  are  truly  Christian. 
There  is  even  a  tradition  that  he  was  acquainted  with  St.  Paul. 
He  may  unconsciously  have  imbibed  some  of  the  principles  of 
Christianity.  The  gospel  had  already  made  great  and  rapid 
strides  over  the  civilized  world,  and  thoughtful  minds  may  have 
been  enlightened  by  some  of  the  rays  of  divine  truth  dispersed 


ROMAN  LITERATURE.  169 

by  the  moral  atmosphere,  just  as  we  are  benefited  by  the  light 
of  the  sun,  even  when  its  disk  is  obscured  by  clouds.  His  epis- 
tles, of  which  there  are  one  hundred  and  twenty-four,  are  moral 
essays,  and  are  the  most  delightful  of  his  works.  They  are  evi- 
dently written  for  the  public  eye  ;  they  are  rich  in  varied  thought, 
and  their  reflections  flow  naturally,  and  without  effort.  They 
contain  a  free  and  unconstrained  picture  of  his  mind,  and  we 
see  in  them  how  he  despised  verbal  subtleties,  the  external 
badges  of  a  sect  or  creed,  and  insisted  that  the  great  end  of  sci- 
ence is  to  learn  how  to  live  and  how  to  die.  The  style  of  Sen- 
eca is  too  elaborate  to  please.  It  is  affected,  often  florid,  and 
bombastic ;  there  is  too  much  sparkle  and  glitter,  too  little  re- 
pose and  simplicity. 

Pliny  the  elder  (A.  D.  23-79)  was  born  probably  at  Como,  the 
family  residence.  He  was  educated  at  Rome,  where  he  practiced 
at  the  bar,  and  filled  different  civil  offices.  He  perished  a  mar- 
tyr to  the  cause  of  science,  in  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  which 
took  place  in  the  reign  of  Titus,  the  first  of  which  there  is  any 
record  in  history.  The  circumstances  of  his  death  are  described 
by  his  nephew,  Pliny  the  younger,  in  two  letters  to  Tacitus.  He 
was  at  Misenum,  in  command  of  the  fleet,  when,  observing  the 
first  indications  of  the  eruption,  and  wishing  to  investigate  it 
more  closely,  he  fitted  out  a  light  galley,  and  sailed  towards  the 
villa  of  a  friend  at  Stabiae.  He  found  his  friend  in  great  alarm, 
but  Pliny  remained  tranquil  and  retired  to  rest.  Meanwhile, 
broad  flames  burst  forth  from  the  volcano,  the  blaze  was  reflected 
from  the  sky,  and  the  brightness  was  enhanced  by  the  darkness 
of  the  night.  Repeated  shocks  of  an  earthquake  made  the 
houses  rock  to  and  fro,  while  in  the  air  the  fall  of  half  burnt 
pumice-stones  menaced  danger.  He  was  awakened,  and  lie  and 
his  friend,  with  their  attendants,  tied  cushions  over  their  heads 
to  protect  them  from  the  falling  stones,  and  walked  out  to  see 
if  they  might  venture  on  the  water.  It  was  now  day,  but  the 
darkness  was  denser  than  the  darkest  night,  the  sea  was  a  waste 
of  stormy  waters,  and  when  at  last  the  flames  and  the  sulphure- 
ous smell  could  no  longer  be  endured,  Pliny  fell  dead,  suffocated 
by  the  dense  vapor. 

The  natural  history  of  Pliny  is  an  unequaled  monument  of 
studious  diligence  and  persevering  industry.  It  consists  of 
thirty- seven  books,  and  contains  20,000  facts  (as  he  believed 
them  to  be)  connected  with  nature  and  art,  the  result  not  of 
original  research,  but,  as  he  honestly  confessed,  culled  from  the 
labors  of  other  men. 

Owing  to  the  extent  of  his  reading,  his  love  of  the  marvelous, 
and  his  want  of  judgment  in  comparing  and  selecting,  he  does 
not  present  us  with  a  correct  view  of  the  science  of  his  own  age. 


170       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

He  reproduces  errors  evidently  obsolete  and  inconsistent  with 
facts  and  theories  which  had  afterwards  replaced  them.  With 
him,  mythological  traditions  appeared  to  have  almost  the  same 
authority  as  modern  discoveries  ;  the  earth  teems  with  monsters, 
not  exceptions  to  the  regular  order  of  nature,  but  specimens  of 
her  ingenuity.  His  peculiar  pantheistic  belief  prepared  him  to 
consider  nothing  incredible,  and  his  temper  inclined  him  to  ad- 
mit all  that  was  credible  as  true. 

He  tells  us  of  men  whose  feet  were  turned  backwards,  of  oth- 
ers whose  feet  were  so  large  as  to  shade  them  when  they  lay  in 
the  sun ;  others  without  mouths,  who  fed  on  the  fragrance  of 
fruits  and  flowers.  Among  the  lower  animals,  he  enumerates 
horned  horses  furnished  with  wings ;  the  mantichora,  with  the 
face  of  a  man,  three  rows  of  teeth,  a  lion's  body,  and  a  scorpion's 
tail ;  the  basilisk,  whose  very  glance  is  fatal ;  and  an  insect  which 
cannot  live  except  in  the  midst  of  the  flames.  But  notwithstand- 
ing his  credulity  and  his  want  of  judgment,  this  elaborate  work 
contains  many  valuable  truths  and  much  entertaining  informa- 
tion. The  prevailing  character  of  his  philosophical  belief,  though 
tinctured  with  the  stoicism  of  the  day,  is  querulous  and  melan- 
choly. Believing  that  nature  is  an  all-powerful  principle,  and 
the  universe  instinct  with  deity,  he  saw  more  of  evil  than  of  good 
in  the  divine  dispensation,  and  the  result  was  a  gloomy  and  dis- 
contented pantheism. 

Celsus  probably  lived  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius.  He  was  the 
author  of  many  works,  on  various  subjects,  of  which  one,  in 
eight  books,  on  medicine,  is  now  extant.  The  independence  of 
his  views,  the  practical,  as  well  as  the  scientific  nature  of  his  in- 
structions, and  above  all,  his  knowledge  of  surgery,  and  his  clear 
exposition  of  surgical  operations,  have  given  his  work  great  au- 
thority ;  the  highest  testimony  is  borne  to  its  merits  by  the  fact 
of  its  being  used  as  a  text-book,  even  in  the  present  advanced 
state  of  medical  science.  The  taste  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived 
turned  his  attention  also  to  polite  literature,  and  to  that  may  be 
ascribed  the  Augustan  purity  of  his  style. 

Pomponius  Mela  lived  in  the  reign  of  Claudius.  He  is  con- 
sidered as  the  representative  of  the  Roman  geographers.  Though 
his  book,  "  The  Place  of  the  World,"  is  but  an  epitome  of  former 
treatises,  it  is  interesting  for  the  simplicity  of  its  style  and  the 
purity  of  its  language. 

Columella  flourished  in  the  reigns  of  Claudius  and  Nero.  He 
is  author  of  an  agricultural  work,  "  De  Re  Rustica,"  in  which  he 
gives,  in  smooth  and  fluent,  though  somewhat  too  diffuse  a  style, 
the  fullest  and  completest  information  on  practical  agriculture 
among  the  Romans  in  the  firs?  century  of  the  Christian  era. 

Frontinus  (fl.  78  A.  D.)  left  two  valuable  works,  one  on  mill- 


ROMAN  LITERATURE.  171 

tary  tactics,  the  other  a  descriptive  architectural  treatise  on  those 
wonderful  monuments  of  Roman  art,  the  aqueducts.  Besides 
these,  there  are  extant  fragments  of  other  works  on  surveying, 
and  on  the  laws  and  customs  relating  to  landed  property,  which 
assign  Frontinus  an  important  place  in  the  estimation  of  the  stu- 
dents of  Roman  history. 

9.  ROMAN  LITERATURE  FROM  HADRIAN  TO  THEODORIC  (138- 
526  A.  D.).  —  From  the  death  of  Augustus,  Roman  literature 
had  gradually  declined;  and  though  it  shone  forth  for  a  time 
with  classic  radiance  in  the  writings  of  Persius,  Juvenal,  Qtiin- 
tilian,  Tacitus,  and  the  Plinies,  with  the  death  of  freedom,  the 
extinction  of  patriotism,  and  the  decay  of  the  national  spirit,  noth- 
ing could  avert  its  fall.  Poetry  had  become  declamation ;  his- 
tory had  degenerated  either  into  fulsome  panegyric  or  the  flesh- 
less  skeletons  of  epitomes  ;  and  at  length  the  Romans  seemed  to 
disdain  the  use  of  their  native  tongue,  and  wrote  again  in  Greek, 
as  they  had  in  the  infancy  of  the  national  literature.  The  Em- 
peror Hadrian  resided  long  at  Athens,  and  became  imbued  with 
a  taste  and  admiration  for  Greek ;  and  thus  the  literature  of 
Rome  became  Hellenized.  From  this  epoch  the  term  classical 
can  no  longer  be  applied  to  it,  for  it  no  longer  retained  its  purity. 
To  Greek  influence  succeeded  the  still  more  corrupting  one  of 
foreign  nations.  With  the  death  of  Nerva,  the  uninterrupted 
succession  of  emperors  of  Roman  or  Italian  birth  ceased.  Trajan 
himself  was  a  Spaniard,  and  after  him  not  only  foreigners  of 
every  European  race,  but  even  Orientals  and  Africans  were  in- 
vested with  the  imperial  purple,  and  the  huge  empire  over  which 
they  ruled  was  one  unwieldy  mass  of  heterogeneous  materials. 
The  literary  influence  of  the  capital  was  not  felt  in  the  interior 
portions  of  the  Roman  dominions.  Schools  were  established  in 
the  very  heart  of  nations  just  emerging  from  barbarism  ;  and 
though  the  blessings  of  civilization  and  intellectual  culture  were 
thus  distributed  far  and  wide,  still  literary  taste,  as  it  flowed 
through  the  minds  of  foreigners,  became  corrupted,  and  the  lan- 
guage of  the  imperial  city,  exposed  to  the  infecting  contact  of 
barbarous  idioms,  lost  its  purity. 

The  Latin  authors  of  this  age  were  numerous,  but  few  had 
taste  to  appreciate  and  imitate  the  literature  of  the  Augustan  age. 
They  may  be  classified  according  to  their  departments  of  poetry, 
history,  grammar  and  oratory,  philosophy  and  science. 

The  brightest  star  of  the  poetry  of  this  period  was  Claudian 
(365-404  A.  D.),  in  whom  the  graceful  imagination  of  classical 
antiquity  seems  to  have  revived.  He  enjoyed  the  patronage  of 
Stilicho,  the  guardian  and  minister  of  Honorius.  and  in  the  praise 
and  honor  of  him  and  of  his  pupil,  he  wrote  "  The  Rape  of  Pros- 
erpine," the  "  War  of  the  Giants,"  and  several  other  poems. 


172       HANDBOOK   OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

His  descriptions  indicate  a  rich  and  powerful  imagination,  but, 
neglecting  substance  for  form,  his  style  is  often  declamatory  and 
affected.  Among  the  earliest  authors  of  Christian  hymns  were 
Hilarius  and  Prudentius.  Those  of  the  former  were  expressly 
designed  to  be  sung,  and  are  said  to  have  been  set  to  music  by 
the  author  himself.  Prudentius  (fl.  348  A.  D.)  wrote  many 
hymns  and  poems  in  defense  of  the  Christian  faith,  more  distin- 
guished for  their  pious  and  devotional  character  than  for  their 
lyric  sublimity  or  purity  of  language.  To  this  age  belong  also 
the  hymns  of  Damasus  and  of  Ambrose. 

Among  the  historians  are  Flavius  Eutropius^  who  lived  in  the 
fourth  century,  and  by  the  direction  of  the  Emperor  Valens  com- 
posed an  "  Epitome  of  Roman  History,"  which  was  a  favorite 
book  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  his  contem- 
porary, wrote  a  Roman  history  in  continuation  of  Tacitus  and 
Suetonius.  Though  his  style  is  affected  and  often  rough  and  in- 
accurate, his  work  is  interesting  for  its  digressions  and  observa- 
tions. Sever  us  Sulpicius  wrote  the  history  of  the  Hebrews,  and 
of  the  four  centuries  of  the  church.  His  "  Sacred  History,"  for 
its  language  and  style,  is  one  of  the  best  works  of  that  age. 

In  the  department  of  oratory  may  be  mentioned  Cornelius 
Fronto,  who  flourished  under  Domitian  and  Nerva,  and  was 
endowed  with  a  rich  imagination  and  a  mind  stored  with  vast 
erudition  in  Greek  and  Latin  literature,  Symmachus,  distin- 
guished for  his  opposition  to  Christianity,  and  Cassiodorus,  min- 
ister and  secretary  of  the  Emperor  Theodoric. 

In  the  decline  of  Roman,  as  of  Greek  literature,  grammarians 
took  the  place  of  poets  and  of  historians  ;  they  commented  on 
and  interpreted  the  ancient  classics,  and  transmitted  to  us  valu- 
able information  concerning  the  Augustan  writers.  Among  the 
most  important  works  of  this  kind  are  the  "  Attic  Nights  "  of 
Gellius,  who  was  born  in  Rome,  and  lived  under  Hadrian  and 
the  Antonines.  In  this  work  are  preserved  many  valuable  pas- 
sages of  the  classics  which  would  otherwise  have  been  lost. 
Macrobius,  who  flourished  in  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,  was 
the  author  of  different  works  in  which  the  doctrines  of  the  Neo- 
Platonic  school  are  expounded.  His  style,  however,  is  very  de- 
fective. 

A  striking  characteristic  of  the  writings,  both  in  Greek  and 
Latin,  of  the  last  ages  of  the  empire,  is  the  prevalence  of  prin- 
ciples and  opinions  imported  from  the  East.  The  Neo-Platonic 
school,  imbued  with  Oriental  mysticism,  had  diffused  the  belief 
in  spirits  and  magic,  and  the  philosophy  of  this  age  was  a  mix- 
ture of  ancient  wisdom  with  new  superstitions  belonging  to  the 
ages  of  transition  between  the  decadence  of  the  ancient  faith 
and  the  development  of  a  new  religion.  The  best  representative 


ROMAN  LITERATURE.  173 

of  the  philosophy  of  this  age  is  Apuleius,  horn  in  Africa  in  the 
reign  of  Hadrian.  After  having  received  his  education  in  Car- 
thage and  Athens,  he  came  to  Rome,  where  he  acquired  great 
reputation  as  a  literary  man,  and  as  the  possessor  of  extraordi- 
nary supernatural  powers.  To  this  extensive  philosophical  knowl- 
edge and  immense  erudition  he  united  great  polish  of  manner 
and  remarkable  beauty  of  person.  He  wrote  much  on  philoso- 
phy ;  but  his  most  important  work  is  a  romance  known  as 
"  Metamorphoses,  or  the  Golden  Ass,"  containing  his  philosoph- 
ical and  mystic  doctrines.  In  this  book,  the  object  of  which 
is  to  encourage  the  belief  in  mysticism,  the  writer  describes  the 
transformation  of  a  young  man  into  an  ass,  who  is  allowed  to 
take  his  primitive  human  form  only  through  a  knowledge  of  the 
mysteries  of  Isis.  The  story  is  well  told,  and  the  romance  is 
full  of  interest  and  sprightliness  ;  but  its  style  is  incorrect,  florid, 
and  bombastic. 

Boethius  (470-524),  the  last  of  the  Roman  philosophers,  was 
the  descendant  of  an  illustrious  family.  He  made  Greek  phi- 
losophy the  principal  object  of  his  meditations.  He  was  raised 
to  the  highest  honors  and  offices  in  the  empire  by  Theodoric,  but 
finally,  through  the  artifices  of  enemies  who  envied  his  reputa- 
tion, he  lost  the  favor  of  his  patron,  was  imprisoned,  and  at 
length  beheaded.  Of  his  numerous  works,  founded  on  the  peri- 
patetic philosophy,  that  which  has  gained  him  the  greatest  celeb- 
rity is  entitled  "  On  the  Consolations  of  Philosophy,"  composed 
while  he  was  in  prison.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue,  in  which 
philosophy  appears  to  console  him  with  the  idea  of  Divine  Provi- 
dence. The  poetical  part  of  the  book  is  written  with  elegance 
and  grace,  and  his  prose,  though  not  pure,  is  fluent  and  full  of 
tranquil  dignity.  The  work  of  Boethius,  which  is  known  in  all 
modern  languages,  was  translated  into  Anglo-Saxon  by  King 
Alfred,  900  A.  D. 

The  fathers  of  the  church  followed  more  particularly  the  phi- 
losophy of  Plato,  which  was  united  and  adapted  to  Christianity. 
St.  Augustine  is  the  most  illustrious  among  the  Christian  Pla- 
tonists. 

The  most  eloquent  orators  and  writers  of  this  period  were 
found  among  the  advocates  of  Christianity  ;  and  among  the  most 
celebrated  of  these  Latin  fathers  of  the  Christian  church  we 
may  mention  the  following  names.  Tertullian  (160-285),  in 
his  apology  for  the  Christians,  gives  much  information  on  the 
manners  and  conduct  of  the  early  Christians  ;  his  style  is  concise 
and  figurative,  but  harsh,  unpolished,  and  obscure.  St.  Cyprian 
(200-258),  beheaded  at  Carthage  for  preaching  the  gospel  con- 
trary to  the  orders  of  the  government,  wrote  an  explanation  of 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  which  affords  a  valuable  illustration  of  the 


174       HANDBOOK   OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

ecclesiastical  history  of  the  time.  Arnobius  (fl.  300)  refuted 
the  objections  of  the  heathen  against  Christianity  with  spirit 
and  learning,  in  his  "  Disputes  with  the  Gentiles,"  a  work  rich 
in  materials  for  the  understanding  of  Greek  and  Roman  mythol- 
ogy. Lactantius  (d.  335),  on  account  of  his  fine  and  eloquent 
language,  is  frequently  called  the  Christian  Cicero  ;  his  "  Divine 
Institutes  "  are  particularly  celebrated.  St.  Ambrose  (340-397) 
obtained  great  honor  by  his  conduct  as  Bishop  of  Milan,  and 
his  writings  bear  the  stamp  of  his  high  Christian  character.  St. 
Augustine  (360-430)  was  one  of  the  most  renowned  of  all  the 
Latin  fathers.  Though  others  may  have  been  more  learned 
or  masters  of  a  purer  style,  none  more  powerfully  touched  and 
warmed  the  heart  towards  religion.  His  "  City  of  God  "  is  one  of 
the  great  monuments  of  human  genius.  St.  Jerome  (330-420) 
wrote  many  epistles  full. of  energy  and  affection,  as  well  as  of 
religious  zeal.  He  made  a  Latin  version  of  the  Old  Testament, 
which  was  the  foundation  of  the  Vulgate,  and  which  gave  a  new 
impulse  to  the  study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  Leo  the  Great 
(fl.  440)  is  the  first  pope  whose  writings  have  been  preserved. 
They  consist  of  sermons  and  letters.  His  style  is  finished  and 
rhetorical. 

10.  ROMAN  JURISPRUDENCE.  —  In  the  period  which  followed, 
from  the  death  of  Augustus  to  the  time  of  the  Antonines,  Roman 
civilians  and  legal  writers  continued  to  be  numerous,  and  as  a 
professional  body  they  seem  to  have  enjoyed  high  consideration 
until  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Alexander  Severus,  335  A.  D.  After 
that  time  they  were  held  in  much  less  estimation,  as  the  science 
fell  into  the  hands  of  freedmen  and  plebeians,  who  practiced  it 
as  a  sordid  and  pernicious  trade.  With  the  reign  of  Constan- 
tine,  the  credit  of  the  profession  revived,  and  the  youth  of  the 
empire  were  stimulated  to  pursue  the  study  of  the  law  by  the 
hope  of  being  ultimately  rewarded  by  honorable  and  lucrative 
offices,  the  magistrates  being  almost  wholly  taken  from  the  class 
of  lawyers.  Two  jurists  of  this  reign,  Gregorianus  and  Hermo- 
genianus,  are  particularly  distinguished  as  authors  of  codes  which 
are  known  by  their  names,  and  which  were  recognized  as  stand- 
ard authorities  in  courts  of  justice.  The  "Code  of  Theodosius" 
was  a  collection  of  laws  reduced  by  that  emperor,  and  promul- 
gated in  both  empires  438  A.  D.  It  retained  its  authority  in  the 
western  empire  until  its  final  overthrow,  476  A.  D.,  and  even 
after  this,  though  modified  by  the  institutions  of  the  conquerors. 
In  the  eastern  empire,  it  was  only  superseded  by  the  code  of 
Justinian.  This  emperor  undertook  the  task  of  reducing  to  order 
and  system  the  great  confusion  and  perplexity  in  which  the  whole 
subject  of  Roman  jurisprudence  was  involved.  For  this  pur- 
pose he  employed  the  most  eminent  lawyers,  with  the  celebrated 


ROMAN  LITERATURE.  175 

Tribonian  at  their  head,  to  whom  he  intrusted  the  work  of  form- 
ing and  publishing  a  complete  collection  of  the  preceding  laws 
and  edicts,  and  who  devoted  several  years  of  unwearied  labor 
and  research  to  this  object.  They  first  collected  and  reduced 
the  imperial  constitutions  from  the  time  of  Hadrian  downwards, 
which  was  promulgated  as  the  *'  Justinian  Code."  Their  next 
labor  was  to  reduce  the  writings  of  the  jurisconsults  of  the  pre- 
ceding ages,  especially  those  who  had  lived  under  the  empire, 
and  whose  works  are  said  to  have  amounted  to  two  thousand 
volumes.  This  work  was  published  533  A.  D.,  under  the  title 
of  "  Pandects,"  or  "  Digest,"  the  former  title  referring  to  their 
completeness  as  comprehending  the  whole  of  Roman  jurispru- 
dence, and  the  latter  to  their  methodical  arrangement.  At  the 
same  time,  a  work  prepared  by  Tribonian  was  published  by  the 
order  of  the  emperor,  on  the  elements  or  first  principles  of  Ro- 
man law,  entitled  "  Institutes,"  and  another  collection  consisting 
of  constitutions  and  edicts,  under  the  title  of  "  Novels,"  chiefly 
written  in  Greek,  but  known  to  the  moderns  by  a  Latin  transla- 
tion. These  four  works,  the  Code,  the  Pandects,  the  Institutes, 
and  the  Novels,  constituted  what  is  now  called  the  Body  of  Ro- 
man Law. 

The  system  of  jurisprudence  established  by  Justinian  remained 
in  force  in  the  eastern  empire  until  the  taking  of  Constantinople, 
1453  A.  D.  After  the  fall  of  the  western  empire,  these  laws  had 
little  sway  until  the  twelfth  century,  when  Irnerius,  a  German 
lawyer  who  had  studied  at  Constantinople,  opened  a  school  at 
Bologna,  and  thus  revived  and  propagated  in  the  West  a  knowl- 
edge of  Roman  civil  law.  Students  flocked  to  this  school  from 
all  parts,  and  by  them  Roman  jurisprudence,  as  embodied  in  the 
system  of  Justinian,  was  transmitted  to  most  of  the  countries  of 
Europe. 

During  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  the  process  of  the  de- 
basement of  the  Roman  tongue  went  on  with  great  rapidity. 
The  influence  of  the  provincials  began  what  the  irruptions  of  the 
northern  tribes  consummated.  In  many  scattered  parts  of  the 
empire  it  is  probable  that  separate  Latin  dialects  arose,  and  the 
strain  upon  the  whole  structure  of  the  tongue  was  prodigious, 
when  the  Goths  poured  into  Italy,  established  themselves  in  the 
capital,  and  began  to  speak  and  write  in  a  language  previously 
foreign  to  them.  With  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Theodoric  the 
curtain  falls  upon  ancient  literature. 


ARABIAN  LITERATURE. 

1.  European  Literature  in  the  Dark  Ages.  —  2.  The  Arabian  Language.  —  3.  Arabian 
Mythology  and  the  Koran.  —  4.  Historical  Development  of  Arabian  Literature. — 5. 
Grammar  and  Rhetoric.  —  G.  Poetry.  — 7.  The  Arabian  Tales.  —  8.  History  and  Science. 
—  9.  Education. 

1.  EUROPEAN  LITERATURE  IN  THE  DARK  AGES.  —  The  lit- 
erature, arts,  and  sciences  of  the  Arabs  formed  the  connecting 
link  between  the  civilizations  of  ancient  and  modern  times.  To 
them  we  owe  the  revival  of  learning  in  Western  Europe,  and 
many  of  the  inventions  and  useful  arts  perfected  by  later  na- 
tions. 

From  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  A.  D.  to  the  beginning 
of  the  eleventh,  the  interval  between  the  decline  of  ancient  and 
the  development  of  modern  literature  is  known  in  history  as 
the  Dark  Ages.  The  sudden  rise  of  the  Arabian  Empire  and 
the  rapid  development  of  its  literature  were  the  great  events 
which  characterize  the  period. 

At  the  beginning  of  this  epoch  classical  genius  was  already  ex- 
tinct, and  the  purity  of  the  classical  tongues  was  yielding  rapidly 
to  the  corruptions  of  the  provinces  and  of  the  new  dialects. 
Many  other  causes  conspired  to  work  great  changes  in  the  fab- 
ric of  society,  and  in  the  manifestations  of  human  intellect. 
Throughout  this  period  the  treasures  of  Greek  and  Latin  litera- 
ature,  exposed  to  the  danger  of  perishing  and  impaired  by  much 
actual  loss,  exerted  no  influence  on  the  minds  of  those  who  still 
used  the  tongues  to  which  they  belong.  Greek  letters,  as  we 
have  seen,  decayed  with  the  Byzantine  power,  and  the  vital  prin- 
ciple in  both  became  extinct  long  before  the  sword  of  the  Turk- 
ish conqueror  inflicted  the  final  blow.  The  fate  of  Latin  litera- 
ture was  not  less  deplorable.  When  province  after  province  of 
the  Roman  dominions  was  overrun  by  the  northern  hordes,  when 
the  imperial  schools  were  suppressed  and  the  monuments  of  an- 
cient genius  destroyed,  an  enfeebled  people  and  a  debased  lan- 
guage could  not  withstand  such  adverse  circumstances.  During 
the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries  Latin  composition  degenerated 
into  the  rudeness  of  the  monkish  style.  The  care  bestowed  by 
Charlemagne  upon  education  in  the  ninth  century  produced  some 
purifying  effect  upon  the  writings  of  the  cloister  ;  the  tenth  was 
distinguished  by  an  increased  zeal  in  the  task  of  transcribing  the 
classical  authors,  and  in  the  eleventh  the  Latin  works  of  the 


ARABIAN  LITERATURE.  177 

Normans  display  some  masculine  force  and  freedom.  Latin  was 
the  repository  of  such  knowledge  as  the  times  could  boast ;  it 
was  used  in  the  service  of  the  church,  and  in  the  chronicles  that 
supplied  the  place  of  history,  but  it  was  not  the  vehicle  of  any 
great  production  stamped  with  true  genius  and  impressing  the 
minds  of  posterity.  Still,  genius  was  not  altogether  extinguished 
in  every  part  of  Europe.  The  north,  which  sent  out  its  daring 
tribes  to  change  the  aspect  of  civil  life,  furnished  a  fresh  source 
of  mental  inspiration,  which  was  destined,  with  the  recovered  in- 
fluence of  the  classic  spirit  and  other  prolific  causes,  to  give  birth 
to  some  of  the  best  portions  of  modern  literature. 

At  the  memorable  epoch  of  the  overthrow  of  the  Roman  do- 
minion in  the  West  (476  A.  D.),  the  seats  of  the  Teutonic  race 
extended  from  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube  to  the 
rock-bound  coasts  of  Norway.  The  victorious  invaders  who  oc- 
cupied the  southern  provinces  of  Europe  speedily  lost  their  own 
forms  of  speech,  which  were  broken  down,  together  with  those  of 
the  vanquished,  into  a  jargon  unfit  for  composition.  But  in  Ger- 
many and  Scandinavia,  where  the  old  language  retained  its  pu- 
rity, song  continued  to  flourish.  There,  from  the  most  distant 
eras  described  by  Tacitus  and  other  Latin  writers,  the  favorite 
attendants  of  kings  and  chiefs  were  those  celebrated  bards  who 
preserved  in  their  traditionary  strains  the  memory  of  great 
events,  the  praises  of  the  gods,  the  glory  of  warriors,  and  the 
laws  and  customs  of  their  countrymen.  Intrusted,  like  the  Gre- 
cian heroic  minstrelsy,  to  oral  recitation,  it  was  not  until  the 
propitious  reign  of  Charlemagne  that  these  verses  were  collected. 
But,  through  the  bigotry  of  his  successor  or  the  ravages  of  time, 
not  a  fragment  of  this  collection  remains.  We  are  enabled,  how- 
ever, to  form  an  idea  of  the  general  tone  and  tenor  of  this  early 
Teutonic  poetry  from  other  interesting  remains.  The  "  Nibe- 
lungen-Lied  "  (Lay  of  the  Nibelungeri)  and  "  Heldenbuch" 
(Book  of  Heroes}  may  be  regarded  as  the  Homeric  poems  of 
Germany.  After  an  examination  of  their  monuments,  the  abil- 
ity of  the  ancient  bards,  the  honor  in  which  they  were  held,  and 
the  enthusiasm  which  they  produced,  will  not  be  surprising. 

Equally  distinguished  were  the  Scalds  of  Scandinavia.  Ever 
in  the  train  of  princes  and  gallant  adventurers,  they  chanted 
their  rhymeless  verse  for  the  encouragement  and  solace  of  he- 
roes. Their  oldest  songs,  or  sagas,  are  mostly  of  a  historical 
import.  In  the  Icelandic  Edda,  however,  the  richest  monument 
of  this  species  of  composition,  the  theological  element  of  their 
poetry  is  shadowed  out  in  the  most  picturesque  and  fanciful  leg- 
ends. 

Such  was  the  intellectual  state  of  Europe  down  to  the  age  of 
Charlemagne.  While  in  the  once  famous  Seats  of  arts  and  arms 
12 


178       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

scarcely  a  ray  of  native  genius  or  courage  was  visible,  the  light 
of  human  intellect  still  burned  in  lands  whose  barbarism  had 
furnished  matter  for  the  sarcasm  of  classical  writers. 

Charlemagne  encouraged  learning,  established  schools,  and 
filled  his  court  with  men  of  letters  ;  while  in  England,  the  illus- 
trious Alfred,  himself  a  scholar  and  an  author,  improved  and 
enriched  the  Anglo-Saxon  dialect,  and  exerted  the  most  benefi- 
cial influence  on  his  contemporaries. 

The  confusion  and  debasement  of  language  in  the  south  of 
Europe  has  already  been  alluded  to.  But  the  force  and  activity 
of  mind,  that  formed  an  essential  characteristic  of  the  conquer- 
ing race,  were  destined  ultimately  to  evolve  regularity  and  har- 
mony out  of  the  concussion  of  discordant  elements.  The  Latin 
and  Teutonic  tongues  were  blended  together,  and  hence  pro- 
ceeded all  the  chief  dialects  of  modern  Europe.  Over  the  south, 
from  Portugal  to  Italy,  the  Latin  element  prevailed  ;  but  even 
where  the  Teutonic  was  the  chief  ingredient,  as  in  the  English 
and  German,  there  has  also  been  a  large  infusion  of  the  Latin. 
To  these  two  languages,  and  to  the  ProvenQal,  French,  Italian, 
Spanish,  and  Portugese,  called,  from  their .  Roman  origin,  the 
Romance  or  Romanic  languages,  all  that  is  prominent  and  pre- 
cious in  modern  letters  belongs.  But  it  is  not  until  the  eleventh 
century  that  their  progress  becomes  identified  with  the  history 
of  literature.  Up  to  this  period  there  had  been  little  repose, 
freedom,  or  peaceful  enjoyment  of  property.  The  independence 
and  industry  of  the  middle  classes  were  almost  unknown,  and 
the  chieftain,  the  vassal,  and  the  slave  were  the  characters  which 
stood  out  in  the  highest  relief.  Throughout  the  whole  of  the 
eleventh  century,  the  social  chaos  seemed  resolving  itself  into 
some  approach  to  order  and  tranquillity.  The  gradual  abolition 
of  personal  servitude,  hardly  accomplished  in  three  successive 
centuries,  now  began.  A  third  estate  arose.  The  rights  of 
cities,  and  the  corporation-spirit,  the  result  of  the  necessity  that 
drove  men  to  combine  for  mutual  defense,  led  to  intercourse 
among  them  and  to  consequent  improvement  in  language.  Chiv- 
alry, also,  served  to  mitigate  the  oppressions  of  the  nobles,  and 
to  soften  and  refine  their  manners.  From  the  date  of  the  first 
crusade  (1093  A.  D.)  down  to  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century, 
was  the  golden  age  of  chivalry.  The  principal  thrones  of  Europe 
were  occupied  by  her  foremost  knights.  The  East  formed  a 
point  of  union  for  the  ardent  and  adventurous  of  different  coun- 
tries, whose  courteous  rivalry  stimulated  the  growth  of  generous 
sentiments  and  the  passion  for  brave  deeds.  The  genius  of  Eu- 
rope was  roused  by  the  passage  of  thousands  of  her  sons  through 
Greece  into  Asia  and  Egypt,  amidst  the  ancient  seats  of  art, 
science,  and  refinement ;  and  the  minds  of  men  received  a  fresh 


ARABIAN  LITERATURE.  179 

and  powerful  impulse.  It  was  during  the  eleventh  century  that 
the  brilliancy  of  the  Arabian  literature  reached  its  culminating 
point,  and,  through  the  intercourse  of  the  Troubadours  with  the 
Moors  of  the  peninsula,  and  of  the  Crusaders  with  the  Arabs  in 
the  East,  began  to  influence  the  progress  of  letters  in  Europe. 

2.  THE  ARABIAN  LANGUAGE.  —  The   Arabian   language  be- 
longs to  the  Semitic  family  ;  it  has  two  principal  dialects  —  the 
northern,  which  has,  for  centuries,  been   the  general  tongue  of 
the  empire,  and  is  best  represented  in  literature,  and  the  south- 
ern, a  branch  of  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  mother  of  the  Ethi- 
opian language.     The  former,  in   degenerated   dialects,  is   still 
spoken    in  Arabia,  in  parts    of    western  Asia,  and    throughout 
northern  Africa,  and  forms  an  important  part  of  the  Turkish, 
Persian,  and  other  Oriental  languages.     The  Arabic  is  character- 
ized by  its  guttural  sounds,  by  the  richness  and  pliability  of  its 
vowels,  by  its  dignity,  volume  of  sound,  and  vigor  of  accentua- 
tion and  pronunciation.     Like  all  Semitic  languages,  it  is  writ- 
ten from  right  to  left ;  the  characters  are  of  Syrian  origin,  and 
were   introduced    into  Arabia  before  the  time  of  Mohammed. 
They  are  of  two  kinds,  the  Cufic,  which  were,  first  used,  and  the 
Neskhi,  which  superseded  them,  and  which  continue  in  use  at 
the  present  day.     The  Arabic  alphabet  was,  with  a  few  modifica- 
tions, early  adopted  by  the  Persians  and  Turks. 

3.  ARABIAN  MYTHOLOGY  AND  THE  KORAN.  —  Before    the 
tune  of  Mohammed,  the  Arabians  were  gross  idolaters.     They 
had  some  traditionary  idea  of  the  unity  and  perfections  of  the 
Deity,  but  their  creed  embraced  an  immense  number  of  subordi- 
nate divinities,  represented  by  images  of  men  and  women,  beasts 
and  birds.     The  essential  basis  of  their  religion  was  Sabeism,  or 
star-worship.     The  number  and  beauty  of  the  heavenly  lumina- 
ries, and  the   silent  regularity  of  their  motions,   could   not   fail 
deeply  to  impress  the  minds  of  this  imaginative  people,  living  in 
the   open   air,  under  the   clear   and   serene  sky,  and  wandering 
among  the  deserts,  oases,  and  picturesque  mountains  of  Arabia. 
They  had  seven  celebrated  temples  dedicated  to  the  seven  plan- 
ets.    Some  tribes  exclusively  reverenced  the  moon  ;  others  the 
dog-star.     Some  had  received  the  religion  of  the  Magi,  or  fire- 
worshipers,  while  others  had  become  converts  to  Judaism. 

Ishmael  is  one  of  the  most  venerated  progenitors  of  the  na- 
tion ;  and  it  is  the  common  faith  that  Mecca,  then  an  arid  wil- 
derness, was  the  spot  where  his  life  was  providentially  saved, 
and  where  Hagar,  his  mother,  was  buried.  The  well  pointed 
out  by  the  angel,  they  believe  to  be  the  famous  Zemzem,  of 
which  all  pious  Mohammedans  drink  to  this  day.  To  commem- 
orate the  miraculous  preservation  of  Ishmael,  God  commanded 
Abraham  to  build  a  temple,  and  he  erected  and  consecrated  the 


180       HANDBOOK   OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

Caaba,  or  sacred  house,  which  is  still  venerated  in  Mecca ;  and 
the  black  stone  incased  within  its  walls  is  the  same  on  which 
Abraham  stood. 

Mohammed  (569-632  A.  D.)  did  not  pretend  to  introduce  a 
new  religion ;  his  professed  object  was  merely  to  restore  the 
primitive  and  only  true  faith,  such  as  it  had  been  in  the  days  of 
the  patriarchs  ;  the  fundamental  idea  of  which  was  the  unity  of 
God.  He  made  the  revelations  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments 
the  basis  of  his  preaching.  He  maintained  the  authority  of  the 
books  of  Moses,  admitted  the  divine  mission  of  Jesus,  and  he 
enrolled  himself  in  the  catalogue  of  inspired  teachers.  This 
doctrine  was  proclaimed  in  the  memorable  words,  which  for  so 
many  centuries  constituted  the  war-cry  of  the  Saracens,  — There 
is  no  God  but  God,  and  Mohammed  is  his  prophet.  Mohammed 
preached  no  dogmas  substantially  new,  but  he  adorned,  ampli- 
fied, and  adapted  to  the  ideas,  prejudices,  and  inclinations  of  the 
Orientals,  doctrines  which  were  as  old  as  the  race.  He  enjoined 
the  ablutions  suited  to  the  manners  and  necessities  of  hot  cli- 
mates. He  ordained  five  daily  prayers,  that  man  might  learn 
habitually  to  elevate  his  thoughts  above  the  outward  world.  He 
instituted  the  festival  of  the  Ramadan,  and  the  pilgrimage  to 
Mecca,  and  commanded  that  every  man  should  bestow  in  alms 
the  hundredth  part  of  his  possessions ;  observances  which,  for 
the  most  part,  already  existed  in  the  established  customs  of  the 
country. 

The  Koran  (Reading),  the  sacred  book  of  the  Mohammedans, 
is,  according  to  their  belief,  the  revelation  of  God  to  their 
prophet  Mohammed.  It  contains  not  only  their  religious  belief, 
but  their  civil,  military,  and  political  code.  It  is  divided  into 
114  chapters,  and  1,666  verses.  It  is  written  in  rhythmical 
prose,  and  its  materials  are  borrowed  from  the  Jewish  and  Chris- 
tian scriptures,  the  legends  of  the  Talmud,  and  the  traditions 
and  fables  of  the  Arabian  and  Persian  mythologies.  Confusion 
of  ideas,  obscurity,  and  contradictions  destroy  the  unity  and  even 
the  interest  of  this  work.  The  chapters  are  preposterously  dis- 
tributed, not  according  to  their  date  or  connection,  but  according 
to  their  length,  beginning  with  the  longest,  and  ending  with  the 
shortest ;  and  thus  the  work  becomes  often  the  more  unintelligi- 
ble by  its  singular  arrangement.  But  notwithstanding  this,  there 
is  scarcely  a  volume  in  the  Arabic  language  which  contains  pas- 
sages breathing  more  sublime  poetry,  or  more  enchanting  elo- 
quence ;  and  the  Koran  is  so  far  important  in  the  history  of 
Arabian  letters,  that  when  the  scattered  leaves  were  collected  by 
Abubeker,  the  successor  of  Mohammed  (635  A.  D.)  and  after- 
wards revised,  in  the  thirtieth  year  of  the  Hegira,  they  fixed  at 
once  the  classic  language  of  the  Arabs,  and  became  their  stand- 
ard in  style  as  well  as  in  religion. 


ARABIAN  LITERATURE.  181 

This  work  and  its  commentaries  are  held  in  the  highest  rever- 
ence by  the  Mohammedans.  It  is  the  principal  book  taught  in 
their  schools  ;  they  never  touch  it  without  kissing  it,  and  carry- 
ing it  to  the  forehead,  in  token  of  their  reverence  ;  oaths  before 
the  courts  are  taken  upon  it ;  it  is  learned  by  heart,  and  repeated 
every  forty  days  ;  many  believers  copy  it  several  times  in  their 
lives,  and  often  possess  one  or  more  copies  ornamented  with  gold 
and  precious  stones. 

The  Koran  treats  of  death,  resurrection,  the  judgment,  para- 
dise, and  the  place  of  torment,  in  a  style  calculated  powerfully 
to  affect  the  imagination  of  the  believer.  The  joys  of  paradise, 
promised  to  all  who  fall  in  the  cause  of  religion,  are  those  most 
captivating  to  an  Arabian  fancy.  When  Al  Sirat,  or  the  Bridge 
of  Judgment,  which  is  as  slender  as  the  thread  of  a  famished 
spider,  and  as  sharp  as  the  edge  of  a  sword,  shall  be  passed  by 
the  believer,  he  will  be  welcomed  into  the  gardens  of  delight  by 
black-eyed  Houris,  beautiful  nymphs,  not  made  of  common  clay, 
but  of  pure  essence  and  odors,  free  from  all  blemish,  and  subject 
to  no  decay  of  virtue  or  of  beauty,  and  who  await  their  destined 
lovers  in  rosy  bowers,  or  in  pavilions  formed  of  a  single  hollow 
pearl.  The  soil  of  paradise  is  composed  of  musk  and  saffron, 
sprinkled  with  pearls  and  hyacinths.  The  walls  of  its  mansions 
are  of  gold  and  silver ;  the  fruits,  which  bend  spontaneously  to 
him  who  would  gather  them,  are  of  a  flavor  and  delicacy  un- 
known to  mortals.  Numerous  rivers  flow  through  this  blissful 
abode ;  some  of  wine,  others  of  milk,  honey,  and  water,  the  peb- 
bly beds  of  which  are  rubies  and  emeralds,  and  their  banks  of 
musk,  camphor,  and  saffron.  In  paradise  the  enjoyment  of  the 
believers,  which  is  subject  neither  to  satiety  nor  diminution,  will 
be  greater  than  the  human  understanding  can  compass.  The 
meanest  among  them  will  have  eighty  thousand  servants,  and 
seventy-two  wives.  Wine,  though  forbidden  on  earth,  will  there 
be  freely  allowed,  and  will  not  hurt  or  inebriate.  The  ravishing 
songs  of  the  angels  and  of  the  Houris  will  render  all  the  groves 
vocal  with  harmony,  such  as  mortal  ear  never  heard.  At  what- 
ever age  they  may  have  died,  at  their  resurrection  all  will  be  in 
the,  prime  of  manly  and  eternal  vigor.  It  would  be  a  journey 
of  a  thousand  years  for  a  true  Mohammedan  to  travel  through 
paradise,  and  behold  all  the  wives,  servants,  gardens,  robes,  jew- 
els, horses,  camels,  and  other  things,  which  belong  exclusively  to 
him.  _ 

The  hell  of  Mohammed  is  as  full  of  terror  as  his  heaven  is  of 
delight.  The  wicked,  who  fall  into  the  gulf  of  torture  from  the 
bridge  of  Al  Sirat,  will  suffer  alternately  from  cold  and  heat ; 
when  they  are  thirsty,  boiling  water  will  ba  given  them  to  drink ; 
and  they  will  be  shod  with  shoes  of  fire.  The  dark  mansions  of 


182       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

the  Christians,  Jews,  Sabeans,  Magians,  and  idolaters  are  sunk 
below  each  other  with  increasing  horrors,  in  the  order  of  their 
names.  The  seventh  or  lowest  hell  is  reserved  for  the  faithless 
hypocrites  of  every  religion.  Into  this  dismal  receptacle  the  un- 
happy sufferer  will  be  dragged  by  seventy  thousand  halters,  each 
pulled  by  seventy  thousand  angels,  and  exposed  to  the  scourge 
of  demons,  whose  pastime  is  cruelty  and  pain. 

It  is  a  portion  of  the  faith  inculcated  in  the  Koran,  that  both 
angels  and  demons  exist,  having  pure  and  subtle  bodies,  created 
of  fire,  and  free  from  human  appetites  and  desires.  The  four 
principal  angels  are  Gabriel,  the  angel  of  revelation ;  Michael, 
the  friend  and  protector  of  the  Jews  ;  Azrael,  the  angel  of  death ; 
and  Izrafel,  whose  office  it  will  be  to  sound  the  trumpet  at  the 
last  day.  Every  man  has  two  guardian  angels  to  attend  him 
and  record  his  actions,  good  and  evil.  The  doctrine  of  the 
angels,  demons,  and  jins  or  genii,  the  Arabians  probably  derived 
from  the  Hebrews.  The  demons  are  fallen  angels,  the  prince  of 
whom  is  Eblis  ;  he  was  at  first  one  of  the  angels  nearest  to  God's 
presence,  and  was  called  Azazel.  He  was  cast  out  of  heaven, 
according  to  the  Koran,  for  refusing  to  pay  homage  to  Adam  at 
the  time  of  the  creation.  The  genii  are  intermediate  creatures, 
neither  wholly  spiritual  nor  wholly  earthly,  some  of  whom  are 
good  and  entitled  to  salvation,  and  others  infidels  and  devoted 
to  eternal  torture.  Among  them  are  several  ranks  and  degrees, 
as  the  Peris,  or  fairies,  beautiful  female  spirits,  who  seek  to  do 
good  upon  the  earth,  and  the  Deev,  or  giants,  who  frequently 
make  war  upon  the  Peris,  take  them  captive,  and  shut  them  up  in 
cages.  The  genii,  both  good  and  bad,  have  the  power  of  mak- 
ing themselves  invisible  at  pleasure.  Besides  the  mountain  of 
Kaf,  which  is  their  chief  place  of  resort,  they  dwell  in  ruined 
cities,  uninhabited  houses,  at  the  bottom  of  wells,  in  woods,  pools 
of  water,  and  among  the  rocks  and  sandhills  of  the  desert. 
Shooting  stars  are  still  believed  by  the  people  of  the  East  to  be 
arrows  shot  by  the  angels  against  the  genii,  who  transgress  these 
limits  and  approach  too  near  the  forbidden  regions  of  bliss. 
Many  of  the  genii  delight  in  mischief ;  they  surprise  and  mis- 
lead travelers,  raise  whirlwinds,  and  dry  up  springs  in  the  des- 
ert. The  Ghoul  lives  on  the  flesh  of  men  and  women,  Avhom  he 
decoys  to  his  haunts  in  wild  and  barren  places,  in  order  to  kill 
and  devour  them,  and  when  he  cannot  thus  obtain  food,  he  enters 
the  graveyards  and  feeds  upon  the  bodies  of  the  dead. 

The  fairy  mythology  of  the  Arabians  was  introduced  into  Eu- 
rope in  the  eleventh  century  by  the  Troubadours  and  writers  of 
the  romances  of  chivalry,  and  through  them  it  became  an  impor- 
tant element  in  the  literature  of  Europe.  It  constituted  the 
machinery  of  the  Fabliaux  of  the  Trouveres,  and  of  the  roman- 


ARABIAN  LITERATURE.  183 

tic  epics  of  Boccaccio,  Ariosto,  Tasso,  Spenser,  Shakspeare,  and 
others. 

The  three  leading  Mohammedan  sects  are  the  Sunnees,  the 
Shoahs,  and  the  Wahabees.  The  Sunnees  acknowledge  the  au- 
thority of  the  first  Caliphs,  from  whom  most  of  the  traditions 
were  derived.  The  Sheahs  assert  the  divine  right  of  Ali  to  suc- 
ceed to  the  prophet ;  consequently  they  consider  the  first  Caliphs, 
and  all  their  successors,  as  usurpers.  The  Wahabees  are  a  sect 
of  religious  reformers,  who  took  their  name  from  Abd  al  Wahab 
(1700-1750),  the  Luther  of  the  Mohammedans.  They  became 
a  formidable  power  in  Arabia,  but  they  were  finally  overcome 
by  Ibrahim  Pacha  in  1816. 

4.  HISTORICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  ARABIAN  LITERATURE. 
—  The  literature  of  the  Arabians  has,  properly  speaking,  but 
one  period  ;  although  from  remote  antiquity  poetry  was  with 
them  a  favorite  occupation,  and  long  before  the  time  of  Moham- 
med the  roving  tribes  of  the  desert  had  their  annual  conventions, 
where  they  defended  their  honor  and  celebrated  their  heroic 
deeds.  As  early  as  the  fifth  century  A.  D.,  at  the  fair  of  Ochadh, 
thirty  days  every  year  were  employed  not  only  in  the  exchange 
of  merchandise,  but  in  the  nobler  display  of  rival  talents.  A 
place  was  set  apart  for  the  competitions  of  the  bards,  whose 
highest  ambition  was  to  conquer  in  this  literary  arena,  and  the 
victorious  compositions  were  inscribed  in  golden  letters  upon 
Egyptian  paper,  and  suspended  upon  the  doors  of  the  Caaba,  the 
ancient  national  sanctuary  of  Mecca.  Seven  of  the  most  famous 
of  these  ancient  poets  have  been  celebrated  by  Oriental  writers 
under  the  title  of  the  Arabian  Pleiades,  and  their  songs,  still 
preserved,  are  full  of  passion,  manly  pride,  and  intensity  of  im- 
agination and  feeling.  These  and  similar  effusions  constituted 
the  entire  literature  of  Arabia,  and  were  the  only  archives  of  the 
nation  previous  to  the  age  of  Mohammed. 

The  peninsula  of  Arabia,  hitherto  restricted  to  its  natural 
boundaries,  and  peopled  by  wandering  tribes,  had  occupied  but 
a  subordinate  place  in  the  history  of  the  world.  But  the  success 
of  Mohammed  and  the  preaching  of  the  Koran  were  followed  by 
the  union  of  the  tribes  who,  inspired  by  the  feelings  of  national 
pride  and  religious  fervor,  in  less  than  a  century  made  the  Ara- 
bian power,  tongue,  and  religion  predominant  over  a  third  part 
of  Asia,  almost  one  half  of  Africa,  and  a  part  of  Spain ;  and, 
from  the  ninth  to  the  sixteenth  century,  the  literature  of  the 
Arabians  far  surpassed  that  of  any  contemporary  nation. 

After  the  fall  of  ths  Roman  empire  in  the  fifth  century  A.  D., 
when  the  western  world  sank  into  barbarism,  and  the  inhabitants, 
ever  menaced  by  famine  or  the  sword,  fouTid  full  occupation  in 
Struggling  against  civil  wars,  feudal  tyranny,  and  the  invasion 


184       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL   LITERATURE. 

of  barbarians ;  when  poetry  was  unknown,  philosophy  was  pro- 
scribed as  rebellion  against  religion,  and  barbarous  dialects  had 
usurped  the  place  of  that  beautiful  Latin  language  which  had  so 
long  connected  the  nations  of  the  West,  and  preserved  to  them 
so  many  treasures  of  thought  and  taste,  the  Arabians,  who  by 
their  conquests  and  fanaticism  had  contributed  more  than  any 
other  nation  to  abolish  the  cultivation  of  science  and  literature, 
having  at  length  established  their  empire,  in  turn  devoted  them- 
selves to  letters.  Masters  of  the  country  of  the  magi  and  the 
Chaldeans,  of  Egypt,  the  first  storehouse  of  human  science,  of 
Asia  Minor,  where  poetry  and  the  fine  arts  had  their  birth,  and 
of  Africa,  the  country  of  impetuous  eloquence  and  subtle  intel- 
lect —  they  seemed  to  unite  in  themselves  the  advantages  of  all 
the  nations  which  they  had  thus  subjugated.  Innumerable 
treasures  had  been  the  fruit  of  their  conquests,  and  this  hitherto 
rude  and  uncultivated  nation  now  began  to  indulge  in  the  most 
unbounded  luxury.  Possessed  of  all  the  delights  that  human 
industry,  quickened  by  boundless  riches,  could  procure,  with  all 
that  could  flatter  the  senses  and  attach  the  heart  to  life,  they 
now  attempted  to  mingle  with  these  the  pleasures  of  the  intel- 
lect, the  cultivation  of  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  all  that  is  most 
excellent  in  human  knowledge.  In  this  new  career,  their  con- 
quests were  not  less  rapid  than  they  had  been  in  the  field ;  nor 
was  the  empire  which  they  founded  less  extended.  With  a  ce- 
lerity equally  surprising,  it  rose  to  a  gigantic  height,  but  it  rested 
on  a  foundation  no  less  insecure,  and  it  was  quite  as  transitory 
in  its  duration. 

The  Hegira,  or  flight  of  Mohammed  from  Mecca  to  Medina, 
corresponds  with  the  year  622  of  our  era,  and  the  supposed 
burning  of  the  Alexandrian  library  by  Amrou,  the  general  of 
the  Caliph  Omar,  with  the  year  641.  This  is  the  period  of  the 
deepest  barbarism  among  the  Saracens,  and  this  event,  doubtful 
as  it  is,  has  left  a  melancholy  proof  of  their  contempt  for  letters. 
A  century  had  scarcely  elapsed  from  the  period  to  which  this 
barbarian  outrage  is  referred,  when  the  family  of  the  Abassides, 
wKb  mounted  the  throne  of  the  Caliphs  in  750,  introduced  a 
passionate  love  of  art,  of  science,  and  of  poetry.  In  the  litera- 
ture of  Greece,  nearly  eight  centuries  of  progressive  cultivation 
succeeding  the  Trojan  war  had  prepared  the  way  for  the  age  of 
Pericles.  In  that  of  Rome,  the  age  of  Augustus  was  also  in 
the  eighth  century  after  the  foundation  of  the  city.  In  French 
literature,  the  age  of  Louis  XIV.  was  twelve  centuries  subse- 
quent to  Clovis,  and  eight  after  the  development  of  the  first 
rudiments  of  the  language.  But,  in  the  rapid  progress  of  the 
Arabian  empire,  the  age  of  Al  Mamoun,  the  Augustus  of  Bag- 
dad, was  not  removed  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  years 


ARABIAN  LITERATURE.  185 

from  the  foundation  of  the  monarchy.  All  the  literature  of  the 
Arabians  bears  the  marks  of  this  rapid  development. 

Ali,  the  fourth  Caliph  from  Mohammed,  was  the  first  who 
extended  any  protection  to  letters.  His  rival  and  successor, 
Moawy'iah,  the  first  of  the  Ommyiades  (661-680),  assembled 
at  his  court  all  who  were  most  distinguished  by  scientific  acquire- 
ments ;  he  surrounded  himself  with  poets ;  and  as  he  had  sub- 
jected to  his  dominion  many  of  the  Grecian  islands  and  provinces, 
the  sciences  of  Greece  under  him  first  began  to  obtain  any  influ- 
ence over  the  Arabians. 

After  the  extinction  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Ommyiades,  that 
of  the  Abassides  bestowed  a  still  more  powerful  patronage  on 
letters.  The  celebrated  Haroun  al  Raschid  (786-809)  acquired 
a  glorious  reputation  by  the  protection  he  afforded  to  letters. 
He  never  undertook  a  journey  without  carrying  with  him  at 
least  a  hundred  men  of  science  in  his  train,  and  he  never  built  a 
mosque  without  attaching  to  it  a  school. 

But  the  true  protector  and  father  of  Arabic  literature  was 
Al  Mamoun,  the  son  of  Haroun  al  Raschid  (813-833),  who  ren- 
dered Bagdad  the  centre  of  literature.  He  invited  to  his  court 
from  every  part  of  the  world  all  the  learned  men  with  whose 
existence  he  was  acquainted,  and  he  retained  them  by  rewards, 
honors,  and  distinctions  of  every  kind.  He  exacted,  as  the  most 
precious  tribute  from  the  conquered  provinces,  all  the  important 
books  and  literary  relics  that  could  be  discovered.  Hundreds 
of  camels  might  be  seen  entering  Bagdad,  loaded  with  nothing 
but  manuscripts  and  papers,  and  those  most  proper  for  instruc- 
tion were  translated  into  Arabic.  Instructors,  translators,  and 
commentators  formed  the  court  of  Al  Mamoun,  which  appeared 
to  be  rather  a  learned  academy,  than  the  seat  of  government  in 
a  warlike  empire.  The  Caliph  himself  was  much  attached  to  the 
study  of  mathematics,  which  he  pursued  with  brilliant  success. 
He  conceived  the  grand  design  of  measuring  the  earth,  which 
was  accomplished  by  his  mathematicians,  at  his  own  expense. 
Not  less  generous  than  enlightened,  Al  Mamoun,  when  he  par- 
doned one  of  his  relatives  who  had  revolted  against  him,  ex- 
claimed, *'  If  it  were  known  what  pleasure  I  experience  in  grant- 
ing pardon,  all  who  have  offended  against  me  would  come  and 
confess  their  crimes." 

The  progress  of  the  Arabians  in  science  was  proportioned  to 
the  zeal  of  the  sovereign.  In  every  town  of  the  empire  schools, 
colleges,  and  academies  were  established.  Bagdad  was  the 
capital  of  letters  as  well  as  of  the  Caliphs,  but  Bassora  and  Cufa 
almost  equaled  that  city  in  reputation,  and  in  the  number  of 
celebrated  poems  and  treatises  that  they  produced.  Balkh, 
Ispahan,  and  Samarcand  were  equally  the  homes  of  science. 


186       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

Cairo  contained  a  great  number  of  colleges ;  in  the  towns  of 
Fez  and  Morocco  the  most  magnificent  buildings  were  appro- 
priated to  the  purposes  of  instruction,  and  in  their  rich  libraries 
were  preserved  those  precious  volumes  which  had  been  lost  in 
other  places. 

What  Bagdad  was  to  Asia,  Cordova  was  to  Europe,  where, 
particularly  in  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries,  the  Arabs  were 
the  pillars  of  literature.  At  this  period,  when  learning  found 
scarcely  anywhere  either  rest  or  encouragement,  the  Arabians 
were  employed  in  collecting  and  diffusing  it  in  the  three  great 
divisions  of  the  world.  Students  traveled  from  France  and 
other  European  countries  to  the  Arabian  schools  in  Spain,  par- 
ticularly to  learn  medicine  ancl  mathematics.  Besides  the  acad- 
emy at  Cordova,  there  were  established  fourteen  others  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  Spain,  exclusive  of  the  higher  schools.  The  Arabians 
made  the  most  rapid  advancement  in  all  the  departments  of 
learning,  especially  in  arithmetic,  geometry,  and  astronomy.  In 
the  various  cities  of  Spain,  seventy  libraries  were  opened  for 
public  instruction  at  the  period  when  all  the  rest  of  Europe, 
without  books,  without  learning,  without  cultivation,  was  plunged 
in  the  most  disgraceful  ignorance.  The  number  of  Arabic 
authors  which  Spain  produced  was  so  prodigious,  that  many 
Arabian  bibliographers  wrote  learned  treatises  on  the  authors 
born  in  particular  towns,  or  on  those  among  the  Spaniards  who 
devoted  themselves  to  a  single  branch  of  study,  as  philosophy, 
medicine,  mathematics,  or  poetry.  Thus,  throughout  the  vast 
extent  of  the  Arabian  empire,  the  progress  of  letters  had  fol- 
lowed that  of  arms,  and  for  five  centuries  this  literature  pre- 
served all  its  brilliancy. 

5.  GRAMMAR  AND  RHETORIC.  —  The  perfection  of  the  lan- 
guage was  one  of  the  first  objects  of  the  Arabian  scholars,  and 
from  the  rival  schools  of  Cufa  and  Bassora  a  number  of  distin- 
guished men  proceeded,  who  analyzed  with  the  greatest  subtlety 
all  its  rules  and  aided  in  perfecting  it.  As  early  as  in  the  age 
of  Ali,  the  fourth  Caliph,  Arabian  literature  boasted  of  a  num- 
ber of  scientific  grammarians.  Prosody  and  the  metric  art  were 
reduced  to  systems.  Dictionaries  of  the  language  were  com- 
posed, some  of  which  are  highly  esteemed  at  the  present  day. 
Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  "  Al  Sehah,"  or  Purity, 
and  "  El  Kamus,"  or  the  Ocean,  which  is  considered  the  best 
dictionary  of  the  Arabian  language.  The  study  of  rhetoric  was 
united  to  that  of  grammar,  and  the  most  celebrated  works  of 
the  Greeks  on  this  art  were  translated  and  adapted  to  the 
Arabic.  After  the  age  of  Mohammed  and  his  immediate  suc- 
cessors, popular  eloquence  was  no  longer  cultivated.  Eastern 
despotism  having  supplanted  the  liberty  of  the  desert,  the  heads 


ARABIAN  LITERATURE.  187 

of  the  state  or  army  regarded  it  beneath  them  to  harangue  the 
people  or  the  soldiers  ;  they  called  upon  them  only  for  obedience. 
But  though  political  eloquence  was  of  short  duration  among  the 
Arabians,  on  the  other  hand  they  were  the  inventors  of  that 
species  of  rhetoric  most  cultivated  at  the  present  day,  that  of 
the  academy  and  the  pulpit.  Their  philosophers  in  these  learned 
assemblies  displayed^  all  the  measured  harmony  of  which  their 
language  was  susceptible.  Mohammed  had  ordained  that  his 
faith  should  be  preached  in  the  mosques ;  —  many  of  the  har- 
angues of  these  sacred  orators  are  still  preserved  in  the  Escurial, 
and  the  style  of  them  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  Christian 
orators. 

6.  POETRY.  —  Poetry  still  more  than  eloquence  was  the  fa- 
vorite occupation  of  the  Arabians  from  their  origin  as  a  nation. 
It  is  said  that  this  people  alone  have  produced  more  poets  than 
all  others  united.  Mohammed  himself,  as  well  as  some  of  his 
first  companions,  cultivated  this  art,  but  it  was  under  Haroun  al 
Raschid  and  his  successor,  Al  Mamoun,  and  more  especially 
under  the  Ommyiades  of  Spain  that  Arabic  poetry  attained  its 
highest  splendor.  But  the  ancient  impetuosity  of  expression, 
the  passionate  feeling,  and  the  spirit  of  individual  independence 
no  longer  characterized  the  productions  of  this  period,  nor  is 
there  among  the  numerous  constellations  of  Arabic  poets  any 
star  of  distinguished  magnitude.  With  the  exception  of  Mo- 
hammed and  a  few  of  the  Saracen  conquerors  and  sovereigns, 
there  is  scarcely  an  individual  of  this  nation  whose  name  is 
familiar  to  the  nations  of  Christendom. 

The  Arabians  possess  many  heroic  poems  composed  for  the 
purpose  of  celebrating  the  praises  of  distinguished  men,  and  of 
animating  the  courage  of  their  soldiers.  They  do  not,  however, 
boast  of  any  epics  ;  their  poetry  is  entirely  lyric  and  didactic. 
They  have  been  inexhaustible  in  their  love  poems,  their  elegies, 
their  moral  verses,  —  among  which  their  fables  may  be  reck- 
oned, —  their  eulogistic,  satirical,  descriptive,  and  above  all, 
their  didactic  poems,  which  have  graced  even  the  most  abstruse 
science,  as  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  arithmetic.  But  among  all 
their  poems,  the  catalogue  alone  of  which,  in  the  Escurial,  con- 
sists of  twenty-four  volumes,  there  is  not  a  single  epic,  comedy, 
or  tragedy. 

In  those  branches  of  poetry  which  they  cultivated  they  dis- 
played surprising  subtlety  and  great  refinement  of  thought,  but 
the  fame  of  their  compositions  rests,  in  some  degree,  on  their 
bold  metaphors,  their  extravagant  allegories,  and  their  excessive 
hyperboles.  The  Arabs  despised  the  poetry  of  the  Greeks, 
which  appeared  to  them  timid,  cold,  and  constrained,  and  among 
all  the  books  which,  with  almost  superstitious  veneration,  they 


188       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

borrowed  from  them,  there  is  scarcely  a  single  poem  which  they 
judged  worthy  of  translation.  The  object  of  the  Arabian  poets 
was  to  make  a  brilliant  use  of  the  boldest  and  most  gigantic 
images,  and  to  astonish  the  reader  by  the  abruptness  of  their 
expressions.  They  burdened  their  compositions  with  riches, 
under  the  idea  that  nothing  which  was  beautiful  could  be  super- 
fluous. They  neglected  natural  sentiment,  and  the  more  they 
could  multiply  the  ornaments  of  art,  the  more  admirable  in  their 
eyes  did  the  work  appear. 

The  nations  who  possessed  a  classical  poetry,  in  imitating  na- 
ture, had  discovered  the  use  of  the  epic  and  the  drama,  in  which 
the  poet  endeavors  to  express  the  true  language  of  the  human 
heart.  The  people  of  the  East,  with  the  exception  of  the  Hin- 
dus, never  made  this  attempt  —  their  poetry  is  entirely  lyric  ; 
but  under  whatever  name  it  may  be  known,  it  is  always  found 
to  be  the  language  of  the  passions.  The  poetry  of  the  Arabians 
is  rhymed  like  our  own,  and  the  rhyming  is  often  carried  still 
farther  in  the  construction  of  the  verse,  while  the  uniformity  of 
sound  is  frequently  echoed  throughout  the  whole  expression.  The 
collection  made  by  Aboul  Teman  (fl.  845  A.  D.)  containing  the 
Arabian  poems  of  the  age  anterior  to  Mohammed,  and  that  of 
Taoleti,  which  embraces  the  poems  of  the  subsequent  periods, 
are  considered  the  richest  and  most  complete  anthologies  of  Ara- 
bian poetry.  Montanebbi,  a  poet  who  lived  about  1050,  has 
been  compared  to  the  Persian  Hafiz. 

7.  THE  ARABIAN  TALES.  —  If  the  Arabs  have  neither  the 
epic  nor  the  drama,  they  have  been,  on  the  other  hand,  the  in- 
ventors of  a  style  of  composition  which  is  related  to  the  epic,  and 
which  supplies  among  them  the  place  of  the  drama.  We  owe 
to  them  those  tales,  the  conception  of  which  is  so  brilliant  and 
the  imagination  so  rich  and  varied :  tales  which  have  been  the 
delight  of  our  infancy,  and  which  at  a  more  advanced  age  we 
can  never  read  without  feeling  their  enchantment  anew.  Every 
one  is  acquainted  with  the  "  Arabian  Nights'  Entertainments  ;  " 
but  in  our  translation  we  possess  but  a  very  small  part  of  the 
Arabian  collection,  which  is  not  confined  merely  to  books,  but 
forms  the  treasure  of  a  numerous  class  of  men  and  women,  who, 
throughout  the  East,  find  a  livelihood  in  reciting  these  tales  to 
crowds,  who  delight  to  forget  the  present,  in  the  pleasing  dreams 
of  imagination.  In  the  coffee-houses  of  the  Levant,  one  of  these 
men  will  gather  a  silent  crowd  around  him,  and  picture  to  his 
audience  those  brilliant  and  fantastic  visions  which  are  the  pat- 
rimony of  Eastern  imaginations.  The  public  squares  abound 
with  men  of  this  class,  and  their  recitations  supply  the  place  of 
our  dramatic  representations.  The  physicians  frequently  recom- 


ARABIAN  LITERATURE.  189 

mend  them  to  their  patients  in  order  to  soothe  pain,  to  calm  agi- 
tation, or  to  produce  sleep ;  and  these  story-tellers,  accustomed 
to  sickness,  modulate  their  voices,  soften  their  tones,  and  gently 
suspend  them  as  sleep  steals  over  the  sufferer. 

The  imagination  of  the  Arabs  in  these  tales  is  easily  distin- 
guished from  that  of  the  chivalric  nations.  The  supernatural 
world  is  the  same  in  both,  but  the  moral  world  is  different. 
The  Arabian  tales,  like  the  romances  of  chivalry,  convey  us  to 
the  fairy  realms,  but  the  human  personages  which  they  introduce 
are  very  dissimilar.  They  had  their  birth  after  the  Arabians 
had  devoted  themselves  to  commerce,  literature,  and  the  arts, 
and  we  recognize  in  them  the  style  of  a  mercantile  people,  as 
we  do  that  of  a  warlike  nation  in  the  romances  of  chivalry. 
Valor  and  military  achievements  here  inspire  terror  but  no  en- 
thusiasm, and  on  this  account  the  Arabian  tales  are  often  less 
noble  and  heroic  than  we  usually  expect  in  compositions  of  this 
nature.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Arabians  are  our  masters 
in  the  art  of  producing  and  sustaining  this  kind  of  fiction.  They 
are  the  creators  of  that  brilliant  mythology  of  fairies  and  genii 
which  extends  the  bounds  of  the  world,  and  carries  us  into  the 
realms  of  marvels  and  prodigies.  It  is  from  them  that  Euro- 
pean nations  have  derived  that  intoxication  of  love,  that  tender- 
ness and  delicacy  of  sentiment,  and  that  reverential  awe  of 
women,  by  turns  slaves  and  divinities,  which  have  operated  so 
powerfully  on  their  chivalrous  feelings.  We  trace  their  effects 
in  all  the  literature  of  the  south,  which  owes  to  this  cause  its 
mental  character.  Many  of  these  tales  had  separately  found 
their  way  into  the  poetic  literature  of  Europe,  long  before  the 
translation  of  the  Arabian  Nights.  Some  are  to  be  met  with 
in  the  old  fabliaux,  in  Boccaccio,  and  in  Ariosto,  and  these  very 
tales  which  have  charmed  our  infancy,  passing  from  nation  to 
nation  through  channels  frequently  unknown,  are  now  familiar 
to  the  memory  and  form  the  delight  of  the  imagination  of  half 
the  inhabitants  of  the  globe. 

The  author  of  the  original  Arabic  work  is  unknown,  as  is  also 
the  period  at  which  it  was  composed.  It  was  first  introduced 
into  Europe  from  Syria,  where  it  was  obtained,  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  by  Galland,  a  French  traveler,  who 
was  sent  to  the  East  by  the  celebrated  Colbert,  to  collect  manu- 
scripts, and  by  him  first  translated  and  published. 

8.  HISTORY  AND  SCIEXCE.  —  As  early  as  the  eighth  century 
A.  D.,  history  became  an  important  department  in  Arabian  lit- 
erature. At  later  periods,  historians  who  wrote  on  all  subjects 
were  numerous.  Several  authors  wrote  universal  history  from 
the  beginning  of  the  world  to  their  own  time  ;  every  state,  prov- 
ince, and  city  possessed  its  individual  chronicle,  Many,  in  imi- 


190       HANDBOOK    OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

tation  of  Plutarch,  wrote  the  lives  of  distinguished  men  ;  and 
there  was  such  a  passion  for  every  species  of  composition,  and 
such  a  desire  to  leave  no  subject  untouched,  that  there  was  a 
serious  history  written  of  celebrated  horses,  and  another  of 
camels  that  had  risen  to  distinction.  They  possessed  historical 
dictionaries,  and  made  use  of  all  those  inventions  which  curtail 
labor  and  dispense  with  the  necessity  of  research.  Every  art 
and  science  had  its  history,  and  of  these  this  nation  possessed 
a  more  complete  collection  than  any  other,  either  ancient  or 
modern.  The  style  of  the  Arabian  historians  is  simple  and  un- 
adorned. 

Philosophy  was  passionately  cultivated  by  the  Arabians,  and 
upon  it  was  founded  the  fame  of  many  ingenious  and  sagacious 
men,  whose  names  are  still  revered  in  Europe.  Among  them 
were  Averrhoes  of  Cordova  (d.  1198),  the  great  commentator 
on  the  works  of  Aristotle,  and  Avicenna  (d.  1037),  a  profound 
philosopher  as  well  as  a  celebrated  writer  on  medicine.  Ara- 
bian philosophy  penetrated  rapidly  into  the  West,  and  had  greater 
influence  on  the  schools  of  Europe  than  any  branch  of  Arabic 
literature  ;  and  yet  it  was  the  one  in  which  the  progress  was,  in 
fact,  the  least  real.  The  Arabians,  more  ingenious  than  pro- 
found, attached  themselves  rather  to  the  subtleties  than  to  the 
connection  of  ideas  ;  their  object  was  more  to  dazzle  than  to  in- 
struct, and  they  exhausted  their  imaginations  in  search  of  mys- 
teries. Aristotle  was  worshiped  by  them,  as  a  sort  of  divinity. 
In  their  opinion  all  philosophy  was  to  be  found  in  his  writings, 
and  they  explained  every  metaphysical  question  according  to  the 
scholastic  standard. 

The  interpretation  of  the  Koran  formed  another  important 
part  of  their  speculative  studies,  and  their  literature  abounds 
with  exegetic  works  on  their  sacred  book,  as  well  as  with  com- 
mentaries on  Mohammedan  law.  The  learned  Arabians  did  not 
confine  themselves  to  the  studies  which  they  could  only  prose- 
cute in  their  closets  ;  they  undertook,  for  the  advancement  of 
science,  the  most  perilous  journeys,  and  we  owe  to  Aboul  Feda 
(1273-1331)  and  other  Arabian  travelers  the  best  works  on 
geography  written  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

The  natural  sciences  were  cultivated  by  them  with  great  ardor, 
and  many  naturalists  among  them  merit  the  gratitude  of  poster- 
ity. Botany  and  chemistry,  of  which  they  were  in  some  sort  the 
inventors,  gave  them  a  better  acquaintance  with  nature  than  the 
Greeks  or  Romans  ever  possessed,  and  the  latter  science  was 
applied  by  them  to  all  the  necessary  arts  of  life.  Above  all, 
agriculture  was  studied  by  them  with  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the 
climate,  soil,  and  growth  of  plants.  From  the  eighth  to  the  elev- 
enth century,  they  established  medical  schools  in  the  principal 


ARABIAN  LITERATURE.  191 

cities  of  their  dominions,  and  published  valuable  works  on  med- 
ical science.  They  introduced  more  simple  principles  into  math- 
ematics, and  extended  the  use  and  application  of  that  science. 
They  added  to  arithmetic  the  decimal  system,  and  the  Arabic 
numerals,  which,  however,  are  of  Hindu  origin  ;  they  simplified 
the  trigonometry  of  the  Greeks,  and  gave  algebra  more  useful 
and  general  applications.  Bagdad  and  Cordova  had  celebrated 
schools  of  astronomy,  and  observatories,  and  their  astronomers 
made  important  discoveries  ;  a  great  number  of  scientific  words 
are  evidently  Arabic,  such  as  algebra,  alcohol,  zenith,  nadir,  etc., 
and  many  of  the  inventions,  which  at  the  present  day  add  to  the 
comforts  of  life,  are  due  to  the  Arabians.  Paper,  now  so  neces- 
sary to  the  progress  of  intellect,  was  brought  by  them  from  Asia. 
In  China,  from  all  antiquity,  it  had  been  manufactured  from 
silk,  but  about  the  year  30  of  the  Hegira  (649  A.  D.)  the  manu- 
facture of  it  was  introduced  at  Samarcand,  and  when  that  city 
was  conquered  by  the  Arabians,  they  first  employed  cotton  in 
the  place  of  silk,  and  the  invention  spread  with  rapidity  through- 
out their  dominions.  The  Spaniards,  in  fabricating  paper,  sub- 
stituted flax  for  cotton,  which  was  more  scarce  and  dear ;  but 
it  was  not  till  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  that  paper  mills 
were  established  in  the  Christian  states  of  Spain,  from  whence 
the  invention  passed,  in  the  fourteenth  century  only,  to  Treviso 
and  Padua.  Tournaments  were  first  instituted  among  the  Ara- 
bians, from  whom  they  were  introduced  into  Italy  and  France. 
Gunpowder,  the  discovery  of  which  is  generally  attributed  to  a 
German  chemist,  was  known  to  the  Arabians  at  least  a  century 
before  any  trace  of  it  appeared  in  European  history.  The  com- 
pass, also,  the  invention  of  which  has  been  given  alternately  to 
the  Italians  and  French  in  the  thirteenth  century,  was  known  to 
the  Arabians  in  the  eleventh.  The  number  of  Arabic  inven- 
tions, of  which  we  enjoy  the  benefit  without  suspecting  it,  is  pro- 
digious. 

Such,  then,  was  the  brilliant  light  which  literature  and  science 
displayed  from  the  ninth  to  the  fourteenth  century  of  our  era  in 
those  vast  countries  which  had  submitted  to  the  yoke  of  Islam- 
ism.  In  this  immense  extent  of  territory,  twice  or  thrice  as  large 
as  Europe,  nothing  is  now  found  but  ignorance,  slavery,  terror, 
and  death.  Few  men  are  there  capable  of  reading  the  works 
of  their  illustrious  ancestors,  and  few  who  could  comprehend 
them  are  able  to  procure  them.  The  prodigious  literary  riches 
of  the  Arabians  no  longer  exist  in  any  of  the  countries  where 
the  Arabians  or  Mussulmans  rule.  It  is  not  there  that  we  must 
seek  for  the  fame  of  their  great  men  or  for  their  writings.  What 
has  been  preserved  is  in  the  hands  of  their  enemies,  in  the  con- 
vents of  the  monks,  or  in  the  royal  libraries  of  Europe. 


192       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

9.  EDUCATION*.  —  At  present  there  is  little  education,  in  our 
sense  of  the  word,  in  Arabia.  In  the  few  instances  where  pub- 
lic schools  exist,  writing,  grammar,  and  rhetoric  sum  up  the 
teaching.  The  Bedouin  children  learn  from  their  parents  much 
more  than  is  common  in  other  countries.  Great  attention  is 
paid  to  accuracy  of  grammar  and  purity  of  diction  throughout 
the  country,  and  of  late  literary  institutions  have  been  estab- 
lished at  Beyrout,  Damascus,  Bagdad,  and  Hefar. 

Such  is  the  extent  of  Arabic  literature,  that,  notwithstanding 
the  labors  of  European  scholars  and  the  productions  of  native 
presses,  in  Boulak  and  Cairo,  in  India,  and  recently  in  England, 
where  Hassam,  an  Arabian  poet,  has  devoted  himself  to  the 
production  of  standard  works,  the  greater  part  of  what  has 
been  preserved  is  still  in  manuscript  and  still  more  has  per- 
ished. 


ITALIAN  LITEEATURE. 

INTRODUCTION.  —  1.  Italian  Literature  and  its  Divisions.  —  2.  The  Dialects. — 3.  The 
Italian  Language.  * 

PERIOD  FIRST.  —  1.  Latin  Influence. —2.  Early  Italian  Poetry  and  Prose. — 3.  Dante. 

—  4.  Petrarch.  —  5.    Boccaccio  and  other  Prose  Writers.  —  6.   First  Decline  of  Italian 
Literature. 

PERIOD  SECOND.  —  1.  The  Close  of  the  Fifteenth  Century ;  Lorenzo  de'  Medici.  —  2.  The 
Origin  of  the  Drama  and  Romantic  Epic  ;  Poliziano,  Pulci,  Boiardo.  —  3.  Romantic  Epic 
Poetry;  Ariosto. — 4.  Heroic  Epic  Poetry;  Tasso. — 5.  Lyric  Poetry;  Bembo,  Molza, 
Tarsia,  V.  Colonna.  —  G.  Dramatic  Poetry  ;  Trissino,  Rucellai  ;  the  Writers  of  Comedy. 

—  7.  Pastoral  Drama  and  Didactic  Poetry  ;  Beccari,  Sannazzaro,  Tasso,  Guarini,  Rucel- 
lai,  Alamanni.  —  8.  Satirical  Poetry,  Novels,    and  Tales ;  Barni,   Grazzini,   Firenzuola, 
Bandello,  and  others.  —  9.  History  ;  Machiavelli,  Guicciardini,  Nardi,  and  others.  — 10. 
Grammar  and  Rhetoric  ;  the  Academy  della  Crusca,  Delia  Casa,  Speroni,  and  others.  — 
11.  Science,  Philosophy,  and  Politics;   the  Academy  del   Cimento,  Galileo,  Torricelli, 
Borelli,  Patrizi,  Telesio,  Campanella,  Bruno,  Castiglione,  Machiavelli,  and  others.  — 12. 
Decline  of  the  Literature  in  the  Seventeenth  Century.  — 13.  Epic  and  Lyric  Poetry  ;  Ma- 
rini,  Filicaja. — 14.  Mock  Heroic  Poetry,  the  Drama,  and  Satire;  Tassoni,  Bracciolini, 
Andreini,  and  others.  — 15.  History  and  Epistolary  Writings  ;  Davila,  Bentivoglio,  Sarpi, 
Redi. 

PERIOD  THIRD.  —  1.  Historical  Development  of  the  Third  Period.  — 2.  The  Melodrama ; 
Rinuccini,  Zeno,  Metastasio.  — 3.  Comedy ;  Goldoni,  C.  Gozzi,  and  others.  — 4.  Tragedy  ; 
Miffei,  Alfieri,  Monti,  Manzoni,  Nicolini,  and  others. — 5.  Lyric,  Epic,  and  Didactic 
Poetry;  Parini,  Monti,  Ugo  Foscolo,  Leopardi,  Grossi,  Lorenzi,  and  others. — 6.  Heroic- 
C  amic  Poetry,  Satire,  and  Fable ;  Fortiguerri,  Passeroni,  G.  Gozzi,  Parini,  Giusti,  and 
others.  —  7.  Romances ;  Verri,  Manzoni,  D'Azeglio,  Cantu,  Guerrazzi,  and  others.  — 
8.  History :  Muratori,  Vico,  Giannone,  Botta,  Colletta,  Tiraboschi,  and  others.  —  9. 
./Esthetics,  Criticism,  Philology,  and  Philosophy;  Biretti, Parini, Giordani, Gioja, Romag- 
nosi,  Gallupi,  Rosinini,  Gioberti.  —From  1860  to  1885. 

INTRODUCTION. 

1.  ITALIAN  LITERATURE  AND  ITS  DIVISIONS.  —  The  fall  of 
the  Western  Empire,  the  invasions  of  the  northern  tribes,  and 
the  subsequent  wars  and  calamities,  did  not  entirely  extinguish 
the  fire  of  genius  in  Italy.  As  we  have  seen,  the  Crusades  had 
opened  the  East  and  revealed  to  Europe  its  literary  and  artistic 
treasures ;  the  Arabs  had  established  a  celebrated  school  of 
medicine  in  Salerno,  and  had  made  known  the  ancient  classics ; 
a  school  of  jurisprudence  was  opened  in  Bologna,  where  Roman 
law  was  expounded  by  eminent  lecturers  ;  and  the  spirit  of 
chivalry,  while  it  softened  and  refined  human  character,  awoke 
the  desire  of  distinction  in  arms  and  poetry.  The  origin  of  the 
Italian  republics,  giving  scope  to  individual  agency,  marked 
another  era  in  civilization  ;  while  the  appearance  of  the  Italian 
language  quickened  the  national  mind  and  led  to  a  new  litera- 
ture. The  spirit  of  freedom,  awakened  as  early  as  the  elev- 
enth century,  received  new  life  in  the  twelfth,  when  the  Lom- 
bard cities,  becoming  independent,  formed  a  powerful  league 
against  Frederick  Barbarossa.  The  instinct  of  self-defense  thus 
13 


194       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

developed  increased  the  necessity  of  education.  In  the  thir- 
teenth and  fourteenth  centuries,  Italian  literature  acquired  its 
national  character  and  rose  to  its  highest  splendor,  through  the 
writings  of  Dante,  Petrarch,  and  Boccaccio,  whose  influence  has 
been  more  or  less  felt  in  succeeding  centuries. 

The  literary  history  of  Italy  may  be  divided  into  three  peri- 
ods, each  of  which  presents  two  distinct  phases,  one  of  progress 
and  one  of  decline.  The  first  period,  extending  from  1100  to 
1475,  embraces  the  origin  of  the  literature,  its  development 
through  the  works  of  Dante,  Petrarch,  and  Boccaccio,  in  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries,  and  its  first  decline  in  the 
fifteenth,  when  it  was  supplanted  by  the  absorbing  study  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  classics. 

The  second  period,  commencing  1475,  embraces  the  age  of 
Lorenzo  de'  Medici  and  Leo  X.,  when  literature  began  to  re- 
vive ;  the  age  of  Ariosto,  Tasso,  Machiavelli,  and  Galileo,  when 
it  reached  its  meridian  splendor ;  its  subsequent  decline,  through 
the  school  of  Marini ;  and  its  last  revival  towards  the  close  of 
the  seventeenth  century. 

The  third  period,  extending  from  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century  to  the  present  time,  includes  the  development  of  Italian 
literature,  its  decline  under  French  influence,  and  its  subsequent 
national  tendency,  through  the  writings  of  Metastasio,  Goldoni, 
Alfieri,  Parini,  Monti,  Manzoni,  and  Leopardi. 

2.  THE  DIALECTS.  —  The  dialects  of  the  ancient  tribes  in- 
habiting the  peninsula  early    came  in  contact  with  the  rustic 
Latin,  and  were  moulded  into  new  tongues,  which,  at  a  later 
period,  were  again  modified  by  the  influence  of  the  barbarians 
who  successively  invaded    the  country.     These  tongues,  elabo- 
rated by  the  action  of  centuries,  are  still  in  use,  especially  with 
the  lower  classes,  and  many  of  them  have  a  literature  of  their 
own,  with  grammars  and  dictionaries.     The  more  important  of 
these  dialects  are  divided  into  three   groups :  1st.  The  North- 
ern, including  the  Ligurian,  Piedmontese,  Lombard,  Venetian, 
and  Emilian.    2d.  The  Central,  containing  the  Tuscan,  Urabrian, 
the  dialects  of  the  Marches  and  of  the  Roman  Provinces.     3d. 
The  Southern,  embracing  those  of  the  Neapolitan  provinces  and 
of   Sicily.     Each  is  distinguished  from  the  other  and  from  the 
true  Italian,  although  they  all  rest  on  a  common  basis,  the  rustic 
Latin,  the  plebeian  tongue  of  the  Romans,  as  distinct  from  the 
official  and  literary  tongue. 

3.  THE  ITALIAN  LANGUAGE.  —  The  Tuscan   or    Florentine 
dialect,  which  early  became  the  literary  language  of  Italy,  was 
the  result  of  the  natural  development  of  the  popular  Latin  and 
a   native    dialect   probably  akin   to    the   rustic   Roman   idiom. 
Tuscany  suffering  comparatively  little   from  foreign  invasion, 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE.  195 

the  language  lost  none  of  its  purity,  and  remained  free  from 
heterogeneous  elements.  The  great  writers,  Dante,  Petrarch, 
and  Boccaccio,  who  appeared  so  early,  promoted  its  perfection, 
secured  its  prevailing  influence,  and  gave  it  a  national  charac- 
ter. Hence,  in  the  literature  there  is  no  old  Italian  as  distinct 
from  the  modern ;  the  language  of  Dante  continues  to  be  that 
of  modern  writers,  and  becomes  more  perfect  the  more  it  ap- 
proaches the  standard  fixed  by  the  great  masters  of  the  four- 
teenth century.  Of  this  language  it  may  be  said  that  for  flexi- 
bility, copiousness,  freedom  of  construction,  and  harmony  and 
beauty  of  sound,  it  is  the  most  perfect  of  all  the  idioms  of  the 
Neo-Latin  or  Romanic  tongues. 

PERIOD  FIRST. 

FROM  THE  ORIGIN  OF  ITALIAN  LITERATURE  TO  ITS  FIRST  DECLINE 
(1100-1475). 

1.  LATIN  INFLUENCE.  —  During  the  early  part  of  the  Middle 
Ages  Latin  was  the  literary  language  of  Italy,  and  the  aim  of 
the  best  writers  of  the  time  was  to  restore  Roman  culture.     The 
Gothic  kingdom  of  Ravenna,  established  by  Theodoric,  was  the 
centre  of  this   movement,  under  the  influence  of  Cassiodorus, 
Boethius,  and  Symmachus.     It  was  due  to  the  prevailing  affec- 
tion for.  the  memories  of  Rome,  that  through  all  the  Dark  Ages 
the  Italian  mind  kept  alive  a  spirit  of  freedom  unknown  in  other 
countries  of  Europe,  a  spirit  active,  later,  in  the  establishment 
of  the  Italian  republics,  and  showing  itself  in  the  heroic  resist- 
ance of  the  communes  of  Lombardy  to  the  empire  of  the  Ho- 
henstaufens.      While    the   literatures   of   other  countries  were 
drawn  almost  exclusively  from  sacred  and  chivalric  legends,  the 
Italians  devoted  themselves  to  the  study  of  Roman  law  and  his- 
tory, to  translations  from  the  philosophers  of  Greece,  and.  above 
all,  to  the  establishment  of  those  great  universities  which  were 
so  powerful  in  extending  science  and  culture  throughout  the 
Peninsula. 

While  the  Latin  language  was  used  in  prose,  the  poets  wrote 
in  Provencal  and  in  French,  and  many  Italian  troubadours  ap- 
peared at  the  courts  of  Europe. 

2.  EARLY  ITALIAN  POETRY  AND  PROSE.  —  The  French  ele- 
ment became  gradually  lessened,  and  towards  the  close  of  the 
thirteenth  century  there  arose  the  Tuscan  school  of  lyric  poetry, 
the  true  beginning  of  Italian  art,  of  which  Lapo  Gianni,  Guido 
Cavalcanti,  Cino  da  Pistoia,  and  Dante  Alighieri  were  the  mas- 
ters.    It  is  mainly  inspired  by  love,  and  takes  a  popular  courtly 
or  scholastic  form.     The  style  of  Gianni  had  many  of  the  faults 
of  his  predecessors.    That  of  Cavalcanti,  the  friend  and  precursor 


196       HANDBOOK   OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

of  Dante,  showed  a  tendency  to  stifle  poetic  imagery  under  the 
dead  weight  of  philosophy.  But  the  love  poems  of  Cino  are  so 
mellow,  so  sweet,  so  musical,  that  they  are  only  surpassed  by 
those  of  Dante,  who,  as  the  author  of  the  "  Vita  Nuova,"  belongs 
to  this  lyric  school.  In  this  book  he  tells  the  story  of  his  love 
for  Beatrice,  which  was  from  the  first  a  high  idealization  in 
which  there  was  apparently  nothing  human  or  eartlily.  Every- 
thing is  super-sensual,  aerial,  heavenly,  and  the  real  Beatrice 
melts  more  and  more  into  the  symbolic,  passing  out  of  her 
human  nature  into  the  divine. 

Italian  prose  writing  is  of  a  later  date,  and  also  succeeded  a 
period  when  Italian  authors  wrote  in  Latin  and  French.  It 
consists  chiefly  of  chronicles,  tales,  and  translations. 

3.  DANTE  (1265-1331).  —  No  poet  had  yet  arisen  gifted  with 
absolute  power  over  the  empire  of  the  soul ;  no  philosopher  had 
pierced  into  the  depths  of  feeling  and  of  thought,  when  Dante,  the 
greatest  name  of  Italy  and  the  father  of  Italian  literature,  ap- 
peared in  the  might  of  his  genius,  and  availing  himself  of  the  rude 
and  imperfect  materials  within  his  reach,  constructed  his  magnifi- 
cent work.  Dante  was  born  in  Florence,  of  the  noble  family  of 
Alighieri,  which  was  attached  to  the  papal,  or  Guelph  party,  in 
opposition  to  the  imperial,  or  Ghibelline.  He  was  but  a  child 
when  death  deprived  him  of  his  father ;  but  his  mother  took  the 
greatest  pains  with  his  education,  placing  him  under  the  tuition 
of  Brunetto  Latini,  and  other  masters  of  eminence.  He  early 
made  great  progress,  not  only  in  an  acquaintance  with  classical 
literature  and  politics,  but  in  music,  drawing,  horsemanship,  and 
other  accomplishments  suitable  to  his  station.  As  he  grew  up, 
he  pursued  his  studies  in  the  universities  of  Padua,  Bologna,  and 
Paris.  He  became  an  accomplished  scholar,  and  at  the  same  time 
appeared  in  public  as  a  gallant  and  high-bred  man  of  the  world. 
At  the  age  of  twenty-five,  he  took  arms  on  the  side  of  the  Flor- 
entine Guelphs,  and  distinguished  himself  in  two  battles  against 
the  Ghibelh'nes  of  Arezzo  and  Pisa.  But  before  Dante  was 
either  a  student  or  a  soldier,  he  had  become  a  lover ;  and  this 
character,  above  all  others,  was  impressed  upon  him  for  life. 
At  a  May-day  festival,  when  only  nine  years  of  age,  he  had 
singled  out  a  girl  of  his  own  age,  by  the  name  of  Bice,  or  Bea- 
trice, who  thenceforward  became  the  object  of  his  constant  and 
passionate  affection,  or  the  symbol  of  all  human  wisdom  and 
perfection.  Before  his  twenty-fifth  year  she  was  separated  from 
him  by  death,  but  his  passion  was  refined,  not  extinguished  by 
this  event ;  not  buried  with  her  body  but  translated  with  her 
soul,  which  was  its  object.  On  the  other  hand,  the  affection  of 
Beatrice  for  the  poet  troubled  her  spirit  amid  the  bliss  of  Para, 
dise,  and  the  visions  of  the  eternal  world  with  which  he  was 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE.  197 

favored  were  a  device  of  hers  for  reclaiming  him  from  sin,  and 
preparing  him  for  everlasting  companionship  with  herself. 

At  the  age  of  thirty-five  he  was  elected  prior,  or  supreme 
magistrate  of  Florence,  an  honor  from  which  he  dates  all  his 
subsequent  misfortunes.  During  his  priorship,  the  citizens  were 
divided  into  two  factions  called  the  Neri  and  Bianchi,  as  bitterly 
opposed  to  each  other  as  both  had  been  to  the  Ghibellines.  In 
the  absence  of  Dante  on  an  embassy  to  Rome,  a  pretext  was 
found  by  the  Neri,  his  opponents,  for  exciting  the  populace 
against  him.  His  dwelling  was  demolished,  his  property  confis- 
cated, himself  and  his  friends  condemned  to  perpetual  exile,  with 
the  provision  that,  if  taken,  they  should  be  burned  alive.  After 
a  fruitless  attempt,  by  himself  and  his  party,  to  surprise  Florence, 
he  quitted  his  companions  in  disgust,  and  passed  the  remainder 
of  his  life  in  wandering  from  one  court  of  Italy  to  another,  eat- 
ing the  bitter  bread  of  dependence,  which  was  granted  him  often 
as  an  alms.  The  greater  part  of  his  poem  was  composed  during 
this  period ;  but  it  appears  that  till  the  end  of  his  life  he  con- 
tinued to  retouch  the  work. 

The  last  and  most  generous  patron  of  Dante  was  Guido  di 
Polenta,  lord  of  Ravenna,  and  father  of  Francesca  da  Rimini, 
whose  fatal  love  forms  one  of  the  most  beautiful  episodes  of  this 
poem.  Polenta  treated  him,  not  as  a  dependent  but  as  an  hon- 
ored guest,  and  in  a  dispute  with  the  Republic  of  Venice  he  em- 
ployed the  poet  as  his  ambassador,  to  effect  a  reconciliation ;  but 
he  was  refused  even  an  audience,  and,  returning  disappointed 
and  broken-hearted  to  Ravenna,  he  died  soon  after  at  the  age  of 
fifty-six,  having  been  in  exile  nineteen  years. 

His  fellow-citizens,  who  had  closed  their  hearts  and  their  gates 
against  him  while  living,  now  deeply  bewailed  his  death  ;  and, 
during  the  two  succeeding  centuries,  embassy  after  embassy  was 
vainly  sent  from  Florence  to  recover  his  honored  remains.  Not 
long  after  his  death,  those  who  had  exiled  him  and  confiscated 
his  property  provided  that  his  poem  should  be  read  and  ex- 
pounded to  the  people  in  a  church.  Boccaccio  was  appointed 
to  this  professorship.  Before  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
the  "  Divine  Comedy  "  had  gone  through  sixty  editions. 

The  Divine  Comedy  is  one  of  the  greatest  monuments  of 
human  genius.  It  is  an  allegory  conceived  in  the  form  of  a 
vision,  which  was  the  most  popular  style  of  poetry  at  that  age. 
At  the  close  of  the  year  1300  Dante  represents  himself  as  lost 
in  a  forest  at  the  foot  of  a  hill,  near  Jerusalem.  He  wishes  to 
ascend  it,  but  is  prevented  by  a  panther,  a  lion,  and  a  she- wolf 
which  beset  the  way.  He  is  met  by  Virgil,  who  tells  him  that 
he  is  sent  by  Beatrice  as  a  guide  through  the  realm  of  shadows, 
hell,  and  purgatory,  and  that  she  will  afterwards  lead  him  uji 


198       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

to  heaven.  They  pass  the  gates  of  hell,  and  penetrate  into  the 
dismal  region  beyond.  This,  as  represented  by  Dante,  consists 
of  nine  circles,  forming  an  inverted  cone,  of  the  size  of  the  earth, 
each  succeeding  circle  being  lower  and  narrower  than  the  former, 
while  Lucifer  is  chained  in  the  centre  and  at  the  bottom  of  the 
dreadful  crater.  Each  circle  contains  various  cavities,  where 
the  punishments  vary  in  proportion  to  the  guilt,  and  the  suffer- 
ing increases  in  intensity  as  the  circles  descend  and  contract.  In 
the  first  circle  were  neither  cries  nor  tears,  but  the  eternal  sighs 
of  those  who,  having  never  received  Christian  baptism,  were,  ac- 
cording to  the  poet's  creed,  forever  excluded  from  the  abodes  of 
bliss.  In  the  next  circle,  appropriated  to  those  whose  souls  had 
been  lost  by  the  indulgence  of  guilty  love,  the  poet  recognizes 
the  unhappy  Francesca  da  Rimini,  whose  history  forms  one  of 
the. most  beautiful  episodes  of  the  poem.  The  third  circle  in- 
cludes gluttons ;  the  fourth  misers  and  spendthrifts  ;  each  suc- 
ceeding circle  embracing  what  the  poet  deems  a  deeper  shade  of 
guilt,  and  inflicting  appropriate  punishment.  The  Christian  and 
heathen  systems  of  theology  are  here  freely  interwoven.  We 
have  Minos  visiting  the  Stygian  Lake,  where  heretics  are  burn- 
ing ;  we  meet  Cerberus  and  the  harpies,  and  we  accompany  the 
poet  across  several  of  the  fabulous  rivers  of  Erebus.  A  fearful 
scene  appears  in  the  deepest  circle  of  the  infernal  abodes.  Here, 
among  those  who  have  betrayed  their  country,  and  are  entombed 
in  eternal  ice,  is  Count  Ugolino,  who,  by  a  series  of  treasons,  had 
made  himself  master  of  Pisa.  He  is  gnawing  with  savage  feroc- 
ity the  skull  of  the  archbishop  of  that  state,  who  had  condemned 
him  and  his  children  to  die  by  starvation.  The  arch-traitor, 
Satan,  stands  fixed  in  the  centre  of  hell  and  of  the  earth.  All 
the  streams  of  guilt  keep  flowing  back  to  him  as  their  source,  and 
from  beneath  his  threefold  visage  issue  six  gigantic  wings  with 
which  he  vainly  struggles  to  raise  himself,  and  thus  produces 
winds  which  freeze  him  more  firmly  in  the  marsh. 

After  leaving  the  infernal  regions,  and  entering  purgatory, 
they  find  an  immense  cone  divided  into  seven  circles,  each  of 
which  is  devoted  to'  the  expiation  of  one  of  the  seven  mortal  sins. 
The  proud  are  overwhelmed  with  enormous  weights  ;  the  envious 
are  clothed  in  garments  of  horse-hair,  their  eye-lids  closed  ;  the 
choleric  are  suffocated  with  smoke  ;  the  indolent  are  compelled 
to  run  about  continually  ;  the  avaricious  are  prostrated  upon  the 
earth  ;  epicures  are  afflicted  with  hunger  and  thirst ;  and  the 
incontinent  expiate  their  crimes  in  fire.  In  this  portion  of  the 
work,  however,  while  there  is  much  to  admire,  there  is  less  to 
excite  and  sustain  the  interest.  On  the  summit  of  the  purgato- 
rial mountain  is  the  terrestial  paradise,  whence  is  the  only  as- 
cent to  the  celestial.  Beatrice,  the  object  of  his  early  and  con- 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE.  199 

stant  affection,  descends  hither  to  meet  the  poet.  Virgil  disap- 
pears, and  she  becomes  his  only  guide.  She  conducts  him 
through  the  nine  heavens,  and  makes  him  acquainted  with  the 
great  men  who,  by  their  virtuous  lives,  have  deserved  the  high- 
est enjoyments  of  eternity.  In  the  ninth  celestial  sphere,  Dante 
is  favored  with  a  manifestation  of  divinity,  veiled,  however,  by 
three  hierarchies  of  attending  angels.  He  sees  the  Virgin  Mary, 
and  the  saints  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  and  by  these  per- 
sonages, and  by  Beatrice,  all  his  doubts  and  difficulties  are  finally 
solved,  and  the  conclusion  leaves  him  absorbed  in  the  beatific 
vision. 

The  allegorical  meaning  of  the  poem  is  hidden  under  the  literal 
one.  Dante,  traveling  through  the  invisible  world,  is  a  symbol  of 
mankind  aiming  at  the  double  object  of  temporal  and  eternal  hap- 
piness. The  forest  typifies  the  civil  and  religious  confusion  of 
society  deprived  of  its  two  judges,  the  pope  and  the  emperor. 
The  three  beasts  are  the  powers  which  offered  the  greatest  obsta- 
cles to  Dante's  designs,  Florence,  France,  and  the  papal  court. 
Virgil  represents  reason  and  the  empire,  and  Beatrice  symbolizes 
the  supernatural  aid,  without  which  man  cannot  attain  the  su- 
preme end,  which  is  God. 

But  the  merit  of  the>  poem  is  that  for  the  first  time  classic  art 
is  transferred  into  a  Romance  form.  Dante  is,  above  all,  a  great 
artist.  Whether  he  describes  nature,  analyzes  passions,  curses  the 
vices,  or  sings  hymns  to  the  virtues,  he  is  always  wonderful  for 
the  grandeur  and  delicacy  of  his  art.  He  took  his  materials 
from  mythology,  history,  and  philosophy,  but  more  especially 
from  his  own  passions  of  hatred  and  love,  breathed  into  them  the 
breath  of  genius  and  produced  the  greatest  work  of  modern  times. 

The  personal  interest  that  he  brings  to  bear  on  the  -historical 
representation  of  the  three  worlds  is  that  which  most  interests 
and  stirs  us.  The  Divine  Comedy  is  not  only  the  most  lifelike 
drama  of  the  thoughts  and  feelings  that  moved  men  at  that  time, 
but  it  is  also  the  most  spontaneous  and  clear  reflection  of  the  in- 
dividual feelings  of  the  poet,  who  remakes  history  after  his  own 
passions,  and  who  is  the  real  chastiser  of  the  sins  and  rewarder 
of  the  virtues.  He  defined  the  destiny  of  Italian  literature  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  and  began  the  great  era  of  the  Renaissance. 
_  4.  PETRARCH.  —  Petrarch  (1304-1374)  belonged  to  a  re- 
spected Florentine  family.  His  father  was  the  personal  friend 
of  Dante,  and  a  partaker  of  the  same  exile.  While  at  Avignon, 
then  the  seat  of  the  papal  court,  on  one  occasion  he  made  an  ex- 
cursion to  the  fountain  of  Vaucluse,  taking  with  him  his  son,  the 
future  poet,  then  in  the  tenth  year  of  his  age.  The  wild  and 
solitary  aspect  of  the  place  inspired  the  boy  with  an  enthusiasm 
beyond  his  years,  leaving  an  impression  which  was  never  after- 


200       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

wards  effaced,  and  which  affected  his  future  life  and  writings. 
As  Petrarch  grew  up,  unlike  the  haughty,  taciturn,  and  sarcastic 
Dante,  he  seems  to  have  made  friends  wherever  he  went. 
With  splendid  talents,  engaging  manners,  a  handsome  person, 
and  an  affectionate  and  generous  disposition,  he  became  the 
darling  of  his  age,  a  man  whom  princes  delighted  to  honor.  At 
the  age  of  twenty-three,  he  first  met  Laura  de  Sade  in  a 
church  at  Avignon.  She  was  only  twenty  years  of  age,  and 
had  been  for  three  years  the  wife  of  a  patrician  of  that  city. 
Laura  was  not  more  distinguished  for  her  beauty  and  fortune 
than  for  the  unsullied  purity  of  her  manners  in  a  licentious 
court,  where  she  was  one  of  the  chief  ornaments.  The  sight  of 
her  beauty  inspired  the  young  poet  with  an  affection  which  was 
as  pure  and  virtuous  as  it  was  tender  and  passionate.  He  poured 
forth  in  song  the  fervor  of  his  love  and  the  bitterness  of  his  grief. 
Upwards  of  three  hundred  sonnets,  written  at  various  times, 
commemorate  all  the  little  circumstances  of  this  attachment,  and 
describe  the  favors  which,  during  an  acquaintance  of  fifteen  or 
twenty  years,  never  exceeded  a  kind  word,  a  look  less  severe 
than  usual,  or  a  passing  expression  of  regret  at  parting.  He 
was  not  permitted  to  visit  at  Laura's  house ;  he  had  no  oppor- 
tunity of  seeing  her  except  at  mass,  at  the  brilliant  levees  of 
the  pope,  or  in  private  assemblies  of  beauty  and  fashion :  but 
she  forever  remained  the  dominant  object  of  his  existence.  He 
purchased  a  house  at  Vaucluse,  and  there,  shut  in  by  lofty  and 
craggy  heights,  the  river  Sorgue  traversing  the  valley  on  one 
side,  amidst  hills  clothed  with  umbrageous  trees,  cheered  only 
by  the  song  of  birds,  the  poet  passed  his  lonely  days.  Again 
and  again  he  made  tours  through  Italy,  Spain,  and  Flanders, 
during  one  of  which  he  was  crowned  with  the  poet's  laurel  at 
Rome,  but  he  always  returned  to  Vaucluse,  to  Avignon,  to  Laura. 
Thus  years  passed  away.  Laura  became  the  mother  of  a  nu- 
merous family,  and  time  and  care  made  havoc  of  her  youthful 
beauty.  Meanwhile,  the  sonnets  of  Petrarch  had  spread  her 
fame  throughout  France  and  Italy,  and  attracted  many  to  the 
court  of  Avignon,  who  were  surprised  and  disappointed  at  the 
sight  of  her  whom  they  had  believed  to  be  the  loveliest  of  mor- 
tals. In  1347,  during  the  absence  of  the  poet  from  Avignon, 
Laura  fell  a  victim  to  the  plague,  just  twenty-one  years  from  the 
day  that  Petrarch  first  met  her.  Now  all  his  love  was  deep- 
ened and  consecrated,  and  the  effusions  of  his  poetic  genius  be- 
came more  melancholy,  more  passionate,  and  more  beautiful  than 
ever.  He  declined  the  offices  and  honors  that  his  countrymen 
offered  him,  and  passed  his  life  in  retirement.  He  was  found 
one  morning  by  his  attendants  dead  in  his  library,  his  head  rest- 
ing on  a  book. 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE.  201 

The  celebrity  of  Petrarch  at  the  present  day  depends  chiefly 
on  his  lyrical  poems,  which  served  as  models  to  all  the  distin- 
guished poets  of  southern  Europe.  They  are  restricted  to  two 
forms  :  the  sonnet,  borrowed  from  the  Sicilians,  and  the  canzone, 
from  the  Prove^als.  The  subject  of  almost  all  these  poems  is 
the  same — the  hopeless  affection  of  the  poet  for  the  high-minded 
Laura.  This  love  was  a  kind  of  religious  and  enthusiastic  pas- 
sion, such  as  mystics  imagine  they  feel  towards  the  Deity,  or 
such  as  Plato  believes  to  be  the  bond  of  union  between  elevated 
minds.  There  is  no  poet  in  any  language  more  perfectly  pure 
than  Petrarch — more  completely  above  all  reproach  of  laxity  or 
immorality.  This  merit,  which  is  equally  due  to  the  poet  and  to 
his  Laura,  is  the  more  remarkable,  considering  the  models  which 
he  followed  and  the  court  at  which  Laura  lived.  The  labor  of 
Petrarch  in  polishing  his  poems  did  much  towards  perfecting 
the  language,  which  through  him  became  more  elegant  and 
more  melodious.  He  introduced  into  the  lyric  poetry  of  Italy 
the  pathos  and  the  touching  sweetness  of  Ovid  and  Tibullus,  as 
well  as  the  simplicity  of  Anacreon. 

Petrarch  attached  little  value  to  his  Italian  poems  ;  it  was  on 
his  Latin  works  that  he  founded  his  hopes  of  renown.  But  his 
highest  title  to  immortal  fame  is  his  prodigious  labor  to  promote 
the  study  of  ancient  authors.  Wherever  he  traveled,  he  sought 
with  the  utmost  avidity  for  classic  manuscripts,  and  it  is  difficult 
to  estimate  the  effect  produced  by  his  enthusiasm.  He  corre- 
sponded with  all  the  eminent  literati  of  his  day,  and  inspired 
them  with  his  own  tastes.  Now  for  the  first  time  there  appeared 
a  kind  of  literary  republic  in  Europe  united  by  the  magic  bond 
of  Petrarch's  influence,  and  he  was  better  known  and  exercised 
a  more  extensive  and  powerful  influence  than  many  of  the  sover- 
eigns of  the  day.  He  treated  with  various  princes  rather  in  the 
character  of  an  arbitrator  than  an  ambassador,  and  he  not  only 
directed  the  tastes  of  his  own  age,  but  he  determined  those  of 
succeeding  generations. 

5.  BOCCACCIO  AXD  OTHEB  PKOSE  WRITERS.  —  The  fourteenth 
century  forms  a  brilliant  era  in  Italian  literature,  distinguished 
beyond  any  other  period  for  the  creative  powers  of  genius  which 
it  exhibited.  In  this  century,  Dante  gave  to  Europe  his  great 
epic  poem,  the  lyric  muse  awoke  at  the  call  of  Petrarch,  while 
Boccaccio  created  a  style  of  prose,  harmonious,  flexible,  and  en- 
gaging, and  alike  suitable  to  the  most  elevated  and  to  the  most 
playful  subjects. 

Boccaccio  (1313-1375)  was  the  son  of  a  Florentine  merchant; 
he  early  gave  evidence  of  superior  talents,  and  his  father  vainly 
attempted  to  educate  him  to  follow  his  own  profession.  He  re- 
sided at  Naples,  where  he  became  acquainted  with  a  lady  cele- 


202       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

brated  in  his  writings  under  the  name  of  Fiammetta.  It  was  at 
her  desire  that  most  of  his  early  pieces  were  written,  and  the 
very  exceptionable  moral  character  which  attaches  to  them  must 
be  attributed,  in  part,  to  her  depraved  tastes.  The  source  of 
Boccaccio's  highest  reputation,  and  that  which  entitles  him  to 
rank  as  the  third  founder  of  the  national  literature,  is  his  "  De- 
cameron," a  collection  of  tales  written  during  the  period  when 
the  plague  desolated  the  south  of  Europe,  with  a  view  to  amuse 
the  ladies  of  the  court  during  that  dreadful  visitation.  The 
tales  are  united  under  the  supposition  of  a  party  of  ten  who  had 
retired  to  one  of  the  villas  in  the  environs  of  Naples  to  strive,  in 
the  enjoyment  of  innocent  amusement,  to  escape  the  danger  of 
contagion.  It  was  agreed  that  each  person  should  tell  a  new 
story  during  the  space  of  ten  days,  whence  the  title  Decameron. 
The  description  of  the  plague,  in  the  introduction,  is  considered 
not  only  the  finest  piece  of  writing  from  Boccaccio's  pen,  but 
one  of  the  best  historical  descriptions  that  have  descended  to  us. 
The  stories,  a  hundred  in  number,  are  varied  with  considerable 
art,  both  in  subject  and  in  style,  from  the  most  pathetic  and 
sportive  to  the  most  licentious.  The  great  merit  of  Boccaccio's 
composition  consists  in  his  easy  elegance,  his  naivete,  and,  above 
all,  in  the  correctness  of  his  language. 

The  groundwork  of  the  Decameron  has  been  traced  to  an  old 
Hindu  romance,  which,  after  passing  through  all  the  languages 
of  the  East,  was  translated  into  Latin  as  early  as  the  twelfth 
century  ;  the  originals  of  several  of  these  tales  have  been  found 
in  the  ancient  French  Fabliaux,  while  others  are  believed  to 
have  been  borrowed  from  popular  recitation  or  from  real  occur- 
rences. But  if  Boccaccio  cannot  boast  of  being  the  inventor  of 
all,  or  even  any  of  these  tales,  he  is  still  the  father  of  this  class 
of  modern  Italian  literature,  since  he  was  the  first  to  transplant 
into  the  world  of  letters  what  had  hitherto  been  only  the  subject 
of  social  mirth.  These  tales  have  in  their  turn  -been  repeated 
anew  in  almost  every  language  of  Europe,  and  have  afforded 
reputations  to  numerous  imitators.  One  of  the  most  beautiful 
and  unexceptionable  tales  in  the  Decameron  is  that  of  "  Griselda," 
the  last  in  the  collection.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  author 
did  not  prescribe  to  himself  the  same  purity  in  his  images  that 
he  did  in  his  phraseology.  Many  of  these  tales  are  not  only  im- 
moral but  grossly  indecent,  though  but  too  faithful  a  representa- 
tion of  the  manners  of  the  age  in  which  they  were  written.  The 
Decameron  was  published  towards  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth 
century  ;  and,  from  the  first  invention  of  printing,  it  was  freely 
circulated  in  Italy,  until  the  Council  of  Trent  proscribed  it  in 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  was,  however,  again 
published  in  1570,  purified  and  abridged. 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE.  203 

Boccaccio  is  the  author  of  two  romances,  one  called  "  Fiam- 
metta,"  the  other  the  ''Filocopo;  "  the  former  distinguished  for 
the  fervor  of  its  expression,  the  latter  for  the  variety  of  its  ad- 
ventures and  incidents.  He  wrote  also  two  romantic  poems,  in 
which  he  first  introduced  the  ottava  riftia,  or  the  stanza  com- 
posed of  six  lines,  which  rhyme  interchangeably  with  each  other, 
and  are  followed  by  a  couplet.  In  these  he  strove  to  revive  an- 
cient mythology,  and  to  identify  it  with  modern  literature.  His 
Latin  compositions  are  voluminous,  and  materially  contributed 
to  the  advancement  of  letters. 

While  Boccaccio  labored  so  successfully  to  reduce  the  lan- 
guage to  elegant  and  harmonious  forms,  he  strove  like  Petrarch 
to  excite  his  contemporaries  to  the  study  of  the  ancient  classics. 
He  induced  the  senate  of  Florence  to  establish  a  professorship 
of  Greek,  entered  his  name  among  the  first  of  the  students,  and 
procured  manuscripts  at  his  own  expense.  Thus  Hellenic  litera- 
ture was  introduced  into  Tuscany,  and  thence  into  the  rest  of 
Europe. 

Boccaccio,  late  in  life,  assumed  the  ecclesiastical  habit,  and 
entered  on  the  study  of  theology.  When  the  Florentines 
founded  a  professorship  for  the  reading  and  exposition  of  the 
Divine  Comedy,  Boccaccio  was  made  the  "first  incumbent.  The 
result  of  his  labors  was  a  life  of  Dante,  and  a  commentary  on 
the  first  seventeen  cantos  of  the  Inferno.  With  the  death  of 
Petrarch,  who  had  been  his  most  intimate  friend,  his  last  tie  to 
earth  was  loosed  ;  he  died  at  Certaldo  a  few  months  later,  in  the 
sixty-third  year  of  his  age.  His  dwelling  is  still  to  be  seen,  situ- 
ated on  a  hill,  and  looking  down  on  the  fertile  and  beautiful  val- 
ley watered  by  the  river  Elsa. 

Of  the  other  prose  writers  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  most 
remarkable  are  the  three  Florentine  historians  named  Villani, 
the  eldest  of  whom  (1310-1348)  wrote  a  history  of  Florence, 
which  was  continued  afterwards  by  his  brother  and  by  his 
nephew  ;  a  work  highly  esteemed  for  its  historical  interest,  and 
for  its  purity  of  language  and  style ;  and  Franco  Sacchetti 
(1335-1400),  who  approaches  nearest  to  Boccaccio.  His  "Nov- 
els and  Tales  "  are  valuable  for  the  purity  and  eloquence  of 
their  style,  and  for  the  picture  they  afford  of  the  manners  of  his 
age. 

Among  the  ascetic  writers  of  this  age  St.  Catherine  of  Siena 
occupies  an  important  place,  as  one  who  aided  in  preparing  the 
way  for  the  great  religious  movement  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  writings  of  this  extraordinary  woman,  who  strove  to  bring 
back  the  Church  of  Rome  to  evangelical  virtue,  are  the  strongest, 
clearest,  most  exalted  religious  utterance  that  made  itself  heard 
in  Italy  in  the  fourteenth  century. 


204       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

6.  THE  FIRST  DECLINE  OF  ITALIAN  LITERATURE. —  The  pas- 
sionate study  of  the  ancients,  of  which  Petrarch  and  Boccaccio 
had  given  an  example,  suspended  the  progress  of  Italian  litera- 
ture in  the  latter  part  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  through  al- 
most all  the  fifteenth.  The  attention  of  the  literary  men  of  this 
time  was  wholly  engrossed  by  the  study  of  the  dead  languages, 
and  of  manners,  customs,  and  religious  systems  equally  extinct. 
They  present  to  our  observation  boundless  erudition,  a  just  spirit 
of  criticism,  and  nice  sensibility  to  the  beauties  and  defects  of 
the  great  authors  of  antiquity  ;  but  we  look  in  vain  for  that  true 
eloquence  which  is  more  the  fruit  of  an  intercourse  with  the 
world  than  of  a  knowledge  of  books.  They  were  still  more  un- 
successful in  poetry,  in  which  their  attempts,  all  in  Latin,  are 
few  in  number,  and  their  verses  harsh  and  heavy,  without  orig- 
inality or  vigor.  It  was  not  until  the  period  when  Italian  poetry 
began  to  be  again  cultivated,  that  Latin  verse  acquired  any  of 
the  characteristics  of  genuine  inspiration. 

But  towards  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  dawn  of  a 
new  literary  era  appeared,  which  soon  shone  with  meridian  light. 
At  this  time,  the  universities  had  become  more  and  more  the 
subjects  of  attention  to  the  governments ;  the  appointment  of 
eminent  professors,  and  the  privileges  connected  with  these  in- 
stitutions, attracted  to  them  large  numbers  of  students,  and  the 
concourse  was  often  so  great  that  the  lectures  were  delivered  in 
the  churches  and  in  public  squares.  Those  republics  which  still 
existed,  and  the  princes  who  had  risen  on  the  ruins  of  the  more 
ephemeral  ones,  rivaled  each  other  in  their  patronage  of  literary 
men :  the  popes,  who  in  the  preceding  ages  had  denounced  all 
secular  learning,  now  became  its  munificent  patrons  ;  and  two 
of  them,  Nicholas  V.  and  Pius  II.,  were  themselves  scholars  of 
high  distinction.  The  Dukes  of  Milan,  and  the  Marquises  of 
Mantua  and  Ferrara,  surrounded  themselves  in  their  capitals 
with  men  illustrious  in  science  and  letters,  and  seemed  to  vie 
with  each  other  in  the  favors  which  they  lavished  upon  them. 
In  the  hitherto  free  republic  of  Florence,  which  had  given  birth 
to  Dante,  Petrarch,  and  Boccaccio,  literature  found  support  in  a 
family  which,  at  no  distant  period,  employed  it  to  augment  their 
power,  and  to  rule  the  city  with  an  almost  despotic  sway.  The 
Medici  had  been  long  distinguished  for  the  wealth  they  had  ac- 
quired by  commercial  enterprise,  and  for  the  high  offices  which 
they  held  in  the  republic.  Cosmo  de'  Medici  had  acquired  a 
degree  of  power  which  shook  the  very  foundations  of  the  state. 
He  was  master  of  the  moneyed  credit  of  Europe,  and  almost  the 
equal  of  the  kings  with  whom  he  negotiated  ;  but  in  the  midst 
of  the  projects  of  his  ambition  he  opened  his  palace  as  an  asy- 
lum to  the  scholars  and  artists  of  the  age,  turned  its  gardens 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE.  205 

into  an  academy,  and  effected  a  revolution  in  philosophy  by  set- 
ting up  the  authority  of  Plato  against  that  of  Aristotle.  His 
banks,  which  were  scattered  over  Europe,  were  placed  at  the 
service  of  literature  as  well  as  commerce.  His  agents  abroad 
sold  spices  and  bought  manuscripts  ;  the  vessels  which  returned 
to  him  from  Constantinople,  Alexandria,  and  Smyrna  were  often 
laden  with  volumes  in  the  Greek,  Syriac,  and  Chaldaic  lan- 
guages. Being  banished  to  Venice,  he  continued  his  protection 
of  letters,  and  on  his  return  to  Florence  he  devoted  himself  more 
than  ever  to  the  cause  of  literature.  In  the  south  of  Italy,  Al- 
phonso  V.,  and,  indeed,  all  the  sovereigns  of  that  age,  pursued 
the  same  course,  and  chose  for  their  chancellors  and  ambassa- 
dors the  same  scholars  who  educated  their  sons  and  expounded 
the  classics  in  their  literary  circles. 

This  patronage,  however,  was  confined  to  the  progress  of 
ancient  letters,  while  the  native  literature,  instead  of  redeeming 
the  promise  of  its  infancy,  remained  at  this  time  mute  and  in- 
glorious. Yet  the  resources  of  poets  and  orators  were  multiply- 
ing a  thousand  fold.  The  exalted  characters,  the  austere  laws, 
the  energetic  virtues,  the  graceful  mythology,  the  thrilling  elo- 
quence of  antiquity,  were  annihilating  the  puerilities  of  the  old 
Italian  rhymes,  and  creating  purer  and  nobler  tastes.  The  clay 
which  was  destined  for  the  formation  of  great  men  was  under- 
going a  new  process ;  a  fresh  mould  was  cast,  the  forms  at  first 
appeared  lifeless,  but  ere  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  the 
breath  of  genius  entered  into,  them,  and  a  new  era  of  life  began. 

PERIOD   SECOND. 

REVIVAL  OF  ITALIAN  LITERATURE  AND  ITS  SECOND  DECLINE 
fU76-1675). 

1.  THE  CLOSE  OF  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY. — The  first  man 
who  contributed  to  the  restoration  of  Italian  poetry  was  Lorenzo 
de'  Medici  (1448-1492),  the  grandson  of  Cosmo.  In  the  brill- 
iant society  that  he  gathered  around  him,  a  new  era  was  opened 
in  Italian  literature.  Himself  a  poet,  he  attempted  to  restore 
poetry  to  the  condition  in  which  Petrarch  had  left  it ;  although 
superior  in  some  respects  to  that  poet,  he  had  less  power  of 
versification,  less  sweetness,  and  harmony,  but  his  ideas  were 
more  natural,  and  his  style  was  more  simple.  He  attempted  all 
kinds  of  poetical  composition,  and  in  all  he  displayed  the  versa- 
tility of  his  talents  and  the  exuberance  of  his  imagination.  But 
to  Lorenzo  poetry  was  but  an  amusement,  scarcely  regarded  in 
his  brilliant  political  career.  He  concentrated  in  himself  all  the 
power  of  the  republic  —  he  was  the  arbiter  of  the  whole  politi- 
cal state  of  Italy,  and  from  the  splendor  with  which  he  sur- 


206       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

rounded  himself,  and  his  celebrity,  he  received  the  title  of  Lo- 
renzo the  Magnificent.  He  continued  to  collect  manuscripts,  and 
to  employ  learned  men  to  prepare  them  for  printing.  His 
Platonic  Academy  extended  its  researches  into  new  paths  of 
study.  The  collection  of  antique  sculpture,  the  germ  of  the 
gallery  of  Florence,  which  had  been  established  by  Cosmo,  he 
enriched,  and  gave  to  it  a  new  destination,  which  was  the  occa- 
sion of  imparting  fresh  life  and  vigor  to  the  liberal  arts.  He 
appropriated  a  part  of  his  gardens  to  serve  as  a  school  for  the 
study  of  the  antique,  and  placed  his  statues,  busts,  and  other 
models  of  art  in  the  shrubberies,  terraces,  and  buildings.  Young 
men  were  liberally  paid  for  the  copies  which  they  made  while 
pursuing  their  studies.  It  was  this  institution  that  kindled  the 
flame  of  genius  in  the  breast  of  Michael  Angelo,  and  to  it  must 
be  attributed  the  splendor  which  was  shed  by  the  fine  arts  over 
the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  which  extended  rapidly 
from  Florence  throughout  Italy,  and  over  a  great  part  of  Europe. 
Among  the  friends  of  Lorenzo  may  be  mentioned  Pico  della 
Mirandola  (1463—1494),  one  of  the  most  prominent  men  of  his 
age,  who  left  in  his  Latin  and  Italian  works  monuments  of  his 
vast  erudition  and  exuberant  talent. 

The  fifteenth  century  closed  brightly  on  Florence,  but  it  was 
otherwise  throughout  Italy.  Some  of  its  princes  still  patronized 
the  sciences,  but  most  of  them  were  engaged  in  the  intrigues  of 
ambition ;  and  the  storms  which  were  gathering  soon  burst  on 
Florence  itself.  Shortly  after  the  death  of  Lorenzo,  nearly  the 
whole  of  Italy  fell  under  the  rule  of  Charles  VIII.,  and  the 
voice  of  science  and  literature  was  drowned  in  the  clash  of 
arms  ;  military  violence  dispersed  the  learned  men,  and  pillage 
destroyed  or  scattered  the  literary  treasures.  Literature  and 
the  arts,  banished  from  their  long-loved  home,  sought  another 
asylum.  We  find  them  again  at  Rome,  cherished  by  a  more 
powerful  and  fortunate  protector,  Pope  Leo  X.,  the  son  of  Lo- 
renzo (1475-1521).  Though  his  patronage  was  confined  to  the 
fine  arts  and  to  the  lighter  kinds  of  composition,  yet  owing  to 
the  influence  of  the  newly-invented  art  of  printing,  the  discovery 
of  Columbus,  and  the  Reformation,  new  energies  were  imparted 
to  the  age,  the  Italian  mind  was  awakened  from  its  slumber, 
and  prepared  for  a  new  era  in  literature. 

2.  THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  DRAMA  AND  ROMANTIC  EPIC. — 
Among  the  gifted  individuals  in  the  circle  of  Lorenzo,  the  high- 
est rank  may  be  assigned  to  Poliziano  (1454-1494).  He  re- 
vived on  the  modern  stage  the  tragedies  of  the  ancients,  or 
rather  created  a  new  kind  of  pastoral  tragedy,  on  which  Tasso 
did  not  disdain  to  employ  his  genius.  His  "Orpheus,"  composed 
within  ten  days,  was  performed  at  the  Mantuan  court  in  1483, 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE.  207 

and  may  be  considered  as  the  first  dramatic  composition  in  Ital- 
ian. The  universal  homage  paid  to  Virgil  had  a  decided  influ- 
ence on  this  kind  of  poetry.  His  Bucolics  were  looked  upon  as 
dramas  more  poetical  than  those  of  Terence  and  Seneca.  The 
comedies  of  Plautus  were  represented,  and  the  taste  for  theat- 
rical performances  was  eagerly  renewed.  In  these  representa- 
tions, however,  the  object  in  view  was  the  restoration  of  the 
classics  rather  than  the  amusement  of  the  public  ;  and  the  new 
dramatists  confined  themselves  to  a  faithful  copy  of  the  ancients. 
But  the  Orpheus  of  Poliziano  caused  a  revolution.  The  beauty 
of  the  verse,  the  charm  of  the  music,  and  the  decorations  which 
accompanied  its  recital,  produced  an  excitement  of  feeling  and 
intellect  that  combined  to  open  the  way  for  the  true  dramatic 
art. 

At  the  same  time,  several  eminent  poets  devoted  their  atten- 
tion to  that  style  of  composition  which  was  destined  to  form  the 
glory  of  Ariosto.  The  trouveres  chose  Charlemagne  and  his 
paladins  as  the  heroes  of  their  poems  and  romances,  and  these, 
composed  for  the  most  part  in  French  in  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centuries,  were  early  circulated  in  Italy.  Their  origin 
accorded  with  the  vivacity  of  the  prevailing  religious  sentiment, 
the  violence  of  the  passions  and  the  taste  for  adventures  which 
distinguished  the  first  crusades ;  while  from  the  general  igno- 
rance of  the  times,  their  supernatural  agency  was  readily  ad- 
mitted. But  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when  the 
poets  possessed  themselves  of  these  old  romances,  in  order  to 
give  a  variety  to  the  adventures  of  their  heroes,  the  belief  in  the 
marvelous  was  much  diminished,  and  they  could  not  be  re- 
counted without  a  mixture  of  mockery.  The  spirit  of  the  age 
did  not  admit  in  the  Italian  language  a  subject  entirely  serious. 
He  who  made  pretensions  to  fame  was  compelled  to  write  hi 
Latin,  and  the  choice  of  the  vulgar  tongue  was  the  indication  of 
a  humorous  subject.  The  language  had  developed  since  the  time 
of  Boccaccio  a  character  of  naivete  mingled  with  satire,  which 
still  remains,  and  which  is  particularly  remarkable  in  Ariosto. 

The  "  Morgante  Maggiore  "  of  Pulci  (1431-1470)  is  the  first 
of  these  romantic  poems.  It  is  alternately  burlesque  and  serious, 
and  it  abounds  with  passages  of  great  pathos  and  beauty.  The 
"  Orlando  Innamorato "  of  Boiardo  (1430-1494)  is  a  poem 
somewhat  similar  to  that  of  Pulci.  It  was,  however,  remodeled 
by  Berni,  sixty  years  after  the  death  of  the  author,  and  from  the 
variety  and  novelty  of  the  adventures,  the  richness  of  its  de- 
scriptions, the  interest  excited  by  its  hero,  and  the  honor  ren- 
dered to  the  female  sex,  it  excels  the  Morgante. 

3.  ROMANTIC  EPIC  POETRY. — The  romances  of  chivalry, 
which  had  been  thus  versified  by  Pulci  and  Boiardo,  were  elevated 


208       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

to  the  rank  of  epic  poetry  by  the  genius  of  Ariosto  (1474-1533). 
He  was  born  at  Reggio.  of  which  place  his  father  was  governor. 
As  the  means  of  improving  his  resources,  he  early  attached  him- 
self to  the  service  of  Cardinal  D'Este,  and  afterwards  to  that  of 
the  Duke  of  Ferrara.  At  the  age  of  thirty  years  he  commenced 
his  "  Orlando  Furioso,"  and  continued  the  composition  for 
eleven  years.  While  the  work  was  in  progress,  he  was  in  the 
habit  of  reading  the  cantos,  as  they  were  finished,  at  the  courts 
of  the  cardinal  and  duke,  which  may  account  for  the  manner  in 
which  this  hundred-fold  tale  is  told,  as  if  delivered  spontane- 
ously before  scholars  and  princes,  who  assembled  to  listen  to  the 
marvelous  adventures  of  knights  and  ladies,  giants  and  magi- 
cians, from  the  lips  of  the  story-teller.  Ariosto  excelled  in  the 
practice  of  reading  aloud  with  distinct  utterance  and  animated 
elocution,  an  accomplishment  of  peculiar  value  at  a  time  when 
books  were  scarce,  and  the  emoluments  of  authors  depended 
more  on  the  gratuities  of  their  patrons  than  the  sale  of  their 
works.  In  each  of  the  four  editions  which  he  published,  he 
improved,  corrected,  and  enlarged  the  original.  No  poet,  per- 
haps, ever  evinced  more  fastidious  taste  in  adjusting  the  nicer 
points  that  affected  the  harmony,  dignity,  and  fluency  of  his 
composition,  yet  the  whole  seems  as  natural  as  if  it  had  flowed 
extemporaneously  from  his  pen.  Throughout  life  it  was  the  lot 
of  Ariosto  to  struggle  against  the  difficulties  inseparable  from 
narrow  and  precarious  circumstances.  His  patrons,  among  them 
L/eo  X.,  were  often  culpable  in  exciting  expectations,  and  after- 
wards disappointing  them.  The  earliest  and  latest  works  of 
Ariosto,  though  not  his  best,  were  dramatic.  He  wrote  also 
some  satires  in  the  form  of  epistles.  He  died  in  the  fifty-eighth 
year  of  his  age,  and  his  ashes  now  rest  under  the  magnificent 
monument  in  the  new  church  of  the  Benedictines  in  Ferrara. 
The  house  in  which  the  poet  lived,  the  chair  in  which  he  was 
wont  to  study,  and  the  inkstand  whence  he  filled  his  pen,  are 
still  shown  as  interesting  memorials  of  his  life  and  labors. 

Ariosto,  like  Pulci  and  Boiardo,  undertook  to  sing  the  pala- 
dins and  their  amours  at  the  court  of  Charlemagne,  during  the 
fabulous  wars  of  this  emperor  against  the  Moors.  In  his  poem 
he  seems  to  have  designedly  thrown  off  the  embarrassment  of 
a  unity  of  action.  The  Orlando  Furioso  is  founded  on  three 
principal  narratives,  distinct  but  often  intermingled  ;  the  history 
of  the  war  between  Charlemagne  and  the  Saracens,  Orlando's 
love  for  Angelica,  his  madness  on  hearing  of  her  infidelity,  and 
Ruggiero's  attachment  to  Bradamante.  These  stories  are  inter- 
woven with  so  many  incidents  and  episodes,  and  there  is  in  the 
poem  such  a  prodigious  quantity  of  action,  that  it  is  difficult  to 
assign  it  a  central  point.  Indeed,  Ariosto,  playing  with  his  read- 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE.  209 

ers,  seems  to  delight  in  continually  misleading  them,  and  allows 
them  no  opportunity  of  viewing  the  general  subject  of  the  poem. 
This  want  of  unity  is  essentially  detrimental  to  the  general  im- 
pression of  the  work,  and  the  author  has  succeeded  in  throwing 
around  its  individual  parts  an  interest  which  does  not  attach  to 
it  as  a  whole.  The  world  to  which  the  poet  transports  his  read- 
ers is  truly  poetic ;  all  the  factitious  wants  of  common  life,  its 
cold  calculations  and  its  imaginary  distinctions,  disappear ;  love 
and  honor  reign  supreme,  and  the  prompting  of  the  one  and  the 
laws  of  the  other  are  alone  permitted  to  stimulate  and  regulate 
a  life,  of  which  war  is  the  only  business  and  gallantry  the  only 
pastime.  The  magic  and  sorcery,  borrowed  from  the  East,  which 
pervade  these  chivalric  fictions,  lead  us  still  farther  from  the 
world  of  realities.  Nor  is  it  the  least  charm  that  all  the  won- 
ders and  prodigies  here  related  are  made  to  appear  quite  prob- 
able from  the  apparently  artless,  truthful  style  of  the  narration. 
The  versification  of  the  Orlando  is  more  distinguished  for  sweet- 
ness and  elegance  than  for  strength ;  but,  in  point  of  harmony, 
and  in  the  beauty,  pathos,  and  grace  of  his  descriptions,  no  poet 
surpasses  Ariosto. 

4.  HEROIC  EPIC  POETRY.  —  While,  in  the  romantic  epic  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  unity  of  design  was  considered  unnecessary,  and 
truthfulness  of  detail,  fertility  of  imagination,  strength  of  color- 
ing, and  vivacity  of  narration  were  alone  required,  heroic  poetry 
was  expected  to  exhibit,  on  the  most  extensive  scale,  those  laws 
of  symmetry  Avhich  adapt  all  the  parts  to  one  object,  which  com- 
bine variety  with  unity,  and,  as  it  were,  initiate  us  into  the  secrets 
of  creation,  by  disclosing  the  single  idea  which  governs  the  most 
dissimilar  actions,  and  harmonizes  the  most  opposite  interests. 
It  was  reserved  to  Torquato  Tasso  to  raise  the  Italian  language 
to  this  kind  of  epic  poetry. 

Tasso  (1544-1595)  was  born  in  Sorrento,  and  many  marvels 
are  told  by  his  biographers  of  the  precocity  of  his  genius.  Po- 
litical convulsions  early  drove  his  father  into  exile.  He  went 
to  Rome  and  sent  for  his  son,  then  ten  years  of  age.  When  the 
exiles  were  no  longer  safe  at  Rome,  an  asylum  was  offered  them 
at  Pesaro  by  the  Duke  of  Urbino.  Here  young  Tasso  pursued 
his  studies  in  all  the  learning  and  accomplishments  of  the  age. 
In  his  seventeenth  year  he  had  completed  the  composition  of  an 
epic  poem  on  the  adventures  of  Rinaldo,  which  was  received  with 
passionate  admiration  throughout  Italy.  The  appearance  of  this 
poem  proved  not  only  the  beginning  of  the  author's  fame,  but 
the  dawn  of  a  new  day  in  Italian  literature.  In  1565,  Tasso 
was  nominated  by  the  Cardinal  D'Este  as  gentleman  of  his  house- 
hold, and  his  reception  at  the  court  was  in  every  respect  most 
pleasing  to  his  youthful  ambition.  He  was  honored  by  the  inti- 
'14 


210       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

mate  acquaintance  of  the  accomplished  princesses  Lucretia  and 
Leonora,  and  to  this  dangerous  friendship  must  be  attributed 
most  of  his  subsequent  misfortunes,  if  it  be  true  that  he  cherished 
a  secret  attachment  for  Leonora. 

During  this  prosperous  period  of  his  life,  Tasso  prosecuted  his 
great  epic  poem,  the  "  Jerusalem  Delivered,"  and  as  canto  after 
canto  was  completed  and  recited  to  the  princesses,  he  found  in 
their  applause  repeated  stimulus  to  proceed.  While  steadily 
engaged  in  his  great  work,  his  fancy  gave  birth  to  numerous 
fugitive  poems,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  is  the  "Aminta." 
After  its  representation  at  the  court  of  Ferrara,  all  Italy  re- 
sounded with  the  poet's  fame.  It  was  translated  into  all  the 
languages  of  Europe,  and  the  name  of  Tasso  would  have  been 
immortal  even  though  he  had  never  composed  an  epic.  The 
various  vexations  he  endured  regarding  the  publication  of  his 
work  at  its  conclusion,  the  wrongs  he  suffered  from  both  patrons 
and  rivals,  together  with  disappointed  ambition,  rendered  him 
the  subject  of  feverish  anxiety  and  afterwards  the  prey  of  rest- 
less fear  and  continual  suspicion.  His  mental  malady  increased, 
and  he  wandered  from  place  to  place  without  finding  any  per- 
manent home.  Assuming  the  disguise  of  a  shepherd,  he  trav- 
eled to  Sorrento,  to  visit  his  sister ;  but  soon,  tired  of  seclusion, 
he  obtained  permission  to  return  to  the  court  of  Ferrara.  He 
was  coldly  received  by  the  duke,  and  was  refused  an  interview 
with  the  princesses.  He  left  the  place  in  indignation,  and  wan- 
dered from  one  city  of  Italy  to  another,  reduced  to  the  appear- 
ance of  a  wretched  itinerant,  sometimes  kindly  received,  some- 
times driven  away  as  a  vagabond,  always  restless,  suspicious,  and 
unhappy.  In  this  mood  he  again  returned  to  Ferrara,  at  a  mo- 
ment when  the  duke  was  too  much  occupied  with  the  solemnities 
of  his  own  marriage  to  attend  to  the  complaints  of  the  poet. 
Tasso  became  infuriated,  retracted  all  the  praises  he  had  be- 
stowed on  the  house  of  Este,  and  indulged  in  the  bitterest  invec- 
tives against  the  duke,  by  whose  orders  he  was  afterwards  com- 
mitted to  the  hospital  for  lunatics,  where  he  was  closely  confined, 
and  treated  with  extreme  rigor.  If  he  had  never  been  insane 
before,  he  certainly  now  became  so.  To  add  to  his  misfortune, 
his  poem  was  printed  without  his  permission,  from  an  imperfect 
copy,  and  while  editors  and  printers  enriched  themselves  with 
the  fruit  of  his  labors,  the  poet  himself  was  languishing  in  a 
dungeon,  despised,  neglected,  sick,  and  destitute  of  the  common 
conveniences  of  life,  and  above  all,  deafened  by  the  frantic  cries 
with  which  the  hospital  continually  resounded.  When  the  first 
rigors  of  his  imprisonment  were  relaxed,  Tasso  pursued  his  stud- 
ies, and  poured  forth  his  emotions  in  every  form  of  verse.  Some 
of  his  most  beautiful  minor  poems  were  composed  during  this 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE.  211 

period.  After  more  than  seven  years'  confinement,  the  poet 
was  liberated  at  the  intercession  of  the  Duke  of  Mantua.  From 
this  time  he  wandered  from  city  to  city ;  the  hallucinations  of 
his  mind  never  entirely  ceased.  Towards  the  close  of  the  year 
1594  he  took  up  his  residence  at  Rome,  where  he  died  at  the 
age  of  fifty-two. 

Tasso  was  particularly  happy  in  choosing  the  most  engaging 
subject  that  could  inspire  a  modern  poet  —  the  struggle  between 
the  Christians  and  the  Saracens.  The  Saracens  considered  them- 
selves called  on  to  subjugate  the  earth  to  the  faith  of  Mohammed  ; 
the  Christians  to  enfranchise  the  sacred  spot  where  their  divine 
founder  suffered  death.  The  religion  of  the  age  was  wholly 
warlike.  It  was  a  profound,  disinterested,  enthusiastic,  and  po- 
etic sentiment,  and  no  period  has  beheld  such  a  brilliant  display 
of  valor.  The  belief  in  the  supernatural,  which  formed  a  strik- 
ing characteristic  of  the  time,  seemed  to  have  usurped  the  laws 
of  nature  and  the  common  course  of  events. 

The  faith  against  which  the  crusaders  fought  appeared  to 
them  the  worship  of  the  powers  of  darkness.  They  believed 
that  a  contest  might  exist  between  invisible  beings  as  between 
different  nations,  and  when  Tasso  armed  the  dark  powers  of 
enchantment  against  the  Christian  knights,  he  only  developed 
and  embellished  a  popular  idea. 

The  scene  of  the  Jerusalem  Delivered,  so  rich  in  recollections 
and  associations  with  all  our  religious  feelings,  is  one  in  which 
nature  displays  her  riches  and  treasures,  and  where  descriptions, 
in  turn  the  most  lovely  and  the  most  austere,  attract  the  pen  of 
the  poet.  All  the  nations  of  Christendom  send  forth  their  war- 
riors to  the  army  of  the  cross,  and  the  whole  world  thus  becomes 
his  patrimony.  Whatever  interest  the  taking  of  Troy  might  pos- 
sess for  the  Greeks,  or  the  vanity  of  the  Romans  might  attach  to 
the  adventures  of  --Eneas,  whom  they  adopted  as  their  progen- 
itor, it  may  be  asserted  that  neither  the  Iliad  nor  the  JEneid 
possesses  the  dignity  of  subject,  the  interest  at  the  same  time 
divine  and  human,  and  the  varied  dramatic  action  which  are 
peculiar  to  the  Jerusalem  Delivered. 

The  whole  course  of  the  poem  is  comprised  in  the  campaign 
of  1093,  when  the  Christian  army,  assembled  on  the  plain  of 
Tortosa,  marched  towards  Jerusalem,  which  they  besieged  and 
captured.  From  the  commencement  of  the  poem,  the  most  ten- 
der sentiments  are  combined  with  the  action,  and  love  has  been 
assigned  a  nobler  part  than  had  been  given  to  it  in  any  other  epic 
poem.  Love,  enthusiastic,  respectful,  and  full  of  homage,  was 
an  essential  characteristic  of  chivalry  and  the  source  of  the  no- 
blest actions.  While  with  the  heroes  of  the  classic  epic  it  was 
a  weakness,  with  the  Christian  knights  it  was  a  devotion.  In 


212       HANDBOOK   OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

this  work  are  happily  combined  the  classic  and  romantic  styles. 
It  is  classic  in  its  plan,  romantic  in  its  heroes ;  it  is  conceived  in 
the  spirit  of  antiquity,  and  executed  in  the  spirit  of  mediaeval 
romance.  It  has  the  beauty  which  results  from  unity  of  design 
and  from  the  harmony  of  all  its  parts,  united  with  the  romantic 
form,  which  falls  in  with  the  feelings,  the  passions,  and  the  recol- 
lections of  Europeans.  Notwithstanding  some  defects,  which 
must  be  attributed  rather  to  the  taste  of  his  age  than  to  his 
genius,  in  the  history  of  literature  Tasso  may  be  placed  by  the 
side  of  Homer  and  Virgil. 

5.  LYRIC  POETRY.  —  Lyric  poetry,  which  had  been  brought 
to  such  perfection  by  Petrarch  in  the  fourteenth  century,  but  al- 
most lost  sight  of  in  the  fifteenth,  was  cultivated  by  all  the  Italian 
poets  of  this  period.  Petrarch  became  the  model,  which  every 
aspirant  endeavored  to  imitate.  Hence  arose  a  host  of  poetasters, 
who  wrote  with  considerable  elegance,  but  without  the  least 
power  of  imagination.  We  must  not,  however,  confound  with 
the  servile  imitators  of  Petrarch  those  who  took  nothing  from 
his  school  but  purity  of  language  and  elegance  of  style,  and  who 
consecrated  the  lyre  not  to  love  alone,  but  to  patriotism  and 
religion.  First  of  these  are  Poliziano  and  Lorenzo  de'  Medici, 
in  whose  ballads  and  stanzas  the  language  of  Petrarch  reap- 
peared with  all  its  beauty  and  harmony.  Later,  Cardinal  Bembo 
(1470-1547),  Molza  (1489-1544),  Tarsia  (1476-1535),  Guidic- 
cioni  (1480-1541),  Delia  Casa  (1503-1556),  Costanzo  (1507- 
1585),  and  later  still,  Chiabrera  (1552-1637),  attempted  to  re- 
store Italian  poetry  to  its  primitive  elegance.  Their  sonnets  and 
canzoni  contributed  much  to  the  revival  of  a  purer  style,  although 
their  elegance  is  often  too  elaborate  and  their  thoughts  and  feel- 
ings too  artificial.  Besides  these,  Ariosto,  Tasso,  Machiavelli, 
and  Michael  Angelo,  whose  genius  was  practiced  in  more  ambi- 
tious tasks,  did  not  disdain  to  shape  and  polish  such  diminutive 
gems  as  the  canzone,  the  madrigal,  and  the  sonnet. 

This  reform  of  taste  in  lyric  composition  was  also  promoted 
by  several  women,  among  whom  the  most  distinguished  at  once 
for  beauty,  virtue,  and  talent  was  Vittoria  Colonna  (1490-1547). 
She  was  daughter  of  the  high  constable  of  Naples,  and  married 
to  the  Marquis  of  Pescara.  Early  left  a  widow,  she  abandoned 
herself  to  sorrow.  That  fidelity  which  made  her  refuse  the 
hand  of  princes  in  her  youth,  rendered  her  incapable  of  a  second 
attachment  in  her  widowhood.  The  solace  of  her  life  was  to 
mourn  the  loss  and  cherish  the  memory  of  Pescara.  After 
passing  several  years  in  retirement,  Vittoria  took  up  her  resi- 
dence at  Rome,  and  became  the  intimate  friend  of  the  distin- 
guished men  of  her  time.  Her  verses,  though  deficient  in  poetic 
fancy,  are  full  of  tenderness  and  absorbing  passion.  Vittoria 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE.  213 

Colonna  was  reckoned  by  her  contemporaries  as  a  being  almost 
more  than  human,  and  the  epithet  divine  was  usually  prefixed 
to  her  name.  By  her  death-bed  stood  Michael  Angelo,  who 
was  considerably  her  junior,  but  who  enjoyed  her  friendship 
and  regarded  her  with  enthusiastic  veneration.  He  wrote  sev- 
eral sonnets  in  her  praise.  Veronica  Gambara,  Tullia  d'Aragona, 
and  Giulia  Gonzaga  may  also  be  named  as  possessing  superior 
genius  to  many  literary  men  of  their  tune. 

6.  DRAMATIC  POETRY.  —  Tragedy,  in  the  hands  of  the  Ro- 
mans, had  exhibited  no  national  characteristics,  and  disappeared 
with  the  decline  of  their  literature.  When  Europe  began  to 
breathe  again,  the  natural  taste  of  the  multitude  for  games  and 
spectacles  revived  ;  the  church  entertained  the  people  with  its 
representations,  which,  however,  were  destitute  of  all  literary 
character.  At  the  commencement  of  the  fourteenth  century  we 
find  traces  of  Latin  tragedies,  and  these,  during  the  fifteenth 
century,  were  frequently  represented,  as  we  have  seen,  more  as 
a  branch  of  ancient  art  and  learning  than  as  matter  of  recrea- 
tion. After  the  "  Orpheus  "  of  Poliziano  had  appeared  on  the 
stage,  the  first  drama  in  the  Italian  tongue,  Latin  tragedies  and 
comedies  were  translated  into  the  Italian,  but  as  yet  no  one  had 
ventured  beyond  mere  translation. 

Leo  X.  shed  over  the  dramatic  art  the  same  favor  which  he 
bestowed  on  the  other  liberal  arts,  and  the  theatricals  of  the 
Vatican  were  of  the  most  splendid  description.  During  his 
pontificate,  Trissino  (1478-1550)  dedicated  to  him  the  tragedy 
of  "  Sofonisba,"  formed  on  the  Greek  model,  the  first  regular 
tragedy  which  had  appeared  since  the  revival  of  letters.  Its 
subject  is  found  entire  in  the  work  of  Livy,  and  the  invention 
of  the  poet  has  added  little  to  the  records  of  the  historian.  The 
piece  is  not  divided  into  acts  and  scenes,  and  the  only  repose 
given  to  the  action  is  by  the  chorus,  who  sing  odes  and  lyric 
stanzas.  The  story  is  well  conducted,  the  characters  are  all 
dramatic,  and  the  incidents  arise  spontaneously  out  of  each 
other;  but  the  style  of  the  tragedy  has  neither  the  sublimity 
nor  the  originality  which  becomes  this  kind  of  composition,  and 
which  distinguished  the  genius  of  the  dramatic  poets  of  Athens. 

The  example  of  Trissino  was  followed  by  Rucellai  (1475— 
1525),  who  left  two  dramas,  "  Rosamunda  "  and  "  Orestes," 
written  in  blank  verse,  with  a  chorus,  much  resembling  the 
Greek  tragedies.  This  poet  used  much  more  license  with  his 
subject  than  Trissino  ;  his  plot  is  less  simple  and  pathetic,  but 
abounds  in  horror,  and  his  style  is  florid  and  rhetorical.  Tasso, 
Speroni  (1500-1588),  Giraldi  (1504-1573),  and  others,  at- 
tempted also  this  species  of  composition,  and  their  dramas  are 
considered  the  best  of  the  age. 


214       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

As  the  tragic  poets  of  this  century  servilely  imitated  Sopho- 
cles and  Euripides,  the  comic  writers  copied  Plautus  and  Ter- 
ence. The  comedies  of  Ariosto,  of  which  there  are  five,  display 
considerable  ingenuity  of  invention  and  an  elegant  vivacity  of 
language.  The  dramatic  works  of  Machiavelli  approach  more 
nearly  to  the  middle  comedy  of  the  Greeks.  They  depict  and 
satirize  contemporaneous  rather  than  obsolete  manners,  but  the 
characters  and  plots  awaken  little  interest. 

Bentivoglio  (1506-1573),  Salviati  (1540-1589),  Firenzuola 
(1493-1547),  Caro  (1507-1566),  Cardinal  Bibiena  (1470- 
1520),  Aretino  (1492-1556),  and  others,  are  among  the  princi- 
pal comic  writers  of  the  age,  who  displayed  more  or  less  dra- 
matic talent.  Of  all  the  Italian  comedies  composed  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  however,  scarcely  one  was  the  work  of  eminent 
genius.  A  species  of  comic  drama,  known  under  the  name  of 
Commedia  dell'  arte,  took  its  rise  in  this  century.  The  charac- 
teristic of  these  plays  is  that  the  story  only  belongs  to  the  poet, 
the  dialogue  being  improvised  by  the  actors.  The  four  princi- 
pal characters,  denominated  masks,  were  Pantaloon,  a  merchant 
of  Venice,  a  doctor  of  laws  from  Bologna,  and  two  servants, 
known  to  us  as  Harlequin  and  Columbine.  When  we  add  to 
these  a  couple  of  sons,  one  virtuous  and  the  other  profligate  ;  a 
couple  of  daughters,  and  a  pert,  intriguing  chambermaid,  we 
have  nearly  the  whole  dramatis  personce  of  these  plays.  The 
extempore  dialogue  by  which  the  plot  was  developed  was  re- 
plete with  drollery  and  wit,  and  there  was  no  end  to  the  novelty 
of  the  jests. 

7.  PASTORAL  DRAMA  AND  DIDACTIC  POETRY.  —  The  pas- 
toral drama,  which  describes  characters  and  passions  in  their 
primitive  simplicity,  is  thus  distinguished  from  tragedy  and 
comedy.  It  is  probable  that  the  idyls  of  the  Greeks  afforded 
the  first  germ  of  this  species  of  composition,  but  Beccari,  a  poet 
of  Ferrara  (1510-1590),  is  considered  the  father  of  the  genu- 
ine pastoral  drama.  Before  him  Sannazzaro  (1458—1530)  had 
written  the  "  Arcadia,"  which,  however,  bears  the  character  of 
an  eclogue  rather  than  that  of  a  drama.  It  is  written  in  the. 
choicest  Italian ;  its  versification  is  melodious,  and  it  abounds 
with  beautiful  descriptions  ;  as  an  imitation  of  the  ancients,  it  is 
entitled  to  the  highest  rank.  The  beauty  of  the  Italian  landscape 
and  the  softness  of  the  Italian  climate  seem  naturally  fitted  to 
dispose  the  poetic  soul  to  the  dreams  of  rural  life,  and  the  lan- 
guage seems,  by  its  graceful  simplicity,  peculiarly  adapted  to  ex- 
press the  feelings  of  a  class  of  people  whom  we  picture  to  our- 
selves as  ingenuous  and  infantine  in  their  natures.  The  manners 
of  the  Italian  peasantry  are  more  truly  pastoral  than  those  of 
any  other  people,  and  a  bucolic  poet  in  that  fair  region  need  not 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE.  215 

wander  to  Arcadia.  But  Sannazzaro,  like  all  the  early  pastoral 
poets  of  Italy,  proposed  to  himself,  as  the  highest  excellence,  a 
close  imitation  of  Virgil ;  he  took  his  shepherds  from  the  fabu- 
lous ages  of  antiquity,  borrowed  the  mythology  of  the  Greeks, 
and  completed  the  machinery  with  fauns,  nymphs,  and  satyrs. 
Like  Sannazzaro,  Beccari  places  his  shepherds  in  Arcadia,  and 
invests  them  with  ancient  manners ;  but  he  goes  beyond  mere 
dialogue  ;  he  connects  their  conversations  by  a  series  of  dra- 
matic actions.  The  representation  of  one  of  these  poems  in- 
cited Tasso  to  the  composition  of  his  "  Aminta,"  the  success  of 
which  was  due  less  to  the  interest  of  the  story  than  to  the 
sweetness  of  the  poetry,  and  the  soft  voluptuousness  which 
breathes  in  every  line.  It  is  written  in  flowing  verse  of  various 
measures,  without  rhyme,  and  enriched  with  lyric  choruses  of 
uncommon  beauty. 

The  imitations  of  the  Aminta  were  numerous,  but,  with  one 
exception,  which  has  disputed  the  palm  with  its  model,  they  had 
an  ephemeral  existence.  Guarini  (1537-1612)  was  the  author 
of  the  "  Pastor  Fido,"  which  is  the  principal  monument  of  his 
genius  ;  its  chief  merit  lies  in  the  poetry  in  which  the  tale  is 
embodied,  the  simplicity  and  clearness  of  the  diction,  the  tender- 
ness of  the  sentiments,  and  the  vehement  passion  which  gives 
life  to  the  whole.  This  drama  was  first  performed  in  1585,  at 
Turin,  during  the  nuptial  festivities  of  the  Prince  of  Savoy.  Its 
success  was  triumphant,  and  Guarini  was  justly  considered  as 
second  only  to  Tasso  among  the  poets  of  the  age.  Theatrical 
music,  which  was  now  beginning  to  be  cultivated,  found  its  way 
into  the  acts  of  the  pastoral  drama,  and  in  one  scene  of  the 
Pastor  Fido  it  is  united  with  dancing ;  thus  was  opened  the 
way  for  the  Italian  opera. 

Among  the  didactic  poets,  Rucellai  may  be  first  mentioned. 
His  poem  of  "  The  Bees  "  is  an  imitation  of  the  fourth  book  of 
the  Georgics  ;  he  does  not,  however,  servilely  follow  his  model, 
but  gives  an  original  coloring  to  that  which  he  borrowed.  Ala- 
manni  (1495—1556)  occupies  a  secondary  rank  among  epic, 
tragic,  and  comic  poets,  but  merits  a  distinguished  place  in  di- 
dactic poetry.  His  poem  entitled  "  Cultivation  "  is  pure  and 
elegant  in  its  style. 

8.  SATIRICAL  POETRY,  NOVELS,  AND  TALES.  —  In  an  age 
when  every  kind  of  poetry  that  had  flourished  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  appeared  again  with  new  lustre,  satire  was 
not  wanting.  There  is  much  that  is  satirical  in  the  "  Divine 
Comedy  "  of  Dante.  Three  of  Petrarch's  sonnets  are  satires 
on  the  court  of  Rome  ;  those  of  Ariosto  are  valuable  not  only 
for  their  flowing  style,  but  for  the  details  they  afford  of  his 
character,  taste,  and  circumstances.  The  satires  of  Alamanni 


216       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

are  chiefly  political,  and  in  general  are  characterized  by  purity 
of  diction  and  by  a  high  moral  tendency. 

There  is  a  kind  of  jocose  or  burlesque  satire  peculiar  to  Italy, 
in  which  the  literature  is  extremely  rich.  If  it  serves  the  cause 
of  wisdom,  it  is  always  in  the  mask  of  folly.  The  poet  who 
carried  this  kind  of  writing  to  the  highest  perfection  was  Berni 
(1499—1536).  Comic  poetry,  hitherto  known  in  Italy  as  bur- 
lesque, of  which  Burchiello  was  the  representative  in  the  fif- 
teenth century,  received  from  Berni  the  name  of  Bernesque,  in 
its  more  refined  and  elegant  character.  His  satirical  poems  are 
full  of  light  and  elegant  mockery,  and  his  style  possesses  nature 
and  comic  truth.  In  his  hand,  everything  was  transformed  into 
ridicule ;  his  satire  is  almost  always  personal,  and  his  laughter 
is  not  always  restrained  by  respect  for  morals  or  for  decency. 
To  burlesque  poetry  may  be  referred  also  the  Macaronic  style, 
a  ludicrous  mixture  of  Latin  and  Italian,  introduced  by  Merlino 
Coccajo  (1491—1544).  His  poems  are  as  full  of  lively  descrip- 
tions and  piquant  satire  as  they  are  wanting  in  decorum  and 
morality. 

The  story-tellers  of  the  sixteenth  century  are  numerous. 
Sometimes  they  appear  as  followers  of  Boccaccio  ;  sometimes 
they  attempt  to  open  new  paths  for  themselves.  The  class  of 
productions,  of  which  the  "  Decameron  "  was  the  earliest  exam- 
ple in  the  fourteenth  century,  is  called  by  the  Italians  "Novelle." 
In  general,  the  interest  of  the  tale  depends  rather  on  a  number 
of  incidents  slightly  touched,  than  on  a  few  carefully  delineated ; 
from  the  difficulty  of  developing  character  in  a  few  isolated 
scenes,  the  story-teller  trusts  for  effect  to  the  combination  of  in- 
cident and  style,  and  the  delineation  of  character,  which  is  the 
nobler  part  of  fiction,  is  neglected.  Italian  novelists,  too,  have 
often  regarded  the  incidents  themselves  but  as  a  vehicle  for  fine 
writing.  An  interesting  view  of  these  productions  is,  that  they 
form  a  vast  repository  of  incident,  in  which  we  recognize  the 
origin  of  much  that  has  since  appeared  in  our  own  and  other 
languages. 

Machiavelli  was  one  of  the  first  novelists  of  this  age.  His 
little  tale,  "  Belfagor,"  is  pleasantly  told,  and  has  been  translated 
into  all  languages.  The  celebrated  "  Giulietta "  of  Luigi  da 
Porta  is  the  sole  production  of  the  author,  but  it  has  served  to 
give  him  a  high  place  among  Italian  novelists.  This  is  Shak- 
speare's  Romeo  and  Juliet  in  another  shape,  though  it  is  not  prob- 
able that  it  was  the  immediate  source  from  which  the  great 
dramatist  collected  the  materials  for  his  tragedy.  The  "  Hun- 
dred Tales  "  of  Cinzio  Giraldi  (1504-1573)  are  distinguished 
by  great  boldness  of  conception,  and  by  a  wild  and  tragic  horror 
which  commands  the  attention,  while  it  is  revolting  to  the  feel- 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE.  217 

ings.  He  appears  to  have  ransacked  every  age  and  country,  and 
to  have  exhausted  the  catalogue  of  human  crimes  in  procuring 
subjects  for  his  novels. 

Grazzini,  called  Lasca  (1503-1583),  is  perhaps  the  best  of  the 
Italian  novelists  after  Boccaccio.  His  manner  is  light  and  grace- 
ful. His  stories  display  much  ingenuity,  but  are  often  improb- 
able and  cruel  in  their  nature.  The  Fairy  Tales  of  Strapparola 
(b.  1500)  are  the  earliest  specimens  of  the  kind  in  the  prose  lit- 
erature of  Italy,  and  this  work  has  been  a  perfect  storehouse 
from  which  succeeding  writers  have  derived  a  vast  multitude  of 
their  tales.  To  this,  also,  we  are  indebted  for  the  legend  of 
"  Fair  Star,"  "  Puss  in  Boots,"  "  Fortunio,"  and  others  which 
adorn  our  nursery  libraries. 

Firenzuola  (1493-1547)  occupies  a  high  rank  among  the  Ital- 
ian novelists  ;  his  "  Golden  Ass,"  from  Apuleius,  and  his  "  Dis- 
courses of  Animals  "  are  distinguished  for  their  originality  and 
purity  of  style. 

Bandello  (1480-1562)  is  the  novelist  best  known  to  foreigners 
after  Boccaccio.  Shakspeare  and  other  English  dramatists  have 
drawn  largely  from  his  voluminous  writings.  His  tales  are 
founded  upon  history  rather  than  fancy. 

9.  HISTORY.  —  Historical  composition  was  cultivated  with 
much  success  by  the  Italians  of  the  sixteenth  century ;  yet  such 
was  the  altered  state  of  things,  that,  except  at  Venice  and  Genoa, 
republics  had  been  superseded  by  princes,  and  republican  author- 
ity by  the  pomp  of  regal  courts.  Rome  was  a  nest  of  intrigue, 
luxury,  and  corruption  ;  Tuscany  had  become  the  prey  of  a 
powerful  family ;  Lombardy  was  but  a  battle-field  for  the  rival 
powers  of  France  and  Germany,  and  the  lot  of  the  people  was 
oppression  and  humiliation.  High  independence  of  mind,  one 
of  the  most  valuable  qualities  in  connection  with  historical  re- 
search, was  impossible  under  these  circumstances,  and  yet,  some 
of  the  Italian  writers  of  this  age  exhibit  genius,  strength  of  char- 
acter, and  a  conscientious  sense  of  the  sacred  commission  of  the 
historian. 

Machiavelli  (1469-1527)  was  born  in  Florence  of  a  family 
which  had  enjoyed  the  first  offices  in  the  republic.  At  the  age 
of  thirty,  he  was  made  chancellor  of  the  state,  and  from  that 
time  he  was  constantly  employed  in  public  affairs,  and  particu- 
larly in  embassies.  Among  those  to  the  smaller  princes  of  Italy, 
the  one  of  the  longest  duration  was  to  Caesar  Borgia,  whom  he 
narrowly  observed  at  the  very  important  period  when  this  illus- 
trious villain  was  elevating  himself  by  his  crimes,  and  whose 
diabolical  policy  he  had  thus  an  opportunity  of  studying.  He 
had  a  considerable  share  in  directing  the  counsels  of  the  repub- 
lic, and  the  influence  to  which  he  owed  his  elevation,  was  that  of 


218       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

the  free  party,  which  censured  the  power  of  the  Medici,  and  at 
that  time  held  them  in'exile.  When  the  latter  were  recalled, 
Machiavelli  was  deprived  of  all  his  offices  and  banished.  He 
then  entered  into  a  conspiracy  against  the  usurpers,  which  was 
discovered,  and  he  was  put  to  the  torture,  but  without  wresting 
from  him  any  confession  which  could  impeach  either  himself  or 
those  who  had  confided  in  his  honor.  Leo  X.,  on  his  elevation 
to  the  pontificate,  restored  him  to  liberty.  At  this  time  he  wrote 
his  "  History  of  Florence,"  in  which  he  united  eloquence  of  style 
with  depth  of  reflection,  and  although  an  elegant,  animated,  and 
picturesque  composition,  it  is  not  the  fruit  of  much  research  or 
criticism. 

Besides  this  history,  Machiavelli  wrote  his  discourses  on  the 
first  decade  of  Livy,  considered  his  best  work,  and  "  The  Art  of 
War,"  which  is  an  invaluable  commentary  on  the  history  of  the 
times.  These  works  had  the  desired  effect  of  inducing  the  Med- 
ici family  to  use  the  political  services  of  the  author,  and  at  the 
request  of  Leo  X.  he  wrote  his  essay  "  On  the  Reform  of  the 
Florentine  Government." 

Guicciardini  (1483-1541),  the  friend  of  Machiavelli,  is  con- 
sidered the  greatest  historian  of  this  age.  He  attached  himself 
to  the  service  of  Leo  X.,  and  was  raised  to  high  offices  and  hon- 
ors by  him  and  the  two  succeeding  popes.  On  the  expulsion  of 
the  Medici  from  Florence,  the  republican  party  having  obtained 
the  ascendency,  he  was  obliged  to  fly  from  the  city.  From  this 
time  he  manifested  an  utter  abhorrence  of  all  popular  institu- 
tions, and  threw  himself  heart  and  soul  into  the  interests  of  the 
Medici.  He  displayed  his  zeal  at  the  expense  of  the  lives  and 
liberties  of  the  most  virtuous  among  his  fellow-citizens.  Having 
aided  in  the  elevation  of  Cosmo,  afterwards  Grand  Duke  of  Tus- 
cany, and  being  requited  with  ingratitude  and  neglect,  he  retired 
in  disgust  from  public  life,  and  devoted  himself  wholly  to  the 
completion  of  his  history  of  Italy.  This  work,  which  is  a  mon- 
ument of  his  genius  and  industry,  commences  with  the  coming 
of  Charles  VIII.  to  Italy,  and  concludes  with  the  year  1534,  em- 
bracing one  of  the  most  important  periods  of  Italian  history. 
His  powerfully-drawn  pictures  exhibit  the  men  and  the  times  so 
vividly,  that  they  seem  to  pass  before  our  eyes.  His  delineations 
of  character,  his  masterly  views  of  the  course  of  events,  the  con- 
duct of  leaders,  and  the  changes  of  war,  claim  our  highest  admi- 
ration. His  language  is  pure  and  his  style  elegant,  though  some- 
times too  Latinized ;  his  letters  are  considered  as  a  most  valuable 
contribution  to  the  history  of  his  times. 

Numberless  historians,  of  more  or  less  merit,  stimulated  by 
the  renown  of  Machiavelli  and  Guicciardini,  composed  annals  of 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE.  219 

the  states  to  which  they  belonged,  while  others  undertook  to 
write  the  histories  of  foreign  nations.  Nardi  (1496-1556),  one 
of  the  most  ardent  and  pure  patriots  of  his  age,  takes  the  first 
place.  He  wrote  the  history  of  the  Florentine  Revolution  of 
1527,  a  work  which,  though  defective  in  style,  is  distinguished 
for  its  truthfulness.  The  histories  of  Florence  by  Adriani,  Var- 
chi,  and  Segni  (1499-1559),  are  considered  the  best  works  of 
their  kind,  for  elegance  of  style  and  for  interest  of  the  narrative. 
Almost  all  the  other  cities  of  Italy  had  their  historians,  but  the 
palm  must  be  awarded  to  the  Florentine  writers,  not  only  on  ac- 
count of  their  number,  but  for  the  elegance  and  purity  of  their 
style,  for  their  impartiality  and  the  sagacity  of  their  research 
into  matters  of  fact.  Among  the  writers  of  the  second  class  may 
be  mentioned  Davanzati  (1519),  the  translator  of  Tacitus,  who 
wrote,  in  the  Florentine  dialect,  a  history  of  the  schism  of  Eng- 
land ;  Giambullari  (1495-1564) ,  who  wrote  a  history  of  Europe ; 
D'Anghiera  (fl.  1536),  who,  after  having  examined  the  papers 
of  Christopher  Columbus,  and  the  official  reports  transmitted 
from  America  to  Spain,  compiled  an  interesting  work  on  "  Ocean 
Navigation  and  the  New  World."  His  style  is  incorrect ;  but 
this  is  compensated  for  by  the  fidelity  of  his  narration.  Several 
of  the  German  States,  France,  the  Netherlands,  Poland,  Hun- 
gary, and  the  East  Indies,  found  Italian  authors  in  this  age  to 
digest  and  arrange  their  chronicles,  and  give  them  historical 
form. 

To  this  period  belong  also  the  "  Lives  of  the  Most  Celebrated 
Artists,"  written  by  Vasari  (1512-1574),  himself  a  distinguished 
artist,  a  work  highly  interesting  for  its  subject  and  style,  and 
the  Autobiography  of  Benvenuto  Cellini  (b.  1500),  one  of  the 
most  curious  works  which  was  ever  written  in  any  language. 

10.  GRAMMAR  AND  RHETORIC.  —  The  Italian  language  was 
used  both  in  writing  and  conversation  for  three  centuries  be- 
fore its  rules  and  principles  were  reduced  to  a  scientific  form. 
Bembo  was  the  first  scholar  who  established  the  grammar. 
Grammatical  writings  and  researches  were  soon  multiplied  and 
extended.  Salviati  was  one  of  the  most  prominent  grammarians 
of  the  sixteenth  centuiy,  and  Buonmattei  and  Cinonio  of  the 
seventeenth.  But  the  progress  in  this  study  was  due  less  to  the 
grammarians  than  to  the  Dictionary  della  Crusca.  Among  the 
scholars  who  took  part  in  the  exercises  of  the  Florentine  Acad- 
emy, founded  by  Cosmo  de'  Medici,  there  were  some  who,  dis- 
satisfied with  the  philosophical  disputations  which  were  the  object 
of  this  institution,  organized  another  association  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  a  new  impulse  to  the  study  of  the  language.  This 
academy,  inaugurated  in  1587,  was  called  della  Crusca,  literally, 
of  the  bran.  The  object  of  this  new  association  being  to  sift  all 


220       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

impurities  from  the  language,  a  sieve,  the  emblem  of  the  acad- 
emy, was  placed  in  the  hall ;  the  members  at  their  meetings  sat 
on  flour-barrels,  and  the  chair  of  the  presiding  officer  stood  on 
three  mill-stones.  The  first  work  of  the  academy  was  to  com- 
pile a  universal  dictionary  of  the  Italian  language,  which  was 
published  in  1612.  Though  the  Dictionary  della  Crusca  was 
conceived  in  an  exclusive  spirit,  and  admitted,  as  linguistic  au- 
thorities, only  writers  of  the  fourteenth  century,  belonging  to 
Tuscany,  it  contributed  greatly  to  the  progress  of  the  Italian 
tongue. 

Every  university  of  Italy  boasted  in  the  sixteenth  century  of 
some  celebrated  rhetoricians,  all  of  whom,  however,  were  over- 
shadowed by  Vettori  (1499-1585),  distinguished  for  the  edi- 
tions of  the  Greek  and  Latin  classics  published  under  his  super- 
intendence, and  for  his  commentaries  on  the  rhetorical  books  of 
Aristotle.  B.  Cavalcanti  (1503-1562)  was  also  celebrated  in 
this  department,  and  his  "  Rhetoric  "  is  the  best  work  of  the 
age  on  that  subject. 

The  oratory  of  this  period  is  very  imperfect.  Orations  were 
written  in  the  style  of  Boccaccio,  which,  however  suitable  for 
the  narration  of  merry  tales,  is  entirely  unfit  for  oratorical  com- 
positions. Among  those  who  most  distinguished  themselves  in 
this  department  are  Delia  Casa  (1503-1556),  whose  harangues 
against  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  are  full  of  eloquence  ;  Speroni 
(1500-1588),  whose  style  is  more  perfect  than  that  of  any  other 
writer  of  the  sixteenth  century  ;  and  Lollio  (d.  1568),  whose 
orations  are  the  most  polished.  At  that  time,  in  the  forum  of 
Venice,  eloquent  orators  pleaded  the  causes  of  the  citizens,  and 
at  the  close  of  the  preceding  century,  Savonarola  (1452-1498), 
a  preacher  of  Florence,  thundered  against  the  abuses  of  the 
Roman  church,  and  suffered  death  in  consequence.  Among  the 
models  of  letter- writing,  Caro  takes  the  first  place.  His  familiar 
letters  are  written  with  that  graceful  elegance  which  becomes 
this  kind  of  composition.  The  letters  of  Tasso  are  full  of  elo- 
quence and  philosophy,  and  are  written  in  the  most  select  Italian. 

11.  SCIENCE,  PHILOSOPHY,  AND  POLITICS.  —  The  sciences, 
during  this  period,  went  hand  in  hand  with  poetry  and  history. 
Libraries  and  other  aids  to  learning  were  multiplied,  and  acad- 
emies were  organized  with  other  objects  than  those  of  enjoyment 
of  mere  poetical  triumphs  or  dramatic  amusements.  The  Acad- 
emy del  Cimento  was  founded  at  Florence  in  1657  by  Leopold 
de'  Medici,  for  promoting  the  study  of  the  natural  sciences,  and 
similar  institutions  were  established  in  Rome,  Bologna,  and  Na- 
ples, and  other  cities  of  Italy,  besides  the  Royal  Academy  of 
London  (1660),  and  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Paris  (1666). 
From  the  period  of  the  first  institution  of  universities,  that  of 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE.  221 

Bologna  had  maintained  its  preeminence.  Padua,  Ferrara,  Pa- 
via,  Turin,  Florence,  Siena,  Pisa,  and  Rome  were  also  seats  of 
learning.  The  men  who  directed  the  scientific  studies  of  their 
country  and  of  Europe  were  almost  universally  attached  as  pro- 
fessors to  these  institutions.  Indeed,  at  this  period,  through 
the  genius  of  Galileo  and  his  school,  European  science  first 
dawned  in  Italy.  Galileo  (1564—1641)  was  a  native  of  Pisa, 
and  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  university  of  that  city. 
Being  obliged  to  leave  it  on  account  of  scientific  opinions,  at 
that  time  at  variance  with  universally  received  principles,  he 
removed  to  the  university  of  Padua,  where  for  eighteen  years 
he  enjoyed  the  high  consideration  of  his  countrymen.  He  re- 
turned to  Pisa,  and  at  the  age  of  seventy  was  summoned  to 
Rome  by  the  Inquisition,  and  required  to  renounce  his  doctrines 
relative  to  the  Copernican  system,  of  which  he  was  a  zealous 
defender,  and  his  life  was  spared  only  on  condition  of  his  abjur- 
ing his  opinions.  It  is  said  that  on  rising  from  his  knees,  after 
making  the  abjuration  of  his  belief  that  the  earth  moved  round 
the  sun,  he  stamped  his  foot  on  the  floor  and  said,  "  It  does 
move,  though."  To  Galileo  science  is  indebted  for  the  discov- 
ery of  the  laws  of  weight,  the  scientific  construction  of  the  sys- 
tem of  Copernicus,  the  pendulum,  the  improvement  of  many 
scientific  instruments,  the  invention  of  the  hydrostatic  balance, 
the  thermometer,  proportional  compasses,  and,  above  all,  the 
telescope.  He  discovered  the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  the  phases 
of  Venus,  the  mountains  of  the  moon,  the  spots  and  the  rotation 
of  the  sun.  Science,  which  had  consisted  for  centuries  only  of 
scholastic  subtleties  and  barren  dialectics,  he  established  on  an 
experimental  basis.  In  his  works  he  unites  delicacy  and  purity 
with  vivacity  of  style. 

Among  the  scholars  of  Galileo,  who  most  efficaciously  con- 
tributed to  the  progress  of  science,  may  be  mentioned  Torricelli 
(1608-1647),  the  inventor  of  the  barometer,  an  elegant  and  pro- 
found writer ;  Borelli  (1608-1679),  the  founder  of  animal  me- 
chanics, or  the  science  of  the  movements  of  animals,  distinguished 
for  his  works  on  astronomy,  mathematics,  anatomy,  and  natural 
philosophy;  Cassini  (1625-1712),  a  celebrated  astronomer,  to 
whom  France  is  indebted  for  its  meridian  ;  Cavalieri  (1598- 
1648),  distinguished  for  his  works  on  geometry,  which  paved 
the  way  to  the  discovery  of  the  infinitesimal  calculus. 

In  the  scientific  department  of  the  earlier  part  of  this  period 
may  also  be  mentioned  Tartaglia  (d.  1657)  and  Cardano  (1501- 
1576),  celebrated  for  their  researches  on  algebra  and  geometry ; 
Vignola  (1507-1573)  and  Palladio  (1518-1580),  whose  works 
on  architecture  are  still  held  in  high  estimation,  as  well  as  the 
work  of  Marchi  (fl.  1550)  on  military  construction.  Later, 


222       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

Redi  (1626-1697)  distinguished  himself  as  a  natural  philoso- 
pher, a  physician  and  elegant  writer,  both  in  prose  and  verse, 
and  Malpighi  (1628-1694)  and  Bellini  (1643-1704)  were  anat- 
omists of  high  repute.  Scamozzi  (1550-1616)  emulated  the 
glory  formerly  won  by  Palladio  in  architecture,  and  Montecuc- 
coli  (1608-1681),  a  great  general  of  the  age,  ably  illustrated 
the  art  of  strategy. 

The  sixteenth  century  abounds  in  philosophers  who,  abandon- 
ing the  doctrines  of  Plato,  which  had  been  in  great  favor  in  the 
fifteenth,  adopted  those  of  Aristotle.  Some,  however,  dared  to 
throw  off  the  yoke  of  philosophical  authority,  and  to  walk  in 
new  paths  of  speculation.  Patrizi  (1529-1597)  was  one  of  the 
first  who  undertook  to  examine  for  himself  the  phenomena  of 
nature,  and  to  attack  the  authority  of  Aristotle.  Telesio  (1509- 
1588),  a  friend  of  Patrizi,  joined  him  in  the  work  of  overthrow- 
ing the  Peripatetic  idols  ;  but  neither  of  them  dared  to  renounce 
entirely  the  authority  of  antiquity.  The  glory  of  having  claimed 
absolute  freedom  in  philosophical  speculation  belongs  to  Car- 
dano,  already  mentioned,  to  Campanella  (1568-1639),  who  for 
the  boldness  of  his  opinions  was  put  to  the  torture  and  spent 
thirty  years  in  prison,  and  to  Giordano  Bruno  (1550-1600),  a 
sublime  thinker  and  a  bold  champion  of  freedom,  who  was 
burned  at  the  stake. 

Among  the  moral  philosophers  of  this  age  may  be  mentioned 
Speroni,  whose  writings  are  distinguished  by  harmony,  freedom, 
and  eloquence  of  style ;  Tasso,  whose  dialogues  unite  loftiness 
of  thought  with  elegance  of  style ;  Castiglione  (1468-1529), 
whose  "  Cortigiano  "  is  in  equal  estimation  as  a  manual  of  ele- 
gance of  manners  and  as  a  model  of  pure  Italian ;  and  Delia 
Casa,  whose  "  Galateo  "  is  a  complete  system  of  politeness, 
couched  in  elegant  language,  and  a  work  to  which  Lord  Ches- 
terfield was  much  indebted. 

Political  science  had  its  greatest  representative  in  Machiavelli, 
who  wrote  on  it  with  that  profound  knowledge  of  the  human 
heart  which  he  had  acquired  in  public  life,  and  with  the  habit  of 
unweaving,  in  all  its  intricacies,  the  political  perfidy  which  then 
prevailed  in  Italy.  -The  "  Prince  "  is  the  best  known  «>f  his  po- 
litical works,  and  from  the  infamous  principles  which  he  has 
here  developed,  though  probably  with  good  intentions,  his  name 
is  allied  with  everything  false  and  perfidious  in  politics.  The 
object  of  the  treatise  is  to  show  how  a  new  prince  may  establish 
and  consolidate  his  power,  and  how  the  Medici  might  not  only 
confirm  their  authority  in  Florence,  but  extend  it  over  the  whole 
of  the  Peninsula.  At  the  time  that  Machiavelli  wrote,  Italy 
had  been  for  centuries  a  theatre  where  might  was  the  only  right. 
He  was  not  a  man  given  to  illusive  fancies,  and  throughout  a 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE.  223 

long  political  career  nothing  had  been  permitted  to  escape  his 
keen  and  penetrating  eye.  In  all  the  affairs  in  which  he  had 
taken  part  he  had  seen  that  success  was  the  only  thing  studied, 
and  therefore  to  succeed  in  an  enterprise,  hy  whatever  means, 
had  become  the  fundamental  idea  of  his  political  theory.  His 
Prince  reduced  to  a  science  the  art,  long  before  known  and 
practiced  by  kings  and  tyrants,  of  attaining  absolute  power  by 
deception  and  cruelty,  and  of  maintaining  it  afterwards  by  the 
dissimulation  of  leniency  and  virtue.  It  does  not  appear  that 
any  exception  was  at  first  taken  to  the  doctrines  which  have 
since  called  forth  such  severe  reprehension,  and  from  the  mo- 
ment of  its  appearance  the  Prince  became  a  favorite  at  every 
court.  But  soon  after  the  death  of  Machiavelli  a  violent  out- 
cry was  raised  against  him,  and  although  it  was  first  heard  with 
amazement,  it  soon  became  general,  The  Prince  was  laid  un- 
der the  ban  of  several  successive  popes,  and  the  name  of  Ma- 
chiavelli passed  into  a  proverb  of  infamy.  His  bones  lay  undis- 
tinguished for  nearly  two  centuries,  when  a  monument  was 
erected  to  his  memory  in  the  church  of  Santa  Croce,  through 
the  influence  of  an  English  nobleman. 

12.  PERIOD  OF  DECADENCE.  —  The  sixteenth  century  reaped 
the  fruits  that  had  been  sown  in  the  fifteenth,  but  it  scattered 
no  seeds  for  a  harvest  in  the  seventeenth,  which  was  therefore 
doomed  to  general  sterility.  In  the  reigns  of  Charles  V.  and 
Philip  II.  the  chains  of  civil  and  religious  despotism  were  forged 
which  subdued  the  intellect  and  arrested  the  genius  of  the  peo- 
ple. The  Spanish  viceroys  ruled  with  an  iron  hand  over  Milan, 
Naples,  Sicily,  and  Sardinia.  Poverty  and  superstition  wasted 
and  darkened  the  minds  of  the  people,  and  indolence  and  love 
of  pleasure  introduced  almost  universal  degeneracy.  But  the 
Spanish  yoke,  which  weighed  so  heavily  at  both  extremities  of 
the  Peninsula,  did  not  extend  to  the  republic  of  Venice,  or  to 
the  duchy  of  Tuscany  ;  and  the  heroic  character  of  the  princes 
of  Savoy  alone  would  have  served  to  throw  a  lustre  over  this 
otherwise  darkened  period.  In  literature,  too,  there  were  a  few 
who  resisted  the  torrent  of  bad  taste,  amidst  many  who  opened 
the  way  for  a  crowd  of  followers  in  the  false  route,  and  gave  to 
the  age  that  character  of  extravagance  for  which  it  is  so  pecul- 
iarly distinguished. 

The  literary  works  of  the  seventeenth  century  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes,  the  first  of  which,  under  the  guidance  of 
Marini,  attained  the  lowest  degree  of  corruption,  and  remain  in 
the  annals  of  literature  as  monuments  of  bombastic  style  and 
bad  taste.  The  second  embraces  those  writers  who  were  aware 
of  the  faults  of  the  school  to  which  they  belonged,  and  who, 
aiming  to  bring  about  a  reform  in  literature,  while  they  en- 


224       HANDBOOK   OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

deavored  to  follow  a  better  style,  partook  more  or  less  of  the 
character  of  the  age.  To  this  class  mav  be  referred  Chiabrera 
already  named,  and  more  particularly  Filicaja  and  other  poets 
of  the  same  school.  The  third  class  is  composed  of  a  few  wint- 
ers who  preserved  themselves  faithful  to  the  principles  of  true 
taste,  and  among  them  are  Menzini,  Salvator  Rosa,  Redi,  and 
more  particularly  Tassoni^ 

13.  EPIC  AND  LYRIC  POETRY. — Marini  (1569-1625),  the 
celebrated  innovator  on  classic  Italian  taste,  is  considered  as 
the  first  who  seduced  the  poets  of  the  seventeenth  century  into  a 
labored  and  affected  style.  He  was  born  at  Naples  and  edu- 
cated for  the  legal  profession,  for  which  he  had  little  taste,  and 
on  publishing  a  volume  of  poems,  his  indignant  father  turned  him 
out  of  doors.  But  his  popular  qualities  never  left  him  without 
friends.  He  was  invited  to  the  Court  of  France,  obtained  the 
favor  of  Mary  de'  Medici,  and  the  situation  of  gentleman  to  the 
king.  He  became  exceedingly  popular  among  the  French  no- 
bility, many  of  whom  learned  Italian  for  the  sole  purpose  of 
reading  his  works.  It  was  here  that  he  published  the  most  cele- 
brated of  his  poems,  entitled  "  Adonis."  He  afterwards  pur- 
chased a  beautiful  villa  near  Naples,  to  which  he  retired,  and 
where  he  soon  after  died.  The  Adonis  of  Marini  is  a  mixture 
of  the  epic  and  the  romantic  style,  the  subject  being  taken  from 
the  well-known  story  of  Venus  and  Adonis.  He  renounced  all 
keeping  and  probability,  both  in  his  incidents  and  descriptions  ; 
if  he  could  present  a  series  of  enchanted  pictures,  he  was  little 
solicitous  as  to  the  manner  of  their  arrangement.  But  the  work 
has  much  beauty  and  imagination,  and  is  often  animated  by  the 
true  spirit  of  poetry.  Its  principal  faults  are  that  it  is  sadly 
wire-drawn,  and  abounds  in  puns,  endless  antitheses,  and  inven- 
tions for  surprising  or  bewildering  the  reader ;  graces  which 
were  greatly  admired  by  the  contemporaries  of  the  poet.  Marini 
was  a  voluminous  writer,  and  was  not  only  extolled  in  his  own 
country  above  its  classic  authors,  and  in  France,  but  the  Span- 
iards held  him  in  the  highest  esteem,  and  imitated  and  even 
surpassed  him  in  his  own  eccentric  career.  He  had  also  innu- 
merable imitators  in  Italy,  many  of  whom  attained  a  high  rep- 
utation during  their  lives,  and  afterwards  sank  into  complete 
oblivion. 

Filicaja  (1642-1709)  stands  at  the  head  of  the  lyric  poets  of 
the  seventeenth  century.  His  inspiration  seems  first  to  have 
been  awakened  when  Vienna  was  besieged  by  the  Turks  in 
1683,  and  gallantly  defended  by  the  Christian  powers.  His 
verses  on  this  occasion  awoke  the  most  enthusiastic  admiration, 
and  called  forth  the  eulogies  of  princes  and  poets.  The  admira- 
tion which  he  excited  in  his  day  is  scarcely  to  be  wondered  at ; 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE.  225 

for,  though  this  judgment  has  not  been  ratified  by  posterity, 
Filicaja  has  at  least  the  merit  of  having  raised  the  poetry  of 
Italy  from  the  abject  service  of  mere  amorous  imbecility  to  the 
noble  office  of  embodying  the  more  manly  and  virtuous  senti- 
ments ;  and  though  his  style  is  infected  with  the  bombastic  spirit 
of  the  age,  it  is  even  in  this  respect  singularly  moderate,  com- 
pared with  that  of  his  contemporaries. 

14.  MOCK-HEROIC  POETKY,  THE  DRAMA,  AND  SATIRE.  — 
The  full  maturity  of  the  style  of  mock-heroic  poetry  is  due  to 
Tassoni  (1565-1635).  He  first  attracted  public  notice  by  dis- 
puting the  authority  of  Aristotle,  and  the  poetical  merits  of 
Petrarch.  In  1622  he  published  his  "  Rape  of  the  Bucket,"  a 
burlesque  poem  on  the  petty  wars  which  were  so  common  be- 
tween the  towns  of  Italy  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  cen- 
turies. The  heroes  of  Modena  had,  in  1325,  discomfited  the 
Bolognese,  and  pursued  them  to  the  very  heart  of  their  city, 
whence  they  carried  off,  as  a  trophy  of  their  victory,  the 
bucket  belonging  to  the  public  well.  The  expedition  undertaken 
by  the  Bolognese  for  its  recovery  forms  the  basis  of  the  twelve 
mock-heroic  cantos  of  Tassoni.  To  understand  this  poem  re- 
quires a  knowledge  of  the  vulgarisms  and  idioms  which  are  fre- 
quently introduced  in  it. 

About  the  same  period,  Bracciolini  (1566-1645)  produced 
another  comic-heroic  poem,  entitled  the  "  Ridicule  of  the  Gods," 
in  which  the  ancient  deities  are  introduced  as  mingling  with  the 
peasants,  and  declaiming  in  the  low,  vulgar  dialect,  and  making 
themselves  most  agreeably  ridiculous.  Somewhat  later  appeared 
one  more  example  of  the  same  species  of  epic,  "The  Malmantile," 
by  Lippi  (1606-1664).  This  poem  is  considered  a  pure  model 
of  the  dialect  of  the  Florentines,  which  is  so  graceful  and  har- 
monious even  in  its  homeliness. 

The  seventeenth  century  was  remarkable  for  the  prodigious 
number  of  its  dramatic  authors,  but  few  of  them  equaled  and 
none  excelled  those  of  the  preceding  age.  The  opera,  or  melo- 
drama, which  had  arisen  out  of  the  pastoral,  seemed  to  monop- 
olize whatever  talent  was  at  the  disposal  of  the  stage,  and 
branches  formerly  cultivated  sank  below  mediocrity.  Amid  the 
crowd  of  theatrical  corrupters,  the  name  of  Andreini  (1564— 
1652)  deserves  peculiar  mention,  not  from  any  claim  to  exemp- 
tion from  the  general  censure,  but  because  his  comedy  of  "  Adam  " 
is  believed  to  have  been  the  foundation  of  Milton's  "  Paradise 
Lost."  Andreini  was  but  one  of  the  common  throng  of  dra- 
matic writers,  and  it  has  been  fiercely  contended  by  some,  that  it 
is  impossible  that  the  idea  of  so  sublime  a  poem  should  have 
been  taken  from  so  ordinary  a  composition  as  his  Adam.  His 
15 


226       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

I 

piece  was  represented  at  Milan  as  early  as  1613,  and  so  has  at 
least  a  claim  of  priority. 

Menzini  (1646-1708)  and  Salvator  Rosa  (1615-1675)  were 
the  representatives  of  the  satire  of  this  century ;  the  former  dis- 
tinguished for  the  purity  of  his  language  and  the  harmony  of  his 
verse  ;  the  latter  for  his  vivacity  and  sprightliness. 

15.  HISTORY  AND  EPISTOLARY  WRITINGS.  — -The  number  of 
historical  works  in  this  century  is  much  greater  than  in  that  of 
the  preceding,  hut  they  are  generally  far  from  possessing  the 
same  merit  or  commanding  the  same  interest.  The  historians 
seem  to  have  lost  all  feeling  of  national  dignity ;  they  do  not 
venture  to  unveil  the  causes  of  public  events,  or  to  indicate  their 
results.  Even  those  that  dared  treat  of  Italy  or  its  provinces, 
confined  themselves  to  the  reigning  dynasties,  and  overlooking 
the  causes  which  most  deeply  affected  the  happiness  of  the  peo- 
ple, described  only  the  festivities,  battles,  and  triumphs  of  their 
princes.  A  large  number  of  historians  chose  foreign  subjects  ; 
the  history  of  France  was  remarkable  for  the  number  of  Italians 
who  endeavored  to  relate  it  in  this  age.  The  work  of  Davila 
(1576-1630)  on  "The  Civil  Wars  of  France,"  however,  throws 
all  the  rest  into  the  shade.  What  gives  to  it  peculiar  value  is 
the  carefulness  with  which  the  materials  were  collected,  in  con- 
nection with  the  opportunities  its  author  enjoyed  for  gaining 
information.  This  history  is  considered  as  superior  to  that  of 
Guicciardini  in  its  matter,  as  the  latter  excels  it  in  style.  It  is 
wanting  in  that  elegance  which  characterized  the  Florentine  his- 
torians of  the  sixteenth  century.  Bentivoglio  (1579—1644)  was 
an  eminent  rival  of  Davila  ;  he  wrote  the  history  of  the  civil 
wars  of  Flanders  ;  a  work  remarkable  for  the  elegance  and  cor- 
rectness of  its  style.  Above  all  stand  the  works  of  Sarpi,  who 
lived  between  1552  and  1623,  and  who  defended  with  great 
courage  the  authority  of  the  Senate  of  Venice  against  the  power 
of  the  Popes,  notwithstanding  their  excommunication  and  con- 
tinued persecution.  His  history  of  the  Council  of  Trent  con- 
tains a  curious  account  of  the  intrigues  of  the  Court  of  Rome  at 
the  period  of  the  Reformation. 

It  was  chiefly  in  the  more  showy  departments*  of  literature 
that  the  extravagance  of  the  Marinists  was  most  conspicuous, 
and  the  decay  of  native  genius  was  most  apparent.  But  this 
genius  had  turned  into  other  paths,  which  it  pursued  with  a 
steady,  though  less  brilliant  course.  Of  all  branches  of  -prose 
composition,  the  epistolary  was  the  most  carefully  cultivated. 
The  talent  for  letter-writing  was  often  the  means  of  considerable 
emolument,  as  all  the  petty  princes  of  Italy  and  the  cardinals  of 
Rome  were  ambitious  of  having  secretaries  who  would  give 
them  eclat  in  their  correspondence,  and  these  situations,  which 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE.  227 

were  steps  to  higher  preferment,  were  eagerly  sought ;  hence 
the  prodigious  number  of  collections  of  letters  which  have  at  all 
times  inundated  Italy  —  specimens  by  which  those  who  believed 
themselves  elegant  writers  endeavored  to  make  known  their 
talent.  The  letters  of  Bentivoglio  have  obtained  European  ce- 
lebrity. They  are  distinguished  for  elegance  of  style  as  well  as 
for  the  interest  of  those  historical  recollections  which  they  trans- 
mit ;  they  are  considered  superior  to  his  history.  But  of  all  the 
letters  of  this  or  of  the  preceding  age,  none  are  more  rich, 
more  varied,  or  more  pleasing  than  those  of  Redi,  who  threw 
into  this  form  his  discoveries  in  natural  history.  The  driest 
subjects,  even  those  of  language  and  grammar,  are  here  treated 
in  an  interesting  and  agreeable  manner. 

PERIOD  THIRD. 

THE  SECOND  REVIVAL  OF  ITALIAN  LITERATURE,  AND  ITS  PRESENT 
CONDITION  (1675-1885). 

1.  HISTORICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  THIRD  PERIOD.  — At 
the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  a  new  dawn  arose  in  the 
history  of  Italian  letters,  and  the  general  corruption  which  had 
extended  to  every  branch  of  literature  and  paralyzed  the  Italian 
mind  began  to  be  arrested  by  the  appearance  of  writers  of  bet- 
ter taste ;  the  affectations  of  the  Marinists  and  of  the  so-called 
Arcadian  poets  were  banished  from  literature  ;  science  was  ele- 
vated and  its  dominion  extended,  the  melodrama,  comedy,  and 
tragedy  recreated,  and  a  new  spirit  infused  into  every  branch  of 
composition.  Amidst  the  clash  of  arms  and  the  vicissitudes  of 
long  and  bloody  wars,  Italy  began  to  awake  from  her  lethargy 
to  the  aspiration  for  greater  and  better  things,  and  her  intel- 
lectual condition  soon  underwent  important  changes  and  im- 
provements. In  the  eighteenth  century,  in  Naples,  Vico  trans- 
formed history  into  a  new  science.  Filangeri  contended  with 
Montesquieu  for  the  palm  of  legislative  philosophy ;  and  new 
light  was  thrown  on  criminal  science  by  Mario  Pagano.  In 
Rome,  letters  and  science  flourished  under  the  patronage  of  Ben- 
edict XIV.,  Clement  XIV.,  and  Pius  VI.,  under  whose  auspices 
Quirico  Visconti  undertook  his  "  Pio  Clementine  Museum  "  and 
his  "  Greek  and  Roman  Iconography,"  the  two  greatest  archaeo- 
logical works  of  all  ages.  Padua  was  immortalized  by  the 
works  of  Cesarotti,  Belzoni,  and  Stratico ;  Venice  by  Goldoni ; 
Verona  by  Maffei,  the  critic  and  the  antiquarian,  as  well  as  the 
first  reformer  of  Italian  tragedy.  Tuscany  took  the  lead  of  the 
intellectual  movement  of  the  country  under  Leopold  and  his  suc- 
cessor Ferdinand,  when  Florence,  Pisa,  and  Siena  again  became 
seats  of  learning  and  of  poetry  and  the  arts.  Maria  Theresa 


228       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

and  Joseph  II.  fostered  the  intellectual  progress  of  Lombardy ; 
Spallanzani  published  his  researches  on  natural  philosophy ; 
Volta  discovered  the  pile  which  bears  his  name  ;  a  new  era  in 
poetry  was  created  by  Parini ;  another  in  criminal  jurisprudence 
by  Beccaria ;  history  was  reconstructed  by  Muratori ;  mathe- 
matics promoted  by  Lagrange,  and  astronomy  by  Oriani ;  and 
Alfieri  restored  Italian  letters  to  their  primitive  splendor. 

But  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth,  Italy  became  the  theatre  of  political  and  mil- 
itary revolutions,  whose  influence  could  not  fail  to  arrest  the 
development  of  the  literature  of  the  country.  The  galleries, 
museums,  and  libraries  of  Rome,  Florence,  and  other  cities  suf- 
fered from  the  military  occupation,  and  many  of  their  treasures, 
manuscripts,  and  masterpieces  of  art  were  carried  to  Paris  by 
command  of  Napoleon.  The  entire  peninsula  was  subject  to 
French  influence,  which,  though  beneficial  to  its  material  prog- 
ress, could  not  fail  to  be  detrimental  to  national  literature.  All 
new  works  were  composed  in  French,  and  indifferent  or  bad 
translations  from  the  French  were  widely  circulated  ;  the  French 
language  was  substituted  for  the  Italian,  and  the  national  litera- 
ture seemed  about  to  disappear.  But  Italian  genius  was  not 
wholly  extinguished ;  a  few  writers  powerfully  opposed  this  new 
tendency,  and  preserved  in  its  purity  the  language  of  Dante  and 
Petrarch.  Gradually  the  national  spirit  revived,  and  literature 
was  again  moulded  in  accordance  with  the  national  character. 
Notwithstanding  the  political  calamities  of  which,  for  some  time 
after  the  treaty  of  Vienna  in  1815,  Italy  was  continually  the 
victim,  the  literature  of  the  country  awakened  and  fostered  a 
sentiment  of  nationality,  and  Italian  independence  is  at  this  pres- 
ent moment  already  achieved. 

2.  THE  MELODRAMA.  —  The  first  result  of  the  revival  of  let- 
ters at  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  was  the  reform  of 
the  theatre.  The  melodrama,  or  Italian  opera,  arose  out  of  the 
pastoral  drama,  which  it  superseded.  The  astonishing  progress 
of  musical  science  succeeded  that  of  poetry  and  sculpture,  which 
fell  into  decline  with  the  decay  of  literature.  Music,  rising  into 
excellence  and  importance  at  a  time  when  poetry  was  on  the 
decline,  acquired  such  superiority  that  verse,  instead  of  being 
its  mistress,  became  its  handmaid.  The  first  occasion  of  this 
inversion  was  in  the  year  1594,  when  Rinuccini,  a  Florentine 
poet,  associated  himself  with  three  musicians  to  compose  a 
mythological  drama.  This  and  several  other  pieces  by  the  same 
author  met  with  a  brilliant  reception.  Poetry,  written  only  in 
order  to  be  sung,  thus  assumed  a  different  character ;  Rinuccini 
abandoned  the  form  of  the  canzone  which  had  hitherto  been 
used  in  the  lyrical  part  of  the  drama,  and  adopted  the  Pindaric 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE.  229 

ode.  Many  poets  followed  in  the  same  path  ;  more  action  was 
given  to  the  dramatic  parts,  and  greater  variety  to  the  music,  in 
which  the  airs  were  agreeably  blended  with  the  recitative  duets ; 
other  harmonized  pieces  were  also  added,  and  after  the  lapse  of 
a  century  Apostolo  Zeno  (1669-1750)  still  further  improved  the 
melodrama.  But  it  was  the  spirit  of  Metastasio  that  breathed  a 
soul  of  fire  into  this  ingenious  and  happy  form  created  by  others. 

Metastasio  (1698-1782)  gave  early  indications  of  genius,  and 
when  only  ten  years  of  age  used  to  collect  an  audience  in  his 
father's  shop,  by  his  talent  for  improvisation.  He  thus  attracted 
the  notice  of  Gravina,  a  celebrated  patron  of  letters,  who  adopted 
him  as  his  son,  changed  his  somewhat  ignoble  name  of  Trepassi 
to  Metastasio,  and  had  him  educated  in  every  branch  necessary 
for  a  literary  career.  He  still  continued  to  improvise  verses  on 
any  given  subject  for  the  amusement  of  company.  His  youth,  his 
harmonious  voice,  and  prepossessing  appearance,  added  greatly 
to  the  charm  of  his  talent.  It  was  one  generally  cultivated  in 
Italy  at  this  time,  and  men  of  mature  years  often  presented 
themselves  as  rivals  of  the  boy.  This  occupation  becoming  inju- 
rious to  the  youth,  Gravina  forbade  him  to  compose  extempore 
verses  any  more,  and  this  rule,  imposed  on  him  at  sixteen,  he 
never  afterwards  infringed.  When  Metastasio  was  in  his  twen- 
tieth year  Gravina  died,  leaving  to  him  his  fortune,  most  of  which 
he  squandered  in  two  years.  He  afterwards  went  to  Naples, 
where,  under  a  severe  master,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  closest 
study  and  for  two  years  resisted  every  solicitation  to  compose 
verses.  At  length,  under  promise  of  secrecy,  he  wrote  a  drama. 
All  Naples  resounded  with  its  praise,  and  the  author  was  soon 
discovered.  Metastasio  from  this  time  followed  the  career  for 
which  nature  seemed  to  have  formed  him,  and  devoted  himself 
to  the  opera,  which  he  considered  to  be  the  natural  drama  of 
Italy.  An  invitation  to  become  the  court  poet  of  Vienna  made 
his  future  life  both  stable  and  prosperous.  On  the  death  of 
Charles  VI.,  in  1?40,  several  other  European  sovereigns  made 
advantageous  overtures  to  the  poet,  but  as  Maria  Theresa  was 
disposed  to  retain  him,  he  would  not  leave  her  in  her  adverse 
circumstances.  The  remainder  of  his  life  he  passed  in  Germany, 
and  his  latter  years  were  as  monotonous  as  they  were  pros- 
perous. 

Metastasio  seized  with  a  daring  hand  the  true  spirit  of  the 
melodrama,  and  scorning  to  confine  himself  to  unity  of  place, 
opened  a  wide  field  for  the  display  of  theatrical  variety,  on  which 
the  charm  of  the  opera  so  much  depends.  The  language  in 
which  he  clothed  the  favorite  passion  of  his  drama  exhibits  all 
that  is  delicate  and  yet  ardent,  and  he  develops  the  most  ele- 
vated sentiments  of  loyalty,  patriotism,  and  filial  love.  The 


230       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

flow  of  his  verse  in  the  recitative  is  the  most  pure  and  harmo- 
nious known  in  any  language,  and  the  strophes  at  the  close  of 
each  scene  are  scarcely  surpassed  by  the  first  masters  in  lyric 
poetry.  Metastasio  is  one  of  the  most  pleasing,  at  the  same 
time  one  of  the  least  difficult  of  the  Italian  poets,  and  the  tyro 
in  the  study  of  Italian  classics  may  begin  with  his  works,  and 
at  once  enjoy  the  pleasures  of  poetic  harmony  at  their  highest 
source. 

3.  COMEDY.  —  The  revolution,  so  frequently  attempted  in 
Italian  comedy  by  men  whose  genius  was  unequal  to  the  task, 
was  reserved  for  Goldoni  (1707-1772)  to  accomplish.  His 
life,  written  by  himself,  presents  a  picture  of  Italian  manners  in 
their  gayest  colors.  He  was  a  native  of  Venice,  and  from  his 
early  youth  was  constantly  surrounded  by  theatrical  people.  At 
eight  years  of  age  he  composed  a  comedy,  and  at  fourteen  he 
ran  away  from  school  with  a  company  of  strolling  players.  He 
afterwards  prepared  for  the  medical,  then  for  the  legal  profes- 
sion, and  finally,  at  the  age  of  twenty-seven,  he  was  installed 
poet  to  a  company  of  players.  He  now  attempted  to  introduce 
the  reforms  that  he  had  long  meditated ;  he  attained  a  purer 
style,  and  became  a  censor  of  the  manners  and  a  satirist  of  the 
follies  of  his  country.  His  dialogue  is  extremely  animated,  ear- 
nest, and  full  of  meaning ;  with  a  thorough  knowledge  of  na- 
tional manners,  he  possessed  the  rare  faculty  of  representing 
them  in  the  most  life-like  manner  on  the  stage.  The  language 
used  by  the  inferior  characters  of  his  comedies  is  the  Venetian 
dialect. 

In  his  latter  days  Goldoni  was  rivaled  by  Carlo  Gozzi  (1722- 
1806),  who  parodied  his  pieces,  and,  it  is  thought,  was  the  cause 
of  his  retirement,  in  the  decline  of  life,  to  Paris.  Gozzi  intro- 
duced a  new  style  of  comedy,  by  reviving  the  familiar  fictions 
of  childhood  ;  he  selected  and  dramatized  the  most  brilliant  fairy 
tales,  such  as  "  Blue  Beard,"  "  The  King  of  the  Genii,"  etc., 
and  gave  them  to  the  public  with  magnificent  decorations  and 
surprising  machinery.  If  his  comedies  display  little  resemblance 
to  nature,  they  at  least  preserve  the  kind  of  probability  which  is 
looked  for  in  a  fairy  tale.  Many  years  elapsed  after  Goldoni 
and  Gozzi  disappeared  from  the  arena  before  there  was  any 
successor  to  rival  their  compositions. 

Among  those  who  contributed  to  the  perfection  of  Italian 
comedy  may  be  mentioned  Albergati  (fl.  1774),  Gherardo  de' 
Rossi  (1754-1827),  and  above  all,  Nota  (d.  1847),  who  is  pre- 
eminent among  the  new  race  of  comic  authors  ;  although  some- 
what cold  and  didactic,  he  at  least  fulfils  the  important  office  of 
holding  the  mirror  up  to  nature.  He  exhibits  a  faithful  picture 
of  Italian  society,  and  applies  the  scourge  of  satire  to  its  most 
prevalent  faults  and  follies. 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE.  231 

4.  TRAGEDY.  —  The  reform  of  Italian  tragedy  was  early  at- 
tempted by  Martelli  (d.  1727)  and  by  Scipione  Maffei  (1675- 
1755).  But  Martelli  was  only  a  tame  imitator  of  French  mod- 
els, while  Maffei,  possessing  real  talent  and  feeling,  deserved 
the  extended  reputation  he  acquired.  His  "  Merope  "  is  con- 
sidered as  the  last  and  the  best  specimen  of  the  elder  school  of 
Italian  tragedy. 

The  honor  of  raising  tragedy  to  its  highest  standard  was  re- 
served for  Alfieri  (1749-1803),  whose  remarkable  personal 
character  exercised  a  powerful  influence  over  his  works.  He 
was  possessed  of  an  impetuosity  which  continually  urged  him 
towards  some  indefinite  object,  a  craving  for  something  more 
free  in  politics,  more  elevated  in  character,  more  ardent  in  love, 
and  more  perfect  in  friendship  ;  of  desires  for  a  better  state  of 
things,  which  drove  him  from  one  extremity  of  Europe  to  an- 
other, but  without  discovering  it  in  the  realities  of  this  every- 
day world.  Finally,  he  turned  to  the  contemplation  of  a  new 
universe  in  his  own  poetical  creations,  and  calmed  his  agitations 
by  the  production  of  those  master-pieces  which  have  secured  his 
immortality.  His  aim  in  life,  in  the  pursuit  of  which  he  never 
deviated,  was  that  of  founding  a  new  and  classic  school  of  trag- 
edy. He  proposed  to  himself  the  severe  simplicity  of  the  Greeks 
with  respect  to  the  plot,  while  he  rejected  the  pomp  of  poetry 
which  compensates  for  interest  among  the  classic  writers  of  an- 
tiquity. Energy  and  conciseness  are  the  distinguishing  features 
of  his  style ;  and  this,  in  his  earlier  dramas,  is  carried  to  the 
extreme.  He  brings  the  whole  action  into  one  focus  ;  the  pas- 
sion he  would  exhibit  is  introduced  into  the  first  verse  and  kept 
in  view  to  the  last.  No  event,  no  character,  no  conversation 
unconnected  with  the  advancement  of  the  plot  is  permitted  to 
appear  ;  ah1  confidants  and  secondary  personages  are,  therefore, 
excluded,  and  there  seldom  appear  more  than  four  interlocutors. 
These  tragedies  breathe  the  spirit  of  patriotism  and  freedom, 
and  for  this,  even  independently  of  their  intrinsic  merit,  Alfieri 
is  considered  as  the  reviver  of  the  national  character  in  modern 
times,  as  Dante  was  in  the  fourteenth  century.  "  Saul "  is  re- 
garded as  his  masterpiece ;  it  represents  a  noble  character  suf- 
fering under  those  weaknesses  which  sometimes  accompany 
great  virtues,  and  are  governed  by  the  fatality,  not  of  destiny, 
but  of  human  nature. 

Among  the  earliest  and  most  distinguished  of  those  who  fol- 
lowed in  the  path  of  Alfieri  was  Monti  (1754-1828).  Though 
endowed  with  a  sublime  imagination  and  exquisite  taste,  his 
character  was  weak  and  vain,  and  he,  in  turn,  celebrated  every 
party  as  it  became  the  successful  one.  Educated  in  the  school 
of  Dante,  he  introduced  into  Italian  poetry  those  bold  and  se- 


232       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE, 

vere  beauties  which  adorned  its  infancy.  His  "  Aristodemus  " 
is  one  of  the  most  affecting  tragedies  in  Italian  literature.  The 
story  is  founded  on  the  narrative  of  Pausanias.  It  is  simple  in 
its  construction,  and  its  interest  is  confined  almost  entirely  to 
the  principal  personage.  In  the  loftiness  of  the  characters  of 
his  tragedies,  and  the  energy  of  sentiment  and  simplicity  of 
action  which  characterize  them,  we  recognize  the  school  of  Alfi- 
eri,  while  in  harmony  and  elegance  of  style  and  poetical  lan- 
guage, Monti  is  superior. 

Another  follower  of  the  school  of  Alfieri  is  Ugo  Foscolo 
(1778-1827),  one  of  the  greatest  writers  of  this  age,  in  whom 
inspiration  was  derived  from  a  lofty  patriotism.  At  the  time 
of  the  French  revolution  he  joined  the  Italian  army,  with 
the  object  of  restoring  independence  to  his  country.  Disap- 
pointed in  this  hope,  he  left  Italy  for  England,  where  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  writings.  The  best  of  his  tragedies, 
"  Ricciarda,"  is  founded  on  events  supposed  to  have  occurred  in 
the  Middle  Ages.  While  some  of  its  scenes  and  situations  are 
forced  and  unnatural,  some  of  the  acts  are  wrought  with  con- 
summate skill  and  effect,  and  the  conception  of  the  characters 
is  tragic  and  original.  Foscolo  adopts  in  his  tragedies  a  concise 
and  pregnant  style,  and  displays  great  mastery  over  his  native 
language.  Marenco  (d.  1846)  is  distinguished  for  the  noble 
and  moral  ideas,  lofty  images,  and  affections  of  his  tragedies ; 
but  he  lacks  unity  of  design  and  vigor  of  style.  Silvio  Pellico 
(1789-1854)  was  born  in  Piedmont.  As  a  writer  he  is  best 
known  as  the  author  of  "  My  Prisons,"  a  narrative  full  of  sim- 
plicity and  resignation,  in  which  he  relates  his  sufferings  during 
ten  years  in  the  fortress  of  Spielberg.  His  tragedies  are  good 
specimens  of  modern  art  ?  they  abound  in  fine  thoughts  and 
tender  affections,  but  they  lack  that  liveliness  of  dialogue  and 
rapidity  of  action  which  give  reality  to  the  situations,  and  that 
knowledge  of  the  human  heart  and  unity  and  grandeur  of  con- 
ception which  are  the  characteristics  of  true  genius. 

Manzoni  (1785-1873)  and  Nicolini  (1782-1861)  are  the  last 
of  the  modern  representatives  of  the  tragic  drama  of  Italy. 
The  tragedies  of  Manzoni,  and  especially  his  "  Conte  di  Carmag- 
nola,"  and  "  Adelchi,"  abound  in  exquisite  beauties.  His  style  is 
simple  and  noble,  his  verse  easy  and  harmonious,  and  his  object 
elevated.  The  merits  of  these  tragedies,  however,  belong  rather 
to  parts,  and  while  the  reading  of  them  is  always  interesting,  on 
the  stage  they  fail  to  awaken  the  interest  of  the  audience.  After 
Manzoni,  Nicolini  was  the  most  popular  literary  man  of  Italy  of 
his  time.  Lofty  ideas,  generous  passions,  splendor  and  harmony 
of  poetry,  purity  of  language,  variety  of  characters,  and  warmth 
of  patriotism,  constitute  the  merit  of  his  tragedies ;  while  his 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE.  283 

faults  consist  in  a  style  somewhat  too  exuberant  and  lyrical,  in 
ideas  sometimes  too  vague,  and  characters  often  too  ideal. 

5.  LYRIC,  EPIC,  AXD  DIDACTIC  POETRY.  —  In  the  latter  part 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  a  class  of  poets  who  called  themselves 
"  The  Arcadians "  attempted  to  overthrow  the  artificial  and 
bombastic  school  of  Marini ;  but  their  frivolous  and  insipid 
productions  had  little  effect  on  the  literature.  The  first  poets 
who  gave  a  new  impulse  to  letters  were  Parini  and  Monti. 
Parini  (1729—1799)  was  a  man  of  great  genius,  integrity, 
and  taste  ;  he  contributed  more  than  any  other  writer  of  his 
age  to  the  progress  of  literature  and  the  arts.  His  lyrical 
poems  abound  in  noble  thoughts,  and  breathe  a  pure  patriotism 
and  high  morality.  His  style  is  forcible,  chaste,  and  harmoni- 
ous. The  poems  of  Monti  have  much  of  the  fire  and  elevation 
of  Pindar.  Whatever  object  employs  his  thoughts,  his  eyes 
immediately  behold  ;  and,  as  it  stands  before  him,  a  flexible  and 
harmonious  language  is  ever  at  his  command  to  paint  it  in  the 
brightest  colors.  His  "  Basvilliana "  is  the  most  celebrated  of 
his  lyric  poems,  and,  beyond  every  other,  is  remarkable  for 
majesty,  nobleness  of  expression,  and  richness  of  coloring. 

The  poetical  writings  of  Pindemonte  (1753-1828)  are  stamped 
with  the  melancholy  of  his  character.  Their  subjects  are  taken 
from  contemporary  events,  and  his  inspiration  is  drawn  from 
nature  and  rural  life.  His  "  Sepulchres  "  breathes  the  sweetest 
and  most  pathetic  tenderness,  and  the  brightest  hopes  of  im- 
mortality. The  poems  of  Foscolo  have  the  grace  and  elegance 
of  the  Greek  poets ;  but  in  his  "  Sepulchres  "  the  gloom  of  his 
melancholy  imagination  throws  a  funereal  light  over  the  noth- 
ingness of  all  things,  and  the  silence  of  death  is  unbroken  by 
any  voice  of  hope  in  a  future  life.  Torti  (1774—1852),  a  pupil 
of  Parini,  rivaled  his  master  in  the  simplicity  of  style  and  pu- 
rity of  his  images ;  while  Leopardi  (1798—1837)  impressed 
upon  his  lyric  poems  the  peculiarities  of  his  own  character.  A 
sublime  poet  and  a  profound  scholar,  his  muse  was  inspired  by 
a  deep  sorrow,  and  his  poems  pour  out  a  melancholy  that  is  ter- 
rible and  grand,  the  most  agonizing  cry  in  modern  literature 
uttered  with  a  solemn  quietness  that  elevates  and  terrifies.  The 
poetry  of  despair  has  never  had  a  more  powerful  voice  than 
his.  He  is  not  only  the  first  poet  since  Dante,  but  perhaps  'the 
most  perfect  prose  writer.  Berchet  (1790-1851)  is  considered 
as  the  Italian  Beranger,  and  his  songs  glow  with  patriotic  fire. 
Those  of  Silvio  Pellico,  always  sweet  and  truthful,  bear  the 
stamp  of  a  calm  resignation,  hope,  and  piety.  The  list  of  mod- 
ern lyric  poets  closes  with  Manzoni,  whose  hymns  are  models  of 
this  style  of  poetiy. 

In  the  epic  department  the  third  period  does  not  afford  any 


234       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

poems  of  a  high  order.  But  the  translation  of  the  Iliad  by  Monti, 
that  of  the  Odyssey  by  Pindemonte,  for  their  purity  of  language 
and  beauty  of  style,  may  be  considered  as  epic  additions  to  Ital- 
ian literature.  "The  Longobards  of  the  First  Crusade,"  written 
by  Grossi  (1791-1853),  excels  in  beauty  and  splendor  cf  poetry 
all  the  epic  poems  of  this  age,  though  it  lacks  unity  of  design 
and  comprehensiveness  of  thought. 

Among  the  didactic  poems  may  be  mentioned  the  "  Invitation 
of  Lesbia,"  by  Mascheroni  (1750-1800),  a  distinguished  poet 
as  well  as  a  celebrated  mathematician.  This  poem,  which  de- 
scribes the  beautiful  productions  of  nature  in  the  Museum  of 
Pavia,  is  considered  a  masterpiece  of  didactic  poetry.  The 
"  Riseide,"  or  cultivation  of  rice,  by  Spolverini  (1695—1762), 
and  the  "  Silkworm,"  by  Betti  (1732-1788),  are  characterized 
by  poetical  beauties.  The  poem  on  the  "  Immortality  of  tli3 
Soul,"  by  Florentine  (1742-1815),  though  defective  in  style,  is 
distinguished  by  its  elevation  of  ideas  and  sentiments.  "  The 
Cultivation  of  Mountains,"  by  Lorenzi  (1732-1822),  is  rich  in 
beautiful  images  and  thoughts.  "  The  Cultivation  of  Olive 
Trees,"  by  Arici  (1782-1836),  his  "  Corals,"  and  other  poems, 
especially  in  their  descriptions,  are  graceful  and  attractive. 
"  The  Seasons  "  of  Barbieri  (1774-1852),  though  bearing  marks 
of  imitation  from  Pope,  is  written  in  a  pure  and  elegant  style. 

6.  HEROIC-COMIC  POETRY,  SATIRE,  AND  FABLE.  —  The 
period  of  heroic-comic  poetry  closes  in  the  eighteenth  century. 
The  "  Ricciardetto  "  of  Fortiguerri  (1674-1735)  is  the  last  of 
the  poems  of  chivalry,  and  with  it  terminated  the  long  series  of 
romances  founded  on  the  adventures  of  Charlemagne  and  his 
paladins.  The  "  Cicero  "  of  Passeroni  (1713-1803)  is  a  ram- 
bling composition  in  a  style  similar  to  Sterne's  "  Tristram 
Shandy,"  which,  it  appears,  was  suggested  by  this  work. 

Satiric  poetry,  which  had  flourished  in  the  preceding  period, 
was  enriched  by  new  productions  in  the  eighteenth  and  nine- 
teenth centuries.  G.  Gozzi  (1713-1789)  attacked  in  his  satires 
the  vices  and  prejudices  of  his  fellow-citizens,  in  a  forcible  and 
elegant  style  ;  and  Parini,  the  great  satirist  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  founded  a  school  of  satire,  which  proved  most  beneficial 
to  the  country.  His  poem,  "  The  Day,"  is  distinguished  by  fine 
irony  and  by  the  severity  with  which  he  attacks  the  effeminate 
habits  of  his  age.  He  lashes  the  affectations  and  vices  of  the 
Milanese  aristocracy  with  a  sarcasm  worthy  of  Juvenal.  The 
satires  of  D'Elci,  Guadagnoli,  and  others  are  characterized  by 
wit  and  beauty  of  versification.  Those  of  Leopardi  are  bitter 
and  contemptuous,  while  Giusti  (1809-1850),  the  political  sat- 
irist of  his  age,  scourged  the  petty  tyrants  of  his  country  with 
biting  severity  and  pungent  wit;  the  circulation  of  his  satires 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE.  235 

throughout   Italy,    in   defiance    of    its    despotic    governments, 
greatly  contributed  to  the  revolution  of  1848. 

In  the  department  of  fable  may  be  mentioned  Roberti  (1719— 
1786),  Passeroni,  Pignotti  (1739-1812),  and  Clasio  (1754- 
1825),  distinguished  for  invention,  purity,  and  simplicity  of  style. 

7.  ROMANCES.  —  Though  the  tales  of  Boccaccio  and  the  story- 
tellers of  the  sixteenth  century  paved  the  way  to  the  romances 
of  the  present  time,  it  was  only  at  a  late  period  that  the  Italians 
gave  their  attention  to  this  kind  of  composition.     In  the  eight- 
eenth century  we  find  only  two  specimens  of  romance,  "The 
Congress  of  Citera,"  by  Algarotti,  of  which  Voltaire  said  that  it 
was  written  with  a  feather  drawn  from  the  wings  of  love ;  and 
the  "  Roman  Nights,"  by  Alexander  Verri  (1741-1816).     In 
his  romance  he  introduces  the  shades  of  celebrated  Romans,  par- 
ticularly of  Cicero,  and  an  ingenious  comparison  of  ancient  and 
modern  institutions  is  made.     The  style  is  picturesque  and  poet- 
ical, though  somewhat  florid. 

This  kind  of  composition  has  found  more  favor  in  the  nine- 
teenth century.  First  among  the  writers  of  this  age  is  Manzoni, 
whose  "  Betrothed  "  is  a  model  of  romantic  literature.  The  va- 
riety, originality,  and  truthfulness  of  the  characters,  the  perfect 
knowledge  of  the  human  heart  it  displays,  the  simplicity  and  vi- 
vacity of  its  style,  form  the  principal  merits  of  this  work.  The 
"  Marco  Visconti  "  of  Grossi  is  distinguished  for  its  pathos  and 
for  the  purity  and  elegance  of  its  style. 

The  "  Ettore  Fieramosca "  of  Massimo  d' Azeglio  is  distin- 
guished from  the  works  already  spoken  of  by  its  martial  and 
national  spirit.  His  "  Nicolo  de  Lapi,"  though  full  of  beauties, 
partakes  in  some  degree  of  the  faults  common  to  the  French 
school.  After  these,  the  "Margherita  Pusterla"  of  Cantu,  the 
"  Luisa  Strozzi "  of  Rosini,  the  "  Lamberto  Malatesta  "  of  Ro- 
vani,  the  "  Angiola  Maria "  of  Carcano,  are  the  best  historical 
romances  of  Italian  literature.  Both  in  an  artistic  and  moral 
point  of  view,  they  far  excel  those  of  Guerrazzi,  which  represent 
the  French  school  of  George  Sand  in  Italy,  and  whose  "  Battle 
of  Benevento,"  "  Isabella  Orsini,"  "  Siege  of  Florence,"  and 
"  Beatrice  Cenci,"  while  they  are  written  in  pure  language  and 
abound  in  minor  beauties,  are  exaggerated  in  their  characters, 
bombastic  and  declamatory  in  style,  and  overloaded  in  descrip- 
tion. 

The  "  Last  Letters  of  Jacopo  Ortis,"  by  Foscolo,  belongs  to 
that  kind  of  romance  which  is  called  sentimental.  Overcome  by 
the  calamities  of  his  country,  with  his  soul  full  of  fiery  passion 
and  sad  disappointment,  Foscolo  wrote  this  romance,  the  protest 
of  his  heart  against  evils  which  he  could  not  heal. 

8.  HISTORY.  —  Among  the  most  prominent  of  the  numerous 


236       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

historians  of  this  period,  a  few  only  can  be  named.  Muratori 
(1672-1750),  for  his  vast  erudition  and  profound  criticism,  has 
no  rivals.  He  made  the  most  accurate  and  extensive  researches 
and  discoveries  relating  to  the  history  of  Italy  from  the  fifth  to 
the  sixteenth  century,  which  he  published  in  twenty-seven  folio 
volumes  ;  the  most  valuable  collection  of  historical  documents 
which  ever  appeared  in  Italy.  He  wrote,  also,  a  work  on  '•  Ital- 
ian Antiquities,"  illustrating  the  history  of  the  Middle  Ages 
through  ancient  monuments,  and  the  "  Annals  of  Italy,"  a  his- 
tory of  the  country  from  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  to 
his  own  age.  Though  its  style  is  somewhat  defective,  the  rich- 
ness and  abundance  of  its  erudition,  its  clearness,  and  arrange- 
ment, impart  to  this  work  great  value  and  interest. 

Maffei,  already  spoken  of  as  the  first  reformer  of  Italian  trag- 
edy, surpassed  Muratori  in  the  purity  of  his  style,  and  was  only 
second  to  him  in  the  extent  and  variety  of  his  erudition.  He 
wrote  several  works  on  the  antiquities  and  monuments  of  Italy. 

Bianchini  (1662-1729),  a  celebrated  architect  and  scholar, 
wrote  a  "  Universal  History,"  which,  though  not  complete,  is 
characterized  as  a  work  of  great  genius.  It  is  founded  exclu- 
sively on  the  interpretations  of  ancient  monuments  in  marble 
and  metal. 

Vico  (1670-1744),  the  founder  of  the  philosophy  of  history, 
embraced  with  his  comprehensive  mind  the  history  of  all  nations, 
and  from  the  darkness  of  centuries  he  created  the  science  of  hu- 
manity, which  he  called  "  Scienza  Nuova."  Vico  does  not  pro- 
pose to  illustrate  any  special  historical  epoch,  but  follows  the 
general  movement  of  mankind  in  the  most  remote  and  obscure 
times,  and  establishes  the  rules  which  must  guide  us  in  interpret- 
ing ancient  historians.  By  gathering  from  different  epochs,  re- 
mote from  each  other,  the  songs,  symbols,  monuments,  laws,  ety- 
mologies, and  religious  and  philosophical  doctrines,  — in  a  word, 
the  infinite  elements  which  form  the  life  of  mankind,  —  he  estab- 
lishes the  unity  of  human  history.  The  "  Scienza  Nuova "  is 
one  of  the  great  monuments  of  human  genius,  and  it  has  inspired 
many  works  on  the  philosophy  of  history,  especially  among  the 
Germans,  such  as  those  of  Hegel,  Niebuhr,  and  others. 

Giannone  (1676-1748)  is  the  author  of  a  "  Civil  History  of 
the  Kingdom  of  Naples,"  a  work  full  of  juridical  science  as  well 
as  of  historical  interest.  Having  attacked  with  much  violence 
the  encroachments  of  the  Church  of  Rome  on  the  rights  of  the 
state,  he  became  the  victim  of  a  persecution  which  ended  in  his 
death  in  the  fortress  of  Turin.  Giannone,  in  his  history,  gave 
the  first  example  in  modern  times  of  that  intrepidity  and  cour- 
age which  belong  to  the  true  historian. 

Botta  (1766-1837)  is  among  the  first  historians  of  the  present 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE.  237 

age.  He  was  a  physician  and  a  scholar,  and  devoted  to  the 
freedom  of  his  country.  He  filled  important  political  offices  in 
Piedmont,  under  the  administration  of  the  French  government. 
In  1809  he  published,  in  Paris,  his  "  History  of  the  American 
Revolution,"  a  work  held  in  high  estimation  both  in  this  country 
and  in  Italy.  In  the  political  changes  which  followed  the  fall 
of  Napoleon,  Botta  suffered  many  pecuniary  trials,  and  was 
even  obliged  to  sell,  by  weight,  to  a  druggist,  the  entire  edition 
of  his  history,  in  order  to  pay  for  medicines  for  his  sick  wife. 
Meanwhile,  he  wrote  a  history  of  Italy,  from  1789  to  1814, 
which  was  received  with  great  enthusiasm  through  Italy,  and 
for  which  the  Academy  della  Crusca,  in  1830,  granted  to  him  a 
pecuniary  reward.  This  was  followed  by  the  "  History  of  Italy," 
in  continuation  of  Guicciardini,  from  the  fall  of  the  Florentine 
Republic  to  1789,  a  gigantic  work,  with  which  he  closed  his  his- 
torical career.  The  histories  of  Botta  are  distinguished  by  clear- 
ness of  narrative,  vividness  and  beauty  of  description,  by  the 
prominence  he  gives  to  the  moral  aspect  of  events  and  charac- 
ters, and  by  purity,  richness,  and  variety  of  style. 

Colletta  (1775-1831)  was  born  in  Naples  ;  under  the  govern- 
ment of  Murat  he  rose  to  the  rank  of  general,  and  fell  with  his 
patron.  His  "  History  of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples,"  from  1734 
to  1825,  is  modeled  after  the  annals  of  Tacitus.  The  style  is 
simple,  clear,  and  concise,  the  subject  is  treated  without  digres- 
sions or  episodes  ;  it  is  conceived  in  a  partial  spirit,  and  is  a  eu- 
logium  of  the  administration  of  Joachim  ;  but  no  writer  can  rival 
Colletta  in  his  descriptions  of  strategic  movements,  of  sieges  and 
battles. 

Balbo  (1789-1853)  was  born  in  Turin ;  during  the  adminis- 
tration of  Napoleon  he  filled  many  important  political  offices, 
and  afterwards  entered  upon  a  military  career.  Devoted  to  the 
freedom  of  his  country,  he  strove  to  promote  the  progress  of 
Italian  independence.  In  1847  he  published  the  "  Hopes  of 
Italy,"  the  first  political  work  that  had  appeared  in  the  peninsula 
since  the  restoration  of  1814  ;  it  was  the  spark  which  kindled 
the  movements  of  1848.  In  the  events  of  that  and  of  the  suc- 
ceeding year,  he  ranked  among  the  most  prominent  leaders  of 
the  national  party.  His  historical  works  are  a  "  Life  of  Dante," 
considered  the  best  on  the  subject ;  "  Historical  Contemplations," 
in  which  he  developed  the  history  of  mankind  from  a  philosoph- 
ical point  of  view ;  and  "  The  Compendium  of  the  History  of 
Italy,"  which  embraces  in  a  synthetic  form  all  the  history  of  the 
country  from  the  earliest  times  to  1814.  His  style  is  pure,  clear, 
and  sometimes  eloquent,  though  often  concise  and  abrupt. 

Cantu,  a  living  historian,  has  written  a  universal  history,  in 
which  he  attempts  the  philosophical  style.  Though  vivid  in  his 


238       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

narratives,  descriptions,  and  details,  he  is  often  incorrect  in  his 
statements,  and  rash  in  his  judgments ;  his  work,  though  profess- 
ing liberal  views,  is  essentially  conservative  in  its  tendency.  The 
same  faults  may  be  discovered  in  his  more  recent  "  History  of 
the  Italians." 

Tiraboschi  (1731—1794)  is  the  great  historian  of  Italian  liter- 
ature ;  his  work  is  biographical  and  critical,  and  is  the  most  ex- 
tensive literary  history  of  Italy.  His  style  is  simple  and  elegant, 
and  his  criticism  profound  ;  hut  he  gives  greater  prominence  to 
the  biographies  of  writers  than  to  the  consideration  of  their 
works.  This  history  was  continued  by  Corniani  (1742-1813), 
and  afterwards  by  Ugoni  (1784-1855). 

9.  ^ESTHETICS,  CRITICISM,  PHILOLOGY,  AND  PHILOSOPHY.  — 
Italian  literature  is  comparatively  deficient  in  aesthetics,  the  sci- 
ence of  the  beautiful.  The  treatise  of  Gioberti  on  the  "  Beauti- 
ful," the  last  work  which  has  appeared  on  this  subject,  is  distin- 
guished for  its  profound  doctrines  and  brilliant  style.  Philology 
and  criticism  first  began  to  flourish  at  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  are  well  represented  at  the  present  time.  The  re- 
vival of  letters  was  greatly  promoted  by  the  criticism  of  Gravina 
(1664-1718),  one  of  the  most  celebrated  jurisconsults  and  schol- 
ars of  his  age,  who,  through  his  work,  "  The  Poetical  Reason," 
greatly  contributed  to  the  reform  of  taste.  Zeno,  Maffei,  and 
Muratori  also  distinguished  themselves  in  the  art  of  criticism, 
and  by  their  works  aided  in  overthrowing  the  school  of  Marini. 
At  a  later  date,  Gaspar  Gozzi,  through  his  "  Observer,"  a  peri- 
odical publication  modeled  after  the  '•  Spectator  "  of  Addison, 
undertook  to  correct  the  literary  taste  of  the  country ;  for  its  in- 
vention, pungent  wit,  and  satire,  and  the  purity  and  correctness 
of  its  style,  it  is  considered  onp  of  the  best  compositions  of  this 
kind.  Baretti  (1716-1789)  propagated  in  England  the  taste  for 
Italian  literature,  and  at  the  same  time  published  his  "  Literary 
Scourge,"  a  criticism  of  the  ancient  and  modern  writers  of  Italy. 
His  style,  though  always  pure,  is  often  caustic.  He  wrote  sev- 
eral books  in  the  English  language,  one  of  which  is  in  defense 
of  Shakspeare  against  Voltaire.  Cesarotti  (1730-1808),  though 
eminent  as  a  critic,  introduced  into  the  Italian  language  some 
innovations,  which  contributed  to  its  corruption  ;  while  the  nice 
judgment,  good  taste,  and  pure  style  of  Parini  place  him  at  the 
head  of  this  department.  In  the  latter  part  of  this  period  we 
find,  in  the  criticisms  of  Monti,  vigorous  logic  and  a  splendid 
and  attractive  style.  Foscolo  is  distinguished  for  his  acumen 
and  pungent  wit.  The  works  of  Perticari  (1779-1822)  are 
written  with  extreme  polish,  erudition,  judgment,  and  dignity. 
In  Leopardi,  philosophical  acumen  equals  the  elegance  of  his 
style.  Giordani  (d.  1848),  as  a  critic  and  an  epigraphist,  de- 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE.  239 

serves  notice  for  his  fine  judgment  and  pure  taste,  as  do  Tom- 
maseo  and  Cattaneo,  who  are  both  epigrammatic,  witty,  and 
pungent. 

The  golden  age  of  philology  dates  from  the  time  of  Lorenzo 
de'  Medici  to  the  seventeenth  century.  It  then  declined  until  the 
eighteenth,  but  revived  in  the  works  of  Maffei,  JVIuratori,  Zeno, 
and  others.  In  the  same  century  this  study  was  greatly  pro- 
moted by  Foscolo,  Monti,  and  Cesari  (1760—1828),  who,  among 
other  philological  works,  published  a  new  edition  of  the  Diction- 
ary della  Crusca,  revised  and  augmented.  Of  the  modern  writ- 
ers on  philology,  Gherardini,  Tommaseo,  and  Ascoli  are  the  most 
prominent. 

The  revival  of  philosophy  in  Italy  dates  from  the  age  of  Gal- 
ileo, when  the  authority  of  the  Peripatetics  was  overthrown,  and 
a  new  method  introduced  into  scientific  researches.  From  that 
time  to  the  present,  this  science  has  been  represented  by  opposite 
schools,  the  one  characterized  by  sensualism  and  the  other  by 
rationalism.  The  experimental  method  of  Galileo  paved  the 
way  to  the  first,  which  holds  that  experience  is  the  only  source 
of  knowledge,  a  doctrine  which  gained  ground  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  became  universally  accepted  in  the  eighteenth,  through 
the  influence  of  Locke  and  Condillac,  and  continued  to  prevail 
during  the  first  part  of  the  nineteenth.  Gioja  (1767-1829),  and 
Romagnosi  (1761-1835)  are  the  greatest  representatives  of  this 
system,  in  the  last  part  of  this  period.  But  while  the  former 
developed  sensualism  in  philosophy  and  economy,  the  latter  ap- 
plied it  to  political  science  and  jurisprudence.  The  numerous 
•works  of  Gioja  are  distinguished  for  their  practical  value  and 
clearness  of  style,  though  they  lack  eloquence  and  purity  ;  those 
of  Romagnosi  are  more  abstract,  and  couched  in  obscure  and 
often  incorrect  language,  but  they  are  monuments  of  vast  erudi- 
tion, acute  and  profound  judgment,  and  powerful  dialectics. 

Galluppi  (1773-1846),  though  unable  to  extricate  himself  en- 
tirely from  the  sensualistic  school,  attempted  the  reform  of  phi- 
losophy, which  resulted  in  a  movement  in  Italy  similar  to  that 
produced  by  Reid  and  Dugald  Stewart  in  Scotland. 

While  sensualism  was  gaining  ground  in  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries,  rationalism,  having  its  roots  in  the  Platonic 
system  which  had  prevailed  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth,  was 
remodeled  under  the  influence  of  Descartes,  Leibnitz,  and  Wolf,  , 
and  opposed  to  the  invading  tendencies  of  its  antagonist.  From 
causes  to  be  found  in  the  spirit  of  the  age  and  the  political  con- 
dition of  the  country,  this  system  was  unable  to  take  the  place 
to  which  it  was  entitled,  though  it  succeeded  in  purifying  sensu- 
alism from  its  more  dangerous  consequences,  and  infusing  into 
it  some  of  its  own  elements.  But  the  overthrow  of  that  system 


240       HANDBOOK   OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

was  completed  only  by  the  works  of  Rosmini  and  Gioberti.  Ros- 
mini  (1795-1855)  gave  a  new  impulse  to  metaphysical  re- 
searches, and  created  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  Italian  philoso- 
phy. His  numerous  works  embrace  all  philosophical  knowledge 
in  its  unity  and  universality,  founded  on  a  new  basis,  and  devel- 
oped with  deep,  broad,  and  original  views.  His  philosophy,  both 
inductive  and  deductive,  rests  on  experimental  method,  reaches 
the  highest  problems  of  ideology  and  ontology,  and  infuses  new 
life  into  all  departments  of  science.  This  philosophical  progress 
was  greatly  aided  by  Gioberti  (1801-1851),  whose  life,  however, 
was  more  particularly  devoted  to  political  pursuits.  His  work 
on  "The  Regeneration  of  Italy"  contains  his  latest  and  soundest 
views  on  Italian  nationality.  Another  distinguished  philosoph- 
ical and  political  writer  is  Mamiani,  whose  work  on  "  The  Rights 
of  Nations  "  deserves  the  attention  of  all  students  of  history  and 
political  science.  As  a  statesman,  he  belongs  to  the  National 
party,  of  which  Count  Cavour  (1810-1861),  himself  an  eminent 
writer  on  political  economy,  was  the  great  representative,  and  to 
whose  commanding  influence  is  to  be  attributed  the  rapid  prog- 
ress which  the  Italian  nation  was  making  towards  unity  and 
independence  at  the  time  of  his  death. 


FROM  1860  TO  1885. 

During  the  last  twenty-five  years  the  rapid  progress  of  polit- 
ical events  in  Italy  seems  to  have  absorbed  the  energies  of  the 
people,  who  have  made  little  advance  in  literature.  For  the 
first  time  since  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire  the  country  has 
become  a  united  kingdom,  and  in  the  national  adjustment  to  the 
new  conditions,  and  in  the  material  and  industrial  development 
which  has  followed,  the  new  literature  has  not  yet,  to  any  great 
extent,  found  voice.  Yet  this  period  of  national  formation  and 
consolidation,  however,  has  not  been  without  its  poets,  among 
whom  a  few  may  be  here  named.  Aleardo  Aleardi  (d.  1882)  is 
one  of  the  finest  poetical  geniuses  that  Italy  has  produced  within 
the  last  century,  but  his  writings  show  the  ill  effects  of  a  poet 
sacrificing  his  art  to  a  political  cause,  and  when  the  patriot  has 
ceased  to  declaim  the  poet  ceases  to  sing.  Prati  (1815-1884), 
on  the  other  hand,  in  his  writings  exemplifies  the  evil  of  a  poet 
refusing  to  take  part  in  the  grand  movement  of  his  nation.  He 
severs  himself  from  all  present  interests  and  finds  his  subjects 
in  sources  which  have  no  interest  for  his  contemporaries.  He 
has  great  metrical  facility  and  his  lyrics  are  highly  praised. 
Carducci,  like  Aleardi,  is  a  poet  who  has  written  on  political 
subjects  ;  he  belongs  to  the  class  of  closet  democrats.  His  poems 
display  a  remarkable  talent  for  the  picturesque,  forcible,  and 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE.  241 

epigrammatic.  The  poems  of  Zanella  are  nearly  all  on  scien- 
tific subjects  connected  with  human  feeling,  and  entitle  him  to 
a  distinguished  place  among  the  refined  poets  of  his  country.  A 
poet  of  greater  promise  than  those  already  spoken  of  is  Arna- 
boldi,  who  has  the  endowment  requisite  to  become  the  first  Ital- 
ian poet  of  a  new  school,  but  who  endangers  his  position  by  de- 
voting his  verse  to  utilitarian  purposes. 

The  tendency  of  the  younger  poets  is  to  realism  and  to  rep- 
resenting its  most  materialistic  features  as  beautiful.  Against 
this  current  of  the  new  poetry  Alessandro  Rizzi,  Guerzoni,  and 
others  have  uttered  a  strong  protest  in  poetry  and  prose. 

Among  historians,  Capponi  is  the  author  of  a  history  of  Flor- 
ence ;  Zini  has  continued  Farina's  history  of  Italy ;  Bartoli, 
Settembrini,  and  De  Sanctis  have  written  histories  of  Italian 
literature ;  Villari  is  the  author  of  able  works  on  the  life  of 
Machiavelli  and  of  Savonarola,  and  Berti  has  written  the  life  of 
Giordano  Bruno.  In  criticism  philosophic,  historical,  and  lit- 
erary, Fiorentino,  De  Sanctis,  Massarani,  and  Trezza  are  distin- 
guished. Barili,  Farina,  Bersezio,  and  Giovagnoli  are  writers 
of  fiction,  and  Cossa,  Ferrari,  and  Giacosa  are  the  authors  of 
many  dramatic  works.  The  charming  books  of  travel  by  De 
Amicis  are  extensively  translated  and  very  popular. 
16 


FRENCH  LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION. — 1.  French  Literature  and  its  Divisions.  —  2.  The  Language. 

PERIOD  FIRST.  —  1.  The  Troubadours. — 2.  The  Trouveres. — 3.  French  Literature  in 
the  Fifteenth  Century.  —  4.  The  Mysteries  and  Moralities:  Charles'of  Orleans,  Villon, 
Ville-Hardouin,  Joinville,  Froissart,  Philippe  de  Commines. 

PERIOD  SECOND. — 1.  The  Renaissance  and  the  Reformation:  Marguerite  de  Valois, 
Marot,  Rabelais,  Calvin,  Montaigne,  Charron,  and  others.  —  '2.  Light  Literature:  Ron- 
sard,  Jodelle,  Hardy,  Malherbe,  Scarron,  Madame  de  Rambouillet,  and  others.  —  3.  The 
French  Academy.  —  4.  The  Drama  :  Corneille. — 5.  Philosophy:  Descartes,  Pascal ;  Port 
Royal.  —  G.  The  Rise  of  the  Golden  Age  of  French  Literature  :  Louis  XIV.  —  7.  Tragedy  : 
Racine. — 8.  Comedy:  Moliere. —  9.  Fables,  Satires,  Mock-Heroic,  and  other  Poetry:  La 
Fontaine,  Boileau.  —  10.  Eloquence  of  the  Pulpit  and  of  the  Bar  :  Bourdaloue,  Bossuet, 
Massillon,  Flechier,  Le  Maitre,  D'Aguesseau,  and  others  -  11.  Moral  Philosophy  :  Roche- 
foucault,  La  Bruyere,  Nicole. — 12.  History  and  Memoirs:  Mezeray,  Fleury,  Rollin,  Bran- 
tome,  the  Duke  of  Sully,  Cardinal  de  Retz. —  13.  Romance  and  Letter  Writing  :  Feuelon, 
Madame  de  SevigntS. 

PERIOD  THIRD.  —  1.  The  Dawn  of  Skepticism:  Bayle,  J.  B.  Rousseau,  Fontenelle,  La- 
motte.  —  2.  Progres  of  Skepticism  :  Montesquieu,  Voltaire.  —  3.  French  Literature  dur- 
ing the  Revolution  :  D'Holbach,  D'Alembert,  Diderot,  J.  .1.  Rousseau,  Buffon,  Beau- 
marchais,  St.  Pierre,  and  others.  — 4.  French  Literature  under  the  Empire  :  Madame  do 
Stael,  Chateaubriand,  Royer-Collard,  Bonald,  De  Maistre.  —  5.  French  Literature  from 
the  Age  of  the  Restoration  to  the  Present  Time.  History :  Thierry,  Slsmondi,  Thiers, 
Mignet,  Martin,  Michelet,  and  others.  Poetry  and  the  Drama ;  Rise  of  the  Romantic 
School :  Be'ranger,  Lamartine,  Victor  Hugo,  and  others ;  Les  Parnassiens.  Fiction : 
Hugo,  Gautier,  Dumas,  Merime'e,  Balzac,  Sand,  Sandeau,  and  others.  Criticism :  Sainte- 
Beuve,  Taiue,  and  others.  Miscellaneous. 

INTRODUCTION. 

1.  FRENCH  LITERATURE  AND  ITS  DIVISIONS.  —  Towards  the 
middle  of  the  fifth  century  the  Franks  commenced  their  in- 
vasions of  Gaul,  which  ended  in  the  conquest  of  the  country,  and 
the  establishment  of  the  French  monarchy  under  Clovis.  The 
period  from  Clovis  to  Charlemagne  (487-768)  is  the  most  ob- 
scure of  the  Dark  Ages.  The  principal  writers,  whose  names 
have  been  preserved,  are  St.  Remy,  the  archbishop  of  Rheims 
(d.  535),  distinguished  for  his  eloquence,  and  Gregory  of  Tours 
(d.  595),  whose  contemporary  history  is  valuable  for  the  good 
faith  in  which  it  is  written,  in  spite  of  the  ignorance  and  credul- 
ity which  it  displays.  The  genius  of  Charlemagne  (r.  768-814) 
gave  a  new  impulse  to  learning.  By  his  liberality  he  attracted 
the  most  distinguished  scholars  to  his  court,  among  others  Al- 
cuin,  from  England,  whom  he  chose  for  his  instructor ;  he  estab- 
lished schools  of  theology  and  science,  and  appointed  the  most 
learned  professors  to  preside  over  them.  But  in  the  century 
succeeding  his  death  the  country  relapsed  into  barbarism. 

In  the  south  of  France.  Provence  early  became  an  independ- 
ent kingdom,  and  consolidating  its  language,  laws,  and  manners, 
at  the  close  of  the  eleventh  century  it  gave  birth  to  the  literature 
of  the  Troubadours ;  while  in  the  north,  the  language  and  litera- 


FRENCH  LITERATURE.  243 

ture  of  the  Trouveres,  which  were  the  germs  of  the  national 
literature  of  France,  were  not  developed  until  a  century  later. ' 

In  the  schools  established  by  Charlemagne  for  the  education 
of  the  clergy,  the  scholastic  philosophy  originated,  which  pre- 
vailed throughout  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  most  dis- 
tinguished schoolmen  or  scholastics  in  France  during  this  period 
are  Roscellirius  (fl.  1092),  the  originator  of  the  controversy  be- 
tween the  Nominalists  and  Realists,  which  occupied  so  promi- 
nent a  place  in  the  philosophy  of  the  time ;  Abelard  (1079- 
1142),  equally  celebrated  for  his  learning,  and  for  his  unfor- 
tunate love  for  Heloise ;  St.  Bernard  (1091-1153),  one  of  the 
most  influential  ecclesiastics  of  the  Middle  Ages ;  and  Thomas 
Aquinas  (1227-1274)  and  Bonaventure  (1221-1274),  Italians 
who  taught  theology  and  philosophy  at  Paris,  and  who  power- 
fully influenced  the  intellect  of  the  age. 

Beginning  with  the  Middle  Ages,  the  literary  history  of  France 
may  be  divided  into  three  periods.  The  first  period  extends 
from  1000  to  1500,  and  includes  the  literature  of  the  Trouba- 
dours, the  Trouveres,  and  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

The  second  period  extends  from  1500  to  1700,  and  includes 
the  revival  of  the  study  of  classical  literature,  or  the  Renais- 
sance, and  the  golden  age  of  French  literature  under  Louis  XIV. 

The  third  period,  extending  from  1700  to  1885,  comprises 
the  age  of  skepticism  introduced  into  French  literature  by  Vol- 
taire, the  Encyclopaedists  and  others,  the  Revolutionary  era,  the 
literature  of  the  Empire  and  of  the  Restoration,  of  the  Second 
Empire,  and  of  the  present  time. 

2.  THE  LANGUAGE.  —  After  the  conquest  of  Gaul  by  Julius 
Caesar,  Latin  became  the  predominant  language  of  the  country ; 
but  on  the  overthrow  of  the  Western  Empire  it  was  corrupted 
by  the  intermixture  of  elements  derived  from  the  northern  in- 
vaders of  the  country,  and  from  .the  general  ignorance  and  bar- 
barism of  the  times.  At  length  a  distinction  was  drawn  between 
the  language  of  the  Gauls  who  called  themselves  Romans,  and 
that  of  the  Latin  writers  ;  and  the  Romance  language  arose  from 
the  former,  while  the  Latin  was  perpetuated  by  the  latter.  At 
the  commencement  of  the  second  race  of  monarchs,  German  was 
the  language  of  Charlemagne  and  his  court,  Latin  was  the  writ- 
ten language,  and  the  Romance,  still  in  a  state  of  barbarism,  was 
the  dialect  of  the  people.  The  subjects  of  Charlemagne  were 
composed  of  two  different  races,  the  Germans,  inhabiting  along 
and  beyond  the  Rhine,  and  the  Wallons,  who  called  themselves 
Romans.  The  name  of  Welsch  or  Wallons,  given  them  by  the 
Germans,  was  the  same  as  Galli,  which  they  had  received  from 
the  Latins,  and  as  Keltai  or  Celts,  which  they  themselves  ac- 
knowledged. The  language  which  they  spoke  was  called  after 


244       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

them  the  Romance-Wallon,  or  rustic  Romance,  which  was  at 
first  very  much  the  same  throughout  France,  except  that  as  it 
extended  southward  the  Latin  prevailed,  and  in  the  north  the 
German  was  more  perceptible.  These  differences  increased,  and 
the  languages  rapidly  grew  more  dissimilar.  The  people  of  the 
south  called  themselves  Romans-provencanx,  while  the  northern 
tribes  added  to  the  name  of  Romans,  which  they  had  assumed, 
that  of  Wallons,  which  they  had  received  from  the  neighboring 
people.  The  Provencal  was  called  the  Langue  d'oc,  and  the 
Wallon  the  Langue  d'oui,  from  the  affirmative  word  in  each 
language,  as  the  Italian  was  then  called  the  Langue  de  si,  and 
the  German  the  Lanyue,  de  ya. 

The  invasion  of  the  Normans,  in  the  tenth  century,  supplied 
new  elements  to  the  Romance  Wallon.  They  adopted  it  as 
their  language,  and  stamped  upon  it  the  impress  of  their  own 
genius.  It  thus  became  Norman-French.  In  1066,  William 
the  Conqueror  introduced  it  into  England,  and  enforced  its  use 
among  his  new  subjects  by  rigorous  laws  ;  thus  the  popular 
French  became  there  the  language  of  the  court  and  of  the  edu- 
cated classes,  while  it  was  still  the  vulgar  dialect  in  France. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century,  the  two  dialects 
were  known  as  the  Provencal  and  the  French.  The  former, 
though  much  changed,  is  still  the  dialect  of  the  common  people 
in  Provence,  Languedoc,  Catalonia,  Valencia,  Majorca,  and 
Minorca.  In  the  thirteenth  century,  the  northern  French  dialect 
gained  the  ascendency,  chiefly  in  consequence  of  Paris  becom- 
ing the  centre  of  refinement  and  literature  for  all  France.  The 
Langue  d'oui  was,  from  its  origin,  deficient  in  that  rhythm  which 
exists  in  the  Italian  and  Spanish  languages.  It  was  formed 
rather  by  an  abbreviation  than  by  a  harmonious  transformation 
of  the  Latin,  and  the  metrical  character  of  the  language  was 
gradually  lost.  The  French  became  thus  more  accustomed  to 
rhetorical  measure  than  to  poetical  forms,  and  the  language  led 
them  rather  to  eloquence  than  poetry.  Francis  I.  established  a 
professorship  of  the  French  language  at  Paris,  and  banished 
Latin  from  the  public  documents  and  courts  of  justice.  The 
Academy,  established  by  Cardinal  Richelieu  (1635),  put  an  end 
to  the  arbitrary  power  of  usage,  and  fixed  the  standard  of  pure 
French,  though  at  the  same  time  it  restricted  the  power  of 
genius  over  the  language.  Nothing  was  approved  by  the  Acad- 
emy unless  it  was  received  at  court,  and  nothing  was  tolerated 
by  the  public  that  had  not  been  sanctioned  by  the  Academy. 
The  language  now  acquired  the  most  admirable  precision,  and 
thus  recommended  itself  not  only  as  the  language  of  science  and 
diplomacy,  but  of  society,  capable  of  conveying  the  most  dis- 
criminating observations  on  character  and  manners,  and  the  most 


FRENCH  LITERATURE.  245 

delicate  expressions  of  civility  which  involve  no  obligation. 
Hence  its  adoption  as  the  court  language  in  so  many  European 
countries.  Among  the  dictionaries  of  the  French  language,  that 
of  the  Academy  holds  the  first  rank. 

PERIOD  FIRST. 

PROVENCAL  AND  FRENCH  LITERATURES  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 
(1000-1500J. 

1.  THE  TROUBADOURS.  —  When,  in  the  tenth  century,  the 
nations  of  the  south  of  Europe  attempted  to  give  consistency  to 
the  rude  dialects  which  had  been  produced  by  the  mixture  of 
the  Latin  with  the  northern  tongues,  the  Provencal,  or  Langue 
d'oc,  was  the  first  to  come  to  perfection.  The  study  of  this  lan- 
guage became  the  favorite  recreation  of  the  higher  classes  dur- 
ing the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries,  and  poetry  the  elegant 
occupation  of  those  whose  time  was  not  spent  in  the  ruder  pas- 
times of  the  field.  Thousands  of  poets,  who  were  called  trou- 
badours (from  trobar,  to  find  or  invent),  flourished  in  this  new 
language  almost  contemporaneously,  and  spread  their  reputation 
from  the  extremity  of  Spain  to  that  of  Italy.  All  at  once,  how- 
ever, this  ephemeral  reputation  vanished.  The  voice  of  the  trou- 
badours was  silent,  the  Provencal  was  abandoned  and  sank  into 
a  mere  dialect,  and  after  a  brilliant  existence  of  three  centuries 
(950—1250),  its  productions  were  ranked  among  those  of  the 
dead  languages.  The  high  reputation  of  the  Provencal  poets, 
and  the  rapid  decline  of  their  language,  are  two  phenomena 
equally  striking  in  the  history  of  human  culture.  This  literature, 
which  gave  models  to  other  nations,  yet  among  its  crowds  of 
agreeable  poems  did  not  produce  a  single  masterpiece  destined 
to  immortality,  was  entirely  the  offspring  of  the  age,  and  not  of 
individuals.  It  reveals  to  us  the  sentiments  and  imagination  of 
modern  nations  in  their  infancy  ;  it  exhibits  what  was  common 
to  all  and  pervaded  all,  and  not  what  genius  superior  to  the  age 
enabled  a  single  individual  to  accomplish. 

Southern  France,  having  been  the  inheritance  of  several  of 
the  successors  of  Charlemagne,  was  elevated  to  the  rank  of  an 
independent  kingdom  in  879,  by  Bozon,  and  under  his  sover- 
eignty, and  that  of  his  successors  for  213  years,  it  enjoyed  a 
paternal  government.  The  accession  of  the  Count  of  Barcelona 
to  the  crown,  in  1092,  introduced  into  Provence  the  spirit  both 
of  liberty  and  chivalry,  and  a  taste  for  elegance  and  the  arts, 
with  all  the  sciences  of  the  Arabians.  The  union  of  these  noble 
sentiments  added  brilliancy  to  that  poetical  spirit  which  shone 
out  at  once  over  Provence  and  all  the  south  of  P^urope,  like  an 
electric  flash  in  the  midst  of  profound  darkness,  illuminating  all 
things  with  the  splendor  of  its  flame. 


246       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

At  the  same  time  with  Provencal  poetry,  chivalry  had  its  rise  | 
it  was,  in  a  manner,  the  soul  of  the  new  literature,  and  gave  to 
it  a  character  different  from  anything  in  antiquity.  Love,  in 
this  age,  while  it  was  not  more  tender  and  passionate  than 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  was  more  respectful,  and 
women  were  regarded  with  something  of  that  religious  venera- 
tion which  the  Germans  evinced  towards  their  prophetesses.  To 
this  was  added  that  passionate  ardor  of  feeling  peculiar  to  the 
people  of  the  South,  the  expression  of  which  was  borrowed  from 
the  Arabians.  But  although  among  individuals  love  preserved 
this  pure  and  religious  character,  the  license  engendered  by  the 
feudal  system,  and  the  disorders  of  the  .time,  produced  a  univer- 
sal corruption  of  manners  which  found  expression  in  the  litera- 
ture of  the  age.  Neither  the  sirventes  nor  the  cJianzos  of  the 
troubadours,  nor  the  fabliaux  of  the  trouveres,  nor  the  romances 
of  chivalry,  can  be  read  without  a  blush.  On  every  page  the 
grossness  of  the  language  is  only  equaled  by  the  shameful  de- 
pravity of  the  characters  and  the  immorality  of  the  incidents. 
In  the  south  of  France,  more  particularly,  an  extreme  laxity  of 
manners  prevailed  among  the  nobility.  Gallantry  seems  to 
have  been  the  sole  object  of  existence.  Ladies  were  proud  of 
the  celebrity  conferred  upon  their  charms  by  the  songs  of  the 
troubadours,  and  they  themselves  often  professed  the  ''  Gay  Sci- 
ence," as  poetry  was  called.  They  instituted  the  Courts  of  Love 
where  questions  of  gallantry  were  gravely  discussed  and  decided 
by  their  suffrages  ;  and  they  gave,  in  short,  to  the  whole  south 
of  France  the  character  of  a  carnival.  No  sooner  had  the  Gay 
Science  been  established  in  Provence,  than  it  became  the  fash- 
ion in  surrounding  countries.  The  sovereigns  of  Europe  adopted 
the  Provencal  language,  and  enlisted  themselves  among  the 
poets,  and  there  was  soon  neither  baron  nor  knight  who  did  not 
feel  himself  bound  to  add  to  his  fame  as  a  warrior  the  reputa- 
tion of  a  gentle  troubadour.  Monarchs  were  now  the  professors 
of  the  art,  and  the  only  patrons  were  the  ladies.  Women,  no 
longer  beautiful  ciphers,  acquired  complete  liberty  of  action,  and 
the  homage  paid  to  them  amounted  almost  to  worship. 

At  the  festivals  of  the  haughty  barons,  the  lady  of  the  castle, 
attended  by  youthful  beauties,  distributed  crowns  to  the  con- 
querors in  the  jousts  and  tournaments.  She  then,  in  turn,  sur- 
rounded by  her  ladies,  opened  her  Court  of  Love,  and  the  candi- 
dates for  poetical  honors  entered  with  their  harps  and  contended 
for  the  prize  in  extempore  verses  called  tensons.  The  Court  of 
Love  then  entered  upon  a  grave  discussion  of  the  merits  of  the 
question,  and  a  judgment  or  arret  d1  amour  was  given,  frequently 
in  verse,  by  which  the  dispute  was  supposed  to  be  decided.  These 
courts  often  formally  justified  the  abandonment  of  moral  duty, 


FRENCH  LITERATURE.  247 

and  assuming  the  forms  and  exercising  the  power  of  ordinary 
tribunals,  they  defined  and  prescribed  the  duties  of  the  sexes, 
and  taught  the  arts  of  love  and  song  according  to  the  most  de- 
praved moral  principles,  mingled,  however,  with  an  affected 
display  of  refined  sentimentality.  Whatever  may  have  been 
their  utility  in  the  advancement  of  the  language  and  the  cultiva- 
tion of  literary  taste,  these  institutions  extended  a  legal  sanction 
to  vice,  and  inculcated  maxims  of  shameful  profligacy. 

The  songs  of  the  Provengals  were  divided  into  chanzos  and 
sirventes  ;  the  object  of  the  former  was  love,  and  of  the  latter 
war,  politics,  or  satire.  The  name  of  tenson  was  given  to  those 
poetical  contests  in  verse  which  took  place  in  the  Courts  of  Love, 
or  before  illustrious  princes.  The  songs  were  sung  from  chateau 
to  chateau,  either  by  the  troubadours  themselves,  or  by  the  jon- 
gleur or  instrument  player  by  whom  they  were  attended ;  they 
often  abounded  in  extravagant  hyperboles,  trivial  conceits,  and 
grossness  of  expression.  Ladies,  whose  attractions  were  esti- 
mated by  the  number  and  desperation  of  their  lovers,  and  the 
songs  of  their  troubadours,  were  not  offended  if  licentiousness 
mingled  with  gallantry  in  the  songs  composed  in  their  praise. 
Authors  addressed  prayers  to  the  saints  for  aid  in  their  amorous 
intrigues,  and  men,  seemingly  rational,  resigned  themselves  to 
the  wildest  transports  of  passion  for  individuals  whom,  in  some 
cases,  they  had  never  seen.  Thus,  religious  enthusiasm,  martial 
bravery,  and  licentious  love,  so  grotesquely  mingled,  formed  the 
very  life  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  impossible  as  it  is  to  transfuse 
into  a  translation  the  harmony  of  Provengal  verse,  or  to  find  in 
it,  when  stripped  of  this  harmony,  any  poetical  idea,  these  re- 
mains are  valuable  since  they  present  us  with  a  picture  of  the 
life  and  manners  of  the  times. 

The  intercourse  of  the  Provencals  with  the  Moors  of  Spain, 
which,  as  we  have  seen,  was  greatly  increased  by  the  union  of 
Catalonia  and  Provence  (1092),  introduced  into  the  North  an 
acquaintance  with  the  arts  and  learning  of  the  Arabians.  It  was 
then  that  rhyme,  the  essential  characteristic  of  Arabian  poetry, 
was  adopted  by  the  troubadours  into  the  Provencal  language, 
and  thence  communicated  to  the  nations  of  modern  Europe. 

The  poetiy  of  the  troubadours  borrowed  nothing  from  his- 
tory, mythology,  or  from  foreign  manners,  and  no  reference  to 
the  sciences  or  the  learning  of  the  schools  mingled  with  their 
simple  effusions  of  sentiment.  This  fact  enables  us  to  compre- 
hend how  it  was  possible  for  princes  and  knights,  who  were 
often  unable  to  read,  to  be  yet  ranked  among  the  most  ingenious 
troubadours.  Several  public  events,  however,  materially  con- 
tributed to  enlarge  the  sphere  of  intellect  of  the  knights  of  the 
Langue  d'oc.  The  first  was  the  conquest  of  Toledo  and  New 


248       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

Castile  by  Alphonso  VI.,  in  which  he  was  seconded  by  the  Cid 
Rodriguez,  the  hero  of  Spain,  and  by  a  number  of  French  Pro- 
ven9&l  knights  ;  the  second  was  the  preaching  of  the  Crusades. 
Of  all  the  events  recorded  in  the  history  of  the  world,  there  is, 
perhaps,  not  one  of  a  nature  so  highly  poetical  as  these  holy 
wars ;  not  one  which  presents  a  more  powerful  picture  of  the 
grand  effects  of  enthusiasm,  of  noble  sacrifices  of  self-interest  to 
faith,  sentiment,  and  passion,  which  are  essentially  poeticaL- 
Many  of  the  troubadours  assumed  the  cross ;  others  were  de- 
tained in  Europe  by  the  bonds  of  love,  and  the  conflict  between 
passion  and  religious  enthusiasm  lent  its  influence  to  the  poems 
they  composed.  The  third  event  was  the  succession  of  the  kings 
of  England  to  the  sovereignty  of  a  large  part  of  the  countries 
where  the  Ldngue  d'oc  prevailed,  which  influenced  the  manners 
and  opinions  of  the  troubadours,  and  introduced  them  to  the 
courts  of  the  most  powerful  monarchs ;  while  the  encouragement 
given  to  them  by  the  kings  of  the  house  of  Plantagenet  had  a 
great  influence  on  the  formation  of  the  English  language,  and 
furnished  Chaucer,  the  father  of  English  literature,  with  his 
first  models  for  imitation. 

The  troubadours  numbered  among  their  ranks  the  most  illus- 
trious sovereigns  and  heroes  of  the  age.  Among  others,  Rich- 
ard Cceur  de  Lion,  who,  as  a  poet  and  knight,  united  in  his  own 
person  all  the  brilliant  qualities  of  the  time.  A  story  is  told  of 
him,  that  when  he  was  detained  a  prisoner  in  Germany,  the 
place  of  his  imprisonment  was  discovered  by  Blondel,  his  min- 
strel, who  sang  beneath  the  fortress  a  tenson  which  he  and 
Richard  had  composed  in  common,  and  to  which  Richard  re- 
sponded. Bertrand  de  Born,  who  was  intimately  connected 
with  Richard,  and  who  exercised  a  powerful  influence  over  the 
destinies  of  the  royal  family  of  England,  has  left  a  number  of 
original  poems ;  Sordello  of  Mantua  was  the  first  to  adopt  the 
ballad  form  of  writing,  and  many  of  his  love  songs  are  expressed 
in  a  pure  and  delicate  style.  Both  of  these  poets  are  immortal- 
ized in  the  Divine  Comedy  of  Dante.  The  history  of  Geoffroy 
Rudel  illustrates  the  wildness  of  the  imagination  and  manners 
of  the  troubadours.  He  was  a  gentleman  of  Provence,  and 
hearing  the  knights  who  had  returned  from  the  Holy  Land 
speak  with  enthusiasm  of  the  Countess  of  Tripoli,  who  had  ex- 
tended to  them  the  most  generous  hospitality,  and  whose  grace 
and  beauty  equaled  her  virtues,  he  fell  in  love  with  her  without 
ever  having  seen  her,  and,  leaving  the  Court  of  England,  he 
embarked  for  the'Holy  Land,  to  offer  to  her  the  homage  of  his 
heart.  During  the  voyage  he  was  attacked  by  a  severe  illness, 
and  lost  the  power  of  speech.  On  his  arrival  in  the  harbor, 
the  countess,  being  informed  that  a  celebrated  poet  was  dying 


FRENCH  LITERATURE.  249 

of  love  for  her,  visited  him  on  shipboard,  took  him  kindly  by 
the  hand,  and  attempted  to  cheer  his  spirits.  Rudel  revived 
sufficiently  to  thank  the  lady  for  her  humanity  and  to  declare 
his  passion,  when  his  voice  was  silenced  by  the  convulsions  of 
death.  He  was  buried  at  Tripoli,  and,  by  the  orders  of  the 
countess,  a  tomb  of  porphyry  was  erected  to  his  memory.  It 
is  unnecessary  to  mention  other  names  among  the  multitude  of 
these  poets,  who  all  hold  nearly  the  same  rank.  An  extreme 
monotony  reigns  throughout  their  works,  which  offer  little  indi- 
viduality of  character. 

After  the  thirteenth  century,  the  troubadours  were  heard  no 
more,  and  the  efforts  of  the  counts  of  Provence,  the  magistrates 
of  Toulouse,  and  the  kings  of  Arragon  to  awaken  their  genius 
by  the  Courts  of  Love  and  the  Floral  Games  were  vain.  They 
themselves  attributed  their  decline  to  the  degradation  into 
which  the  jongleurs,  with  whom  at  last  they  were  confounded, 
had  fallen.  But  their  art  contained  within  itself  a  more  imme- 
diate principle  of  decay  in  the  profound  ignorance  of  its  profes- 
sors. They  had  no  other  models  than  the  songs  of  the  Ara- 
bians, which  perverted  their  taste.  They  made  no  attempt  at 
epic  or  dramatic  poetry ;  they  had  no  classical  allusions,  no 
mythology,  nor  even  a  romantic  imagination,  and,  deprived  of 
the  riches  of  antiquity,  they  had  few  resources  within  them- 
selves. The  poetry  of  Provence  was  a  beautiful  flower  spring- 
ing up  on  a  sterile  soil,  and  no  cultivation  could  avail  in  the 
absence  of  its  natural  nourishment.  From  the  close  of  the 
twelfth  century  the  language  began  to  decline,  and  public  events 
occurred  which  hastened  its  downfall,  and  reduced  it  to  the  con- 
dition ofa  provincial  dialect. 

Among  the  numerous  sects  which  sprang  up  in  Christendom 
during  the  Middle  Ages,  there  was  one  which,  though  bearing 
different  names  at  different  times,  more  or  less  resembled  what 
is  now  known  as  Protestantism  ;  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries  it  was  called  the  faith  of  the  Albigenses,  as  it  prevailed 
most  widely  in  the  district  of  Albi.  It  easily  came  to  be  iden- 
tified with  the  Provencal  language,  as  this  was  the  chosen  vehi- 
cle of  its  religious  services.  This  sect  was  tolerated  and  pro- 
tected by  the  Court  of  Toulouse.  It  augmented  its  numbers ; 
it  devoted  itself  to  commerce  and  the  arts,  and  added  much  to 
the  prosperity  which  had  long  distinguished  the  south  of  France. 
The  Albigenses  had  lived  long  and  peaceably  side  by  side  with 
the  Catholics  in  the  cities  and  villages ;  but  Innocent  III.  sent 
legates  to  Provence,  who  preached,  discussed,  and  threatened, 
and  met  a  freedom  of  thought  and  resistance  to  authority  which 
Rome  was  not  willing  to  brook.  Bitter  controversy  was  now 
substituted  for  the  amiable  frivolity  of  the  tensons,  and  theolog- 


250       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

ical  disputes  superseded  those  on  points  of  gallantry.  The  long 
struggle  between  the  poetry  of  the  troubadours  and  the  preach- 
ing of  the  monks  came  to  a  crisis  ;  the  severe  satires  which  the 
disorderly  lives  of  the  clergy  called  forth  became  severer  still, 
and  the  songs  of  the  troubadours  wounded  the  power  and  pride 
of  Rome  more  deeply  than  ever,  while  they  stimulated  the  Albi- 
genses  to  a  valiant  resistance  or  a  glorious  death.  A  crusade 
followed,  and  when  the  dreadful  strife  was  over,  Provencal  po- 
etry had  received  its  death-blow.  The  language  of  Provence 
was  destined  to  share  the  fate  of  its  poetry  ;  it  became  identified 
in  the  minds  of  the  orthodox  with  heresy  and  rebellion.  When 
Charles  of  Anjou  acquired  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  he  drew 
thither  the  Proven9al  nobility,  and  thus  drained  the  kingdom  of 
those  who  had  formerly  maintained  its  chivalrous  manners.  In 
the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century,  when  the  Court  of  Rome 
was  removed  to  Avignon,  the  retinues  of  the  three  successive 
popes  were  Italians,  and  the  Tuscan  language  entirely  super- 
seded the  Provencal  among  the  higher  classes. 

2.  THE  TROUVEKES.  —  While  the  Provencal  was  thus  relaps- 
ing into  a  mere  dialect,  the  north  of  France  was  maturing  a 
new  language  and  literature  of  an  entirely  different  character. 
Normandy,  a  province  of  France,  was  invaded  in  the  tenth  cen- 
tury by  a  new  northern  tribe,  who,  under  the  command  of  Rollo 
or  Raoul  the  Dane,  incorporated  themselves  with  the  ancient 
inhabitants.  The  victors  adopted  the  language  of  the  van- 
quished, stamped  upon  it  the  impress  of  their  own  genius,  and 
gave  it  a  fixed  form.  It  was  from  Normandy  that  the  first 
writers  and  poets  in  the  French  language  sprang.  While  the 
Romance  Proven9al  spoken  in  the  South  was  sweet,  and  expres- 
sive of  effeminate  manners,  the  Romance- Wallon  was  energetic 
and  warlike,  and  represented  the  severer  manners  of  the  Ger- 
mans. Its  poetry,  too,  was  widely  different  from  the  Proven- 
£al.  It  was  no  longer  the  idle  baron  sighing  for  his  lady-love, 
but  the  songs  of  a  nation  of  hardy  warriors,  celebrating  the 
prowess  of  their  ancestors  with  all  the  exaggerations  that  fancy 
could  supply.  The  Langue  d'oui  became  the  vehicle  of  litera- 
ture only  in  the  twelfth  century,  —  a  hundred  years  subsequent 
to  the  Romance  Provencal.  The  poets  and  reciters  of  tales, 
giving  the  name  of  Troubadour  a  French  termination,  called 
themselves  Trouveres.  They  originated  the  brilliant  romances 
of  chivalry,  the  fabliaux  or  tales  of  amusement,  and  the  dra- 
matic invention  of  the  Mysteries.  The  first  literary  work  in 
this  tongue  is  the  versified  romance  of  a  fabulous  history  of  the 
early  kings  of  England,  beginning  with  Brutus,  the  grandson  of 
uEneas,  who,  after  passing  many  enchanted  isles,  at  length  es- 
tablishes himself  in  England,  where  he  finds  King  Arthur,  the 


FRENCH  LITERATURE.  251 

chivalric  institution  of  the  Round  Table,  and  the  enchanter 
Merlin,  one  of  the  most  popular  personages  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
Out  of  this  legend  arose  some  of  the  boldest  creations  of  the 

O 

human  fancy.  The  word  "romance,"  now  synonymous  with  fic- 
titious composition,  originally  meant  only  a  work  in  the  modern 
dialect,  as  distinguished  from  the  scholastic  Latin.  There  is  little 
dcubt  that  these  tales  were  originally  believed  to  be  strictly  true. 
One  of  the  first  romances  of  chivalry  was  "  Tristam  de  Leo- 
nois,"  written  in  1190.  This  was  soon  followed  by  that  of  the 
"  San  Graal  "  and  "  Lancelot ;  "  and  previously  to  1213  Ville- 
Hardouin  had  written  in  the  French  language  a  "  History  of 
the  Conquest  of  Constantinople."  The  poem  of  "  Alexander," 
however,  which  appeared  about  the  same  time,  has  enjoyed  the 
greatest  reputation.  It  is  a  series  of  romances  and  marvelous 
histories,  said  to  be  the  result  of  the  labors  of  nine  celebrated 
poets  of  the  time.  Alexander  is  introduced,  surrounded  not  by 
the  pomp  of  antiquity,  but  by  the  splendors  of  chivalry.  The 
high  renown  of  this  poem  has  given  the  name  of  Alexandrine 
verse  to  the  measure  in  which  it  is  written. 

The  spirit  of  chivalry  which  burst  forth  in  the  romances  of 
the  trouveres,  the  heroism  of  honor  and  love,  the  devotion  of 
the  powerful  to  the  weak,  the  supernatural  fictions,  so  novel 
and  so  dissimilar  to  everything  in  antiquity  or  in  later  times,  the 
force  and  brilliancy  of  imagination  which  they  display,  have  been 
variously  attributed  to  the  Arabians  and  the  Germans,  but  they 
were  undoubtedly  the  invention  of  the  Normans.  Of  all  the 
people  of  ancient  Europe,  they  were  the  most  adventurous  and 
intrepid.  They  established  a  dynasty  in  Russia  ;  they  cut  their 
way  through  a  perfidious  and  sanguinary  nation  to  Constanti- 
nople ;  they  landed  on  the  coasts  of  England  and  France,  and 
surprised  nations  who  were  ignorant  of  their  existence  ;  they 
conquered  Sicily,  and  established  a  principality  in  the  heart  of 
Syria.  A  people  so  active,  so  enterprising,  and  so  intrepid, 
found  no  greater  delight  in  their  leisure  hours  than  listening  to 
tales  of  adventures,  dangers,  and  battles.  The  romances  of 
chivalry  are  divided  into  three  distinct  classes.  They  relate  to 
three  different  epochs  in  the  early  part  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
represent  three  bands  of  fabulous  heroes.  In  the  romances  of 
the  first  class,  the  exploits  of  Arthur,  son  of  Pendragon.  the  last 
British  king  who  defended  England  against  the  invasion  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons,  are  celebrated.  In  the  second  we  find  the  Ama- 
dises,  but  whether  they  belong  to  French  literature  has  been 
reasonably  disputed.  The  scene  is  placed  nearly  in  the  same 
countries  as  in  the  romances  of  the  Round  Table,  but  there  is  a 
want  of  locality  about  them,  and  the  name  and  the  times  are 
absolutely  fabulous.  "  Amadis  of  Gaul,"  the  first  of  these  ro- 


252       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

mances,  and  the  model  of  all  the  rest,  is  claimed  as  the  work 
of  Vasco  Lobeira,  a  Portuguese  (1290-1325)  ;  but  no  doubt 
exists  with  regard  to  the  continuations  and  numerous  imitations 
of  this  work,  which  are  incontestably  of  Spanish  origin,  and 
were  in  their  highest  repute  when  Cervantes  produced  his  inim- 
itable "  Don  Quixote."  The  third  class  of  chivalric  romances, 
relating  to  the  court  of  Charlemagne  and  his  Paladins,  is  entirely 
French,  although  their  celebrity  is  chiefly  due  to  the  renowned 
Italian  poet  who  availed  himself  of  their  fictions.  The  most 
ancient  monument  of  the  marvelous  history  of  Charlemagne  is 
the  chronicle  of  Turpin,  of  uncertain  date,  and  which,  though 
fabulous,  can  scarcely  be  considered  as  a  romance.  This  and 
other  similar  narratives  furnished  materials  for  the  romances, 
which  appeared  at  the  conclusion  of  the  Crusades,  when  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  East  had  enriched  the  French  imagination  with  all 
the  treasures  of  the  Arabian.  The  trouveres  were  not  only  the 
inventors  of  the  romances  of  chivalry,  but  they  originated  the 
allegories,  and  the  dramatic  compositions  of  southern  Europe. 
Although  none  of  their  works  have  obtained  a  high  reputation 
or  deserve  to  be  ranked  among  the  masterpieces  of  human  intel- 
lect, they  are  still  worthy  of  attention  as  monuments  of  the  prog- 
ress of  mind. 

The  French  possessed,  above  every  other  nation  of  modern 
times,  an  inventive  spirit,  but  they  were,  at  the  same  time,  the 
originators  of  those  tedious  allegorical  poems  which  have  been 
imitated  by  all  the  romantic  nations.  The  most  ancient  and 
celebrated  of  these  is  the  "  Romance  of  the  Rose,"  though  not  a 
romance  in  the  present  sense  of  the  word.  At  the  period  of  its 
composition,  the  French  language  was  still  called  the  Romance, 
and  alj  its  more  voluminous  productions  Romances.  The  "  Ro- 
mance of  the  Rose  "  was  the  work  of  two  authors,  Guillaume 
de  Lorris,  who  commenced  it  in  the  early  part  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  and  Jean  de  Meun  (b.  1280),  by  whom  it  was  contin- 
ued. Although  it  reached  the  appalling  length  of  twenty  thou- 
sand verses,  no  book  was  ever  more  popular.  It  was  admired 
as  a  masterpiece  of  wit,  invention,  and  philosophy  ;  the  highest 
mysteries  of  theology  were  believed  to  be  concealed  in  this  po- 
etical form,  and  learned  commentaries  were  written  upon  its 
veiled  meaning  by  preachers,  who  did  not  scruple  to  cite  pas- 
sages from  it  in  the  pulpit.  But  the  tedious  poem  and  its  num- 
berless imitations  are  nothing  but  rhymed  prose,  which  it  would 
be  impossible  to  recognize  as  poetry,  if  the  measure  of  the  verse 
were  taken  away. 

In  considering  the  popularity  of  these  long,  didactic  works, 
it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  people  of  that  day  were  almost 
entirely  without  books.  A  single  volume  was  the  treasure  of  a 


FRENCH  LITERATURE.  253 

whole  household.  In  unfavorable  weather  it  was  read  to  a  cir- 
cle around  the  fire,  and  when  it  was  finished  the  perusal  was 
again  commenced.  No  comparison  with  other  b'ooks  enabled 
men  to  form  a  judgment  upon  its  merits.  It  was  reverenced 
like  holy  writ,  and  they  accounted  themselves  happy  in  being 
able  to  comprehend  it. 

Another  species  of  poetry  peculiar  to  this  period  had  at  least 
the  merit  of  being  exceedingly  amusing.  This  was  the  fabliaux, 
tales  written  in  verse  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries. 
They  are  treasures  of  invention,  simplicity,  and  gayety,  of  which 
other  nations  can  furnish  no  instances,  except  by  borrowing 
from  the  French.  A  collection  of  Indian  tales,  translated  into 
Latin  in  the  tenth  or  eleventh  century,  was  the  first  storehouse 
of  the  trouveres.  The  Arabian  tales,  transmitted  by  the  Moors 
to  the  Castilians,  and  by  the  latter  to  the  French,  were  in  turn 
versified.  But  above  all,  the  anecdotes  collected  in  the  towns 
and  castlas  of  France,  the  adventures  of  lovers,  the  tricks  of 
gallants,  and  the  numerous  subjects  gathered  from  the  man- 
ners of  the  age,  afforded  inexhaustible  materials  for  ludicrous 
narratives  to  the  writers  of  these  tales.  They  were  treasures 
common  to  all.  We  seldom  know  the  name  of  the  trouvere  by 
whom  these  anecdotes  were  versified.  As  they  were  related, 
each  one  varied  them  according  to  the  impression  he  wished  to 
produce.  At  this  period  there  were  neither  theatrical  enter- 
tainments nor  games  at  cards  to  fill  up  the  leisure  hours  of  so- 
ciety, and  the  trouveres  or  relators  of  the  tales  were  welcomed 
at  the  courts,  castles,  and  private  houses  with  an  eagerness  pro- 
portioned to  the  store  of  anecdotes  which  they  brought  with 
them  to  enliven  conversation.  Whatever  was  the  subject  of 
their  verse,  legends,  miracles,  or  licentious  anecdotes,  they  were 
equally  acceptable.  These  tales  were  the  models  of  those  of 
Boccaccio,  La  Fontaine,  and  others.  Some  of  them  have  had 
great  fame,  and  have  passed  from  tongue  to  tongue,  and  from 
age  to  age,  down  to  our  own  times.  Several  of  them  have  been 
introduced  upon  the  stage,  and  others  formed  the  originals  of 
Parnell's  "  Hermit,"  of  the  "  Za'ire "  of  Voltaire,  and  of  the 
"  Renard,"  which  Goethe  has  converted  into  a  long  poem.  But 
perhaps  the  most  interesting  and  celebrated  of  all  the  fabliaux 
is  that  of  "  Aucassin  and  Nicolette,"  which  has  furnished  the 
subject  for  a  well-known  opera. 

It  was  at  this  period,  when  the  ancient  drama  was  entirely 
forgotten,  that  a  dramatic  form  was  given  to  the  great  events 
which  accompanied  the  establishment  of  the  Christian  religion. 
The  first  to  introduce  this  grotesque  species  of  composition, 
were  the  pilgrims  who  had  returned  from  the  Holy  Land.  In 
the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  centuries,  their  dramatic  representations 


254       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

were  first  exhibited  in  the  open  streets  ;  but  it  was  only  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  fourteenth  that  a  company  of  pilgrims  under- 
took to  amuse  the  public  by  regular  dramatic  entertainments. 
They  were  called  the  Fraternity  of  the  Passion,  from  the  passion 
of  our  Saviour  being  one  of  their  most  celebrated  representa- 
tions. This  mystery,  the  most  ancient  dramatic  work  of  modern 
Europe,  comprehends  the  whole  history  of  our  Lord,  from  his 
baptism  to  his  death.  The  piece  was  too  long  for  one  represen- 
tation, and  was  therefore  continued  from  day  to  day.  Eighty- 
seven  characters  successively  appear  in  th>s  mystery,  among 
whom  are  the  three  persons  of  the  Trinity,  angels,  apostles,  dev- 
ils, and  a  host  of  other  personages,  the  invention  of  the  poet's 
brain.  To  fill  the  comic  parts,  the  dialogues  of  the  devils  were 
introduced,  and  their  eagerness  to  maltreat  one  another  always 
produced  much  laughter  in  the  assembly.  Extravagant  ma- 
chinery was  employed  to  give  to  the  representation  the  pomp 
which  we  find  in  the  modern  opera ;  and  this  drama,  placing 
before  the  eyes  of  a  Christian  assembly  all  those  incidents  for 
which  they  felt  the  highest  veneration,  must  have  affected  them 
much  more  powerfully  than  even  the  finest  tragedies  can  do  at 
the  present  day. 

The  mystery  of  the  Passion  was  followed  by  a  crowd  of  imi- 
tations. The  whole  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  lives  of  all 
the  saints,  were  brought  upon  the  stage.  The  theatre  on  which 
these  mysteries  were  represented  was  always  composed  of  an  ele- 
vated scaffold  divided  into  three  parts,  —  heaven,  hell,  and  the 
earth  between  them.  The  proceedings  of  the  Deity  and  Lucifer 
might  be  discerned  in  their  respective  abodes,  and  angels  de- 
scended and  devils  ascended,  as  their  interference  in  mundane 
affairs  was  required.  The  pomp  of  these  representations  went 
on  increasing  for  two  centuries,  and,  as  great  value  was  set  upon 
the  length  of  the  piece,  some  mysteries  could  not  be  represented 
in  less  than  forty  days. 

The  "'  Clerks  of  the  Revels,"  an  incorporated  society  at  Paris, 
whose  duty  it  was  to  regulate  the  public  festivities,  resolved  to 
amuse  the  people  with  dramatic  representations  themselves,  but 
as  the  Fraternity  of  the  Passion  had  obtained  a  royal  license  to 
represent  the  mysteries,  they  were  compelled  to  abstain  from 
that  kind  of  exhibition.  They  therefore  invented  a  new  one,  to 
which  they  gave  the  name  of  "Moralities,"  and  which  differed 
little  from  the  mysteries,  except  in  name.  They  were  borrowed 
from  the  Parables,  or  the  historical  parts  of  the  Bible,  or  they 
were  purely  allegorical.  To  the  Clerks  of  the  Revels  we  also 
owe  the  invention  of  modern  comedy.  They  mingled  their  mo- 
ralities with  farces,  the  sole  object  of  which  was  to  excite  laugh- 
ter, and  in  which  all  the  gayety  and  vivacity  of  the  French  char- 


FRENCH  LITERATURE.  255 

acter  were  displayed.  Some  of  these  plays  still  retain  their 
place  upon  the  French  stage.  At  the  commencement  of  the  fif- 
teenth century  another  comic  company  was  established,  who 
introduced  personal  and  even  political  satire  upon  the  stage. 
Thus  every  species  of  dramatic  representation  was  revived  by 
the  French.  This  was  the  result  of  the  talent  for  imitation  so 
peculiar  to  the  French  people,  and  of  that  pliancy  of  thought 
and  correctness  of  intellect  which  enables  them  to  conceive  new 
characters.  All  these  inventions,  which  led  to  the  establishment 
of  the  Romantic  di.uiui  in  other  countries,  were  known  in  France 
more  than  a  century  before  the  rise  of  the  Spanish  or  Italian 
theatre,  and  even  before  the  classical  authors  were  first  studied 
and  imitated.  At  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  these  new 
pursuits  acquired  a  more  immediate  influence  over  the  literature 
of  France,  and  wrought  a  change  in  its  spirit  and  rules,  without, 
however,  altering  the  national  character  and  taste  which  had 
been  manifested  in  the  earliest  productions  of  the  trouveres. 

3.  FRENCH  LITERATURE  IN  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY. — 
French  had  as  yet  been  merely  a  popular  language  ;  it  varied 
from  province  to  province,  and  from  author  to  author,  because 
no  masterpiece  had  inaugurated  any  one  of  its  numerous  dia- 
lects. It  was  disdained  by  the  more  serious  writers,  who  con- 
tinued to  employ  the  Latin.  In  the  fifteenth  century  literature 
assumed  a  somewhat  wider  range,  and  the  language  began  to 
take  precision  and  force.  But  with  much  general  improvement 
and  literary  industry  there  was  still  nothing  great  or  original, 
nothing  to  mark  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  letters.  The  only 
poets  worthy  of  notice  were  Charles,  Duke  of  Orleans  (1391- 
1465),  and  Villon,  a  low  ruffian  of  Paris  (1431-1500).  Charles 
was  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Agincourt,  and  carried  to 
England,  where  he  was  detained  for  twenty-five  years,  and  where 
he  wrote  a  volume  of  poems  in  which  he  imitated  the  allegorical 
style  of  the  Romance  of  the  Rose.  The  verses  of  Villon  were 
inspired  by  the  events  of  his  not  very  creditable  life.  Again 
and  again  he  suffered  imprisonment  for  petty  larcenies,  and  at 
the  age  of  twenty-five  was  condemned  to  be  hanged.  His 
language  is  not  that  of  the  court,  but  of  the  people  ;  and  his 
poetry  marks  the  first  sensible  progress  after  the  Romance  of 
the  Rose. 

It  has  been  well  said  that  literature  begins  with  poetry ;  but 
it  is  established  by  prose,  which  fixes  the  language.  The  ear- 
liest work  in  French  prose  is  the  chronicle  of  Ville-Hardouin 
(1150-1213),  written  in  the  thirteenth  century.  It  is  a  personal 
narrative,  and  relates  with  graphic  particularity  the  conquest  of 
Constantinople  by  the  knights  of  Christendom.  This  ancient 
chronicle  traces  out  for  us  some  of  the  realities,  of  which  the 


256       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL   LITERATURE. 

mediaeval  romances  were  the  ideal,  and  enables  us  to  judge  in  a 
measure  how  far  these  romances  embody  substantial  truth. 

A  great  improvement  in  style  is  apparent  in  Joinville  (1223- 
1317),  the  amiable  and  light-hearted  ecclesiastic  who  wrote  the 
Life  of  St.  Louis,  whom  he  had  accompanied  to  the  Holy  Land, 
and  whose  pious  adventures  he  affectionately  records.  Notwith- 
standing the  anarchy  which  prevailed  in  France  during  the  four- 
teenth century,  some  social  progress  was  made ;  but  while  public 
events  were  hostile  to  poetry,  they  gave  inspiration  to  the  his- 
toric muse,  and  Froissart  arose  to  impart  vivacity  of  coloring  to 
historic  narrative. 

Froissart  (1337-1410)  was  an  ecclesiastic  of  the  day,  but 
little  in  his  life  or  writings  bespeaks  the  sacred  calling.  Having 
little  taste  for  the  duties  of  his  profession,  he  was  employed  by 
the  Lord  of  Montfort  to  compose  a  chronicle  of  the  wars  of  the 
time ;  but  there  were  no  books  to  tell  him  of  the  past,  no  regular 
communication  between  nations  to  inform  him  of  the  present ; 
so  he  followed  the  fashion  of  knights  errant,  and  set  out  on 
horseback,  not  to  seek  adventures,  but,  as  an  itinerant  historian, 
to  find  materials  for  his  chronicle.  He  wandered  from  town  to 
town,  and  from  castle  to  castle,  to  see  the  places  of  which  he 
would  write,  and  to  learn  events  on  the  spot  where  they  oc- 
curred. His  first  journey  was  to  England ;  here  he  was  em- 
ployed by  Queen  Philippa  of  Hainault  to  accompany  the  Duke 
of  Clarence  to  Milan,  where  he  met  Boccaccio  and  Chaucer. 
He  afterwards  passed  into  the  service  of  several  of  the  princes 
of  Europe,  to  whom  he  acted  as  secretary  and  poet,  always  glean- 
ing material  for  historic  record.  His  book  is  an  almost  univer- 
sal history  of  the  different  states  of  Europe,  from  1322  to  the 
end  of  the  fourteenth  century.  He  troubles  himself  with  no  ex- 
planations or  theories  of  cause  and  effect,  nor  with  the  philosophy 
of  state  policy ;  he  is  simply  a  graphic  story-teller.  Sir  Walter 
Scott  called  Froissart  his  master. 

Philippe  de  Commines  (1445-1509)  was  a  man  of  his  age, 
but  in  advance  of  it,  combining  the  simplicity  of  the  fifteenth 
century  with  the  sagacity  of  a  later  period.  An  annalist,  like 
Froissart,  he  was  also  a  statesman,  and  a  political  philosopher; 
embracing,  like  Machiavelli  and  Montesquieu,  the  remoter  con- 
sequences which  flowed  from  the  events  he  narrated  and  the 
principles  he  unfolded.  He  was  an  unscrupulous  diplomat  in 
the  service  of  Louis  XL,  and  his  description  of  the  last  years  of 
that  monarch  is  a  striking  piece  of  history,  whence  poets  and 
novelists  have  borrowed  themes  in  later  times.  But  neither  the 
romance  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  nor  the  song  of  Beranger  does  jus- 
tice to  the  reality,  as  presented  by  the  faithful  Commines. 


FRENCH  LITERATURE.  257 


PERIOD  SECOND. 

THE  RENAISSANCE  AND  THE  GOLDEN  AGE  OF  FRENCH  LITERATURE 
11500-1700). 

1.  THE  RENAISSANCE  AND  THE  REFORMATION.  —  During 
the  preceding  ages,  erudition  and  civilization  had  not  gone  hand- 
in-hand.  On  the  one  side  there  was  the  bold,  chivalric  mind  of 
young  Europe,  speaking  with  the  tongues  of  yesterday,  while  on 
the  other  was  the  ecclesiastical  mind,  expressing  itself  in  degen- 
erate Latin.  The  one  was  a  life  of  gayety  and  rude  disorder  — 
the  life  of  court  and  castle  as  depicted  in  the  literature  just 
scanned  ;  the  other,  that  of  men  separated  from  the  world,  who 
had  been  studying  the  literary  remains  of  antiquity,  and  tran- 
scribing and  treasuring  them  for  future  generations.  Hitherto 
these  two  sections  had  held  their  courses  apart ;  now  they  were 
to  meet  and  blend  in  harmony.  The  vernacular  poets,  on  the 
one  hand,  borrowing  thought  and  expression  from  the  classics, 
and  the  clergy,  on  the  other,  becoming  purveyors  of  light  litera- 
ture to  the  court  circles. 

The  fifteenth  century,  though  somewhat  barren,  had  prepared 
for  the  fecundity  of  succeeding  ages.  The  revival  of  the  study 
of  ancient  literature,  which  was  promoted  by  the  downfall  of 
Constantinople,  the  invention  of  printing,  the  discovery  of  the 
new  world,  the  decline  of  feudalism,  and  the  consequent  eleva- 
tion of  the  middle  classes,  —  all  concurred  to  promote  a  rapid 
improvement  of  the  human  intellect. 

During  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  all  the  ardor 
of  the  French  mind  was  turned  to  the  study  of  the  dead  lan- 
guages ;  men  of  genius  had  no  higher  ambition  than  to  excel  in 
them,  and  many  in  their  declining  years  went  in  their  gray  hairs 
to  the  schools  where  the  languages  of  Homer  and  Cicero  were 
taught.  In  civil  and  political  society,  the  same  enthusiasm 
manifested  itself  in  the  imitation  of  antique  manners  ;  people 
dressed  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  fashions,  borrowed  from  them 
the  usages  of  life,  and  made  a  point  of  dying  like  the  heroes  of 
Plutarch. 

The  religious  reformation  came  soon  after  to  restore  the 
Christian,  as  the  revival  of  letters  had  brought  back  the  pagan 
antiquity.  Ignorance  was  dissipated,  and  religion  was  disen- 
gaged from  philosophy.  The  Renaissance,  as  the  revival  of  an- 
tique learning  was  called,  and  the  Reformation,  at  first  made 
common  cause.  One  of  those  who  most  eagerly  imbibed  the 
spirit  of  both  was  the  Princess  Marguerite  de  Valois  (1492— 
1549),  elder  sister  of  Francis  L,  who  obtained  the  credit  of 
many  generous  actions  which  were  truly  hers.  The  principal 
17 


258       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

work  of  this  lady  was  "  L'Heptameron,"  or  the  History  of  the 
Fortunate  Lovers,  written  on  the  plan  and  in  the  spirit  of  the 
Decameron  of  Boccaccio,  a  work  which  a  lady  of  our  times 
would  be  unwilling  to  own  acquaintance  with,  much  more  to 
adopt  as  a  model ;  but  the  apology  for  Marguerite  must  be 
found  in  the  manners  of  the  times.  L'Heptameron  is  the  ear- 
liest French  prose  that  can  be  read  without  a  glossary. 

In  1518,  when  Margaret  was  twenty-six  years  of  age,  she 
received  from  her  brother  a  gifted  poet  as  valet-de-chambre ; 
this  was  Marot  (1495-1544),  between  whom  and  the  learned 
princess  a  poetical  intercourse  was  maintained.  Marot  had  im- 
bibed the  principles  of  Calvin,  and  had  also  drank  deeply  of 
the  spirit  of  the  Renaissance ;  but  he  displayed  the  poet  more 
truly  before  he  was  either  a  theologian  or  a  classical  scholar. 
He  may  be  considered  the  last  type  of  the  old  French  school, 
of  that  combination  of  grace  and  archness,  of  elegance  and  sim- 
plicity, of  familiarity  and  propriety,  which  is  a  national  charac- 
teristic of  French  poetic  literature,  and  in  which  they  have  never 
been  imitated. 

Francis  Rabelais  (1483-1553)  was  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able persons  that  figured  in  the  Renaissance,  a  learned  scholar, 
physician,  and  philosopher,  though  known  to  posterity  chiefly  as 
an  obscene  humorist.  He  is  called  by  Lord  Bacon  "  the  great 
jester  of  France."  He  was  at  first  a  monk  of  the  Franciscan 
order,  but  he  afterwards  threw  off  the  sacerdotal  character,  and 
studied  medicine.  From  about  the  year  1534,  Rabelais  was  in 
the  service  of  the  Cardinal  Dubellay,  and  a  favorite  in  the 
court  circles  of  Paris  and  Rome.  It  was  probably  during  this 
period  that  he  published,  in  successive  parts,  the  work  on  which 
his  popular  fame  has  rested,  the  "  Lives  of  Garagantua  and 
Pantagruel."  It  consists  of  the  lives  and  adventures  of  these 
two  gigantic  heroes,  father  and  son,  with  the  waggeries  and 
practical  jokes  of  Panurge,  their  jongleur,  and  the  blasphemies 
and  obscenities  of  Friar  John,  a  fighting,  swaggering,  drinking 
monk.  With  these  are  mingled  dissertations,  sophistries,  and 
allegorical  satires  in  abundance.  The  publication  of  the  work 
created  a  perfect  uproar  at  the  Sorbonne,  and  among  the  monks 
who  were  its  principal  victims  ;  but  the  cardinals  enjoyed  its 
humor,  and  protected  its  author,  while  the  king,  Francis  I.,  pro- 
nounced it  innocent  and  delectable.  It  became  the  book  of  the 
day,  and  passed  through  countless  editions  and  endless  com- 
mentaries ;  and  yet  it  is  agreed  on  all  hands  that  there  exists 
not  another  work,  admitted  as  literature,  that  would  bear  a 
moment's  comparison  with  it,  for  indecency,  profanity,  and  re- 
pulsive and  disgusting  coarseness.  His  work  is  now  a  mere  cu- 
riosity for  the  student  of  antique  literature. 


FRENCH  LITERATURE.  259 

As  Rabelais  was  the  leading  type  of  the  Renaissance,  so  was 
Calvin  (1509-1564)  of  the  Reformation.  Having  embraced  the 
principles  of  Luther,  he  went  considerably  farther  in  his  views. 
In  1532  he  established  himself  at  Geneva,  where  he  organized 
a  church  according  to  his  own  ideas.  In  1535  he  published  his 
"  Institutes  of  the  Christian  Religion,"  distinguished  for  great 
severity  of  doctrine.  His  next  most  celebrated  work  is  a  com- 
mentary on  the  Scriptures. 

Intellect  continued  to  struggle  with  its  fetters.  Many,  like 
Rabelais,  mistrusted  the  whole  system  of  ecclesiastical  polity  es- 
tablished by  law,  and  yet  did  not  pin  their  faith  on  the  dictates 
of  the  austere  Calvin.  The  almost  inevitable  consequence  was 
a  wide  and  universal  skepticism,  replacing  the  former  implicit 
subjection  to  Romanism. 

The  most  eminent  type  of  this  school  was  Montaigne  (1533— 
1592),  who,  in  his  "  Essays,"  shook  the  foundations  of  all  the 
creeds  of  his  day,  without  offering  anything  to  replace  them. 
He  is  considered  the  earliest  philosophical  writer  in  French 
prose,  the  first  of  those  who  contributed  to  direct  the  minds  of 
his  countrymen  to  the  study  of  human  nature.  In  doing  so,  he 
takes  himself  as  his  subject ;  he  dissects  his  feelings,  emotions, 
and  tendencies  with  the  coolness  of  an  operating  surgeon.  To  a 
singular  power  of  self-investigation  and  an  acute  observation  of 
the  actions  of  men,  he  added  great  affluence  of  thought  and  ex- 
cursiveness  of  fancy,  which  render  him,  in  spite  of  his  egotism, 
a  most  attractive  writer.  As  he  would  have  considered  it  dis- 
honest to  conceal  anything  about  himself,  he  has  told  much  that 
our  modern  ideas  of  decorum  would  deem  better  untold. 

Charron  (1541-1603),  the  friend  and  disciple  of  Montaigne, 
was  as  bold  a  thinker,  though  inferior  as  a  writer.  In  his  book, 
"  De  la  Sagesse,"  he  treats  religion  as  a  mere  matter  of  specu- 
lation, a  system  of  dogmas  without  practical  influence.  Other 
winters  followed  in  the  same  steps,  and  affected,  like  him,  to 
place  skepticism  at  the  service  of  good  morals.  "  License,"  says 
a  French  writer,  "  had  to  come  before  liberty,  skepticism  before 
philosophical  inquiry,  the  school  of  Montaigne  before  that  of 
Descartes."  On  the  other  hand,  St.  Francis  de  Sales  (1567— 
1622),  in  his  "  Introduction  to  a  Devout  Life,"  and  other  works, 
taught  that  the  only  cure  for  the  evils  of  human  nature  was  to 
be  found  in  the  grace  which  was  revealed  by  Christianity. 

In  these  struggles  of  thought,  in  this  conflict  of  creeds,  the 
language  acquired  vigor  and  precision.  In  the  works  of  Calvin, 
it  manifested  a  seriousness  of  tone,  and  a  severe  purity  of  style 
which  commanded  general  respect.  An  easy,  natural  tone  was 
imparted  to  it  by  Amyot  (1513-1593),  professor  of  Greek  and 
Latin  at  the  University  of  Paris,  who  enriched  the  literature 


260       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

with  elegant  translations,  in  which  he  blended  Hellenic  graces 
with  those  strictly  French. 

2.  LIGHT  LITERATURE.  —  Ronsard  (1524-1585),  the  favorite 
poet  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  flourished  at  the  time  that  the 
rage  for  ancient  literature  was  at  its  height.  He  traced  the 
first  outlines  of  modern  French  poetry,  and  introduced  a  higher 
style  of  poetic  thought  and  feeling  than  had  hitherto  been 
known.  To  him  France  owes  the  first  attempt  at  the  ode  and 
the  heroic  epic ;  in  the  former,  he  is  regarded  as  the  precursor 
of  Malherbe,  who  is  still  looked  on  as  a  model  in  this  style. 
But  Ronsard,  and  the  numerous  school  which  he  formed,  not 
only  imitated  the  spirit  and  form  of  the  ancients,  but  aimed  to 
subject  his  own  language  to  combinations  and  inversions  like 
those  of  the  Greek  and  Latin,  and  foreign  roots  and  phrases 
began  to  overpower  the  reviving  flexibility  of  the  French  idiom. 

Under  this  influence,  the  drama  was  restored  by  Jodelle 
(1532—1573)  and  others,  in  the  shape  of  imitations  and  transla- 
tions. Towards  the  end  of  the  century,  however,  there  appeared 
a  reaction  against  this  learned  tragedy,  led  by  Alexander  Hardy 
(1560-1631),  who,  with  little  or  no  original  genius,  produced 
about  twelve  hundred  plays.  He  borrowed  in  every  direction, 
and  imitated  the  styles  of  all  nations.  But  the  general  taste, 
however,  soon  returned  to  the  Greek  and  Roman  school. 

The  glorious  reign  of  Henry  IV.  had  been  succeeded  by  the 
stormy  minority  of  Louis  XIII.,  when  Malherbe  (1556—1628), 
the  tyrant  of  words  and  syllables,  appeared  as  the  reformer  of 
poetry.  He  attracted  attention  by  ridiculing  the  style  of  Ron- 
sard. He  became  the  laureate  of  the  court,  and  furnished  for  it 
that  literature  in  which  it  was  beginning  to  take  delight.  In 
the  place  of  Latin  and  Gi'eek  French,  he  inaugurated  the  ex- 
treme of  formality ;  the  matter  of  his  verse  was  made  subordi- 
nate to  the  manner  ;  he  substituted  polish  for  native  beauty, 
and  effect  for  genuine  feeling. 

I.  de  Balzac  (1594-1624),  in  his  frivolous  epistles,  used  prose 
as  Malherbe  did  verse,  and  a  numerous  school  of  the  same  char- 
acter was  soon  formed.  The  works  of  Voiture  (1598-1648) 
abound  in  the  pleasantries  and  affected  simplicity  which  best 
befit  such  compositions.  The  most  trifling  adventure  —  the 
death  of  a  cat  or  a  dog  —  was  transformed  into  a  poem,  in  which 
there  was  no  poetry,  but  only  a  gracef  ul  facility,  which  was  con- 
sidered perfectly  charming.  Then,  as  though  native  affectation 
were  not  enough,  the  borrowed  wit  of  Italian  Marinism,  which 
had  been  eagerly  adopted  in  Spain,  made  its  way  thence  into 
France,  with  Spanish  exaggeration  superadded.  A  disciple  of 
this  school  declares  that  the  eyes  of  his  mistress  are  as  ''  large 
as  his  grief,  and  as  black  as  his  fate."  Malherbe  and  his  school 


FRENCH  LITERATURE.  261 

fell  afterwards  into  neglect,  for  fashionable  caprice  had  turned 
its  attention  to  burlesque,  and  every  one  believed  himself  capa- 
ble of  writing  in  this  style,  from  the  Icrds  and  ladies  of  the 
court  down  to  the  valets  and  maid-servants.  It  w^g,men  like 
Scarron  (1610-1660),  familiar  with  literary  study,  and,  from 
choice,  with  the  lowest  society,  who  introduced  this  form,  the 
pleasantry  of  which  was  increased  by  contrast  with  the  finical 
taste  that  had  been  in  vogue.  Fashion  ruled  the  light  litera- 
ture of  France  during  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
and  through  all  its  diversities,  its  great  characteristic  is  the  ab- 
sence of  all  true  and  serious  feeling,  and  of  that  inspiration 
which  is  drawn  from  realities.  In  the  productions  of  half  a 
century,  we  find  not  one  truly  elevated,  energetic,  or  pathetic 
work. 

It  is  during  this  time,  that  is,  between  the  death  of  Henry 
IV.  (1610),  and  that  of  Richelieu  (1642),  that  we  mark  the 
beginning  of  literary  societies  in  France.  The  earliest  in  point 
of  date  was  headed  by  Madame  de  Rambouillet  (1610-1642), 
whose  hotel  became  a  seminary  of  female  authors  and  factious 
politicians.  This  lady  was  of  Italian  origin,  of  fine  taste  and 
education.  She  had  turned  away  in  disgust  from  the  rude  man- 
ners of  the  court  of  Henry  IV.,  and  devoted  herself  to  the  study 
of  the  classics.  After  the  death  of  the  king,  she  gathered  a  dis- 
tinguished circle  round  herself,  combining  the  elegances  of  high 
life  with  the  cultivation  of  literary  taste.  While  yet  young, 
Madame  de  Rambouillet  was  attacked  with  a  malady  which 
obliged  her  to  keep  her  bed  the  greater  part  of  every  year.  An 
elegant  alcove  was  formed  in  the  great  salon  of  the  house,  where 
her  bed  was  placed,  and  here  she  received  her  friends.  The 
choicest  wits  of  Paris  flocked  to  her  levees ;  the  Hotel  de  Ram- 
bouillet became  the  fashionable  rendezvous  of  literature  and 
taste,  and  bas-bleu-ism  was  the  rage.  Even  the  infirmities  of 
this  accomplished  lady  were  imitated.  An  alcove  was  essential 
to  every  fashionable  belle,  who,  attired  in  a  coquettish  dishabille, 
and  reclining  on  satin  pillows,  fringed  with  lace,  gave  audience 
to  whispered  gossip  in  the  ruelle,  as  the  space  around  the  bed 
was  called. 

Among  the  personages  renowned  in  their  day,  who  frequented 
the  Hotel  de  Rambouillet,  were  Mademoiselle  de  Scudery  (1607- 
1701),  then  in  the  zenith  of  her  fame,  Madame  de  Sevigne 
(1627-1696),  Mademoiselle  de  la  Vergne,  afterwards  Madame 
de  Lafayette  (1655-1693),  eminent  as  literary  characters  ;  the 
Duchess  de  Longueville,  the  Duchess  de  Chevreuse,  and  Madame 
Deslioulieres,  afterwards  distinguished  for  their  political  ability. 
At  the  feet  of  these  noble  ladies  reclined  a  number  of  young 
seigneurs,  dangling  their  little  hats  surcharged  with  plumes, 


262       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

while  their  mantles  of  silk  and  gold  were  spread  loosely  on  the 
floor.  And  there,  in  more  grave  attire,  were  the  professional 
litterateurs,  such  as  Balzac,  Voiture,  Menage,  Scudery,  Chaplain, 
Costart,  (j»nrad,  and  the  Abbe  Bossuet.  The  Cupid  of  the  hotel 
was  strictly  Platonic.  The  romances  of  Mademoiselle  de  Scudery 
were  long-spun  disquisitions  on  love  ;  her  characters  were  drawn 
from  the  individuals  around  her,  who  in  turn  attempted  to  sus- 
tain the  characters  and  adopt  the  language  suggested  in  her 
books.  One  folly  led  on  another,  till  at  last  the  vocabulary  of 
the  salon  became  so  artificial,  that  none  but  the  initiated  could 
understand  it.  As  for  Mademoiselle  de  Scudery  herself,  apply- 
ing, it  would  seem,  the  impracticable  tests  she  had  invented  for 
sounding  the  depths  of  the  tender  passion,  though  not  without 
suitors,  she  died  an  old  maid,  at  the  advanced  age  of  ninety- 
four. 

The  civil  wars  of  the  Fronde  (1649-1654)  were  unfavorable 
to  literary  meetings.  The  women  who  took  the  most  distin- 
guished part  in  these  troubles  had  graduated,  so  to  say,  from  the 
Hotel  de  Rambouillet,  which,  perhaps  for  this  reason,  declined 
with  the  ascendency  of  Louis  XIV.  The  agitations  of  the 
Fronde  taught  him  to  distrust  clever  women,  and  he  always 
showed  a  marked  dislike  for  female  authorship. 

3.  THE  FRENCH  ACADEMY.  —  The  taste  for  literature,  which 
had  become  so  generally  diffused,  rendered  the  men  whose  prov- 
ince  it  was  to  define  its  laws  the   chiefs  of  a  brilliant  empire. 
Scholars,  therefore,  frequently  met  together  for  critical  discus- 
sion.    About  the  year  1629  a  certain  number  of  men  of  letters 
agreed  to  assemble  one  day  in  each  week.     It  was  a  union  of 
friendship,  a  companionship  of  men  of  kindred  tastes  and  occu- 
pations ;  and  to  prevent  intrusion,  the  meetings  were  for  some 
time  kept  secret.    When  Richelieu  came  to  hear  of  the  existence 
of  the  society,  desirous  to  make  literature  subservient  to  his  po- 
litical glory,  he  proposed  to  these  gentlemen  to  form  themselves 
into  a  corporation,  established  by  letters  patent,  at  the  same  time 
hinting  that  he  had  the  power  to  put  a  stop  to  their  secret  meet- 
ings.    The  argument  was  irresistible,  and  the  little  society  con- 
sented to  receive  from  his  highness  the  title  of  the  French  Acad- 
emy, in  1635.     The  members  of  the  Academy  were  to  occupy 
themselves  in  establishing  rules  for  the  French  language,  and  to 
take  cognizance  of  whatever  books  were  written  by  its  members, 
and  by  others  who  desired  its  opinions. 

4.  THE  DR^MA.  —  The  endeavor  to  imitate  the  ancients  in 
the  tragic  art  displayed  itself  at  a  very  early  period  among  the 
French,  and  they  considered  that  the  surest  method  of  succeed- 
ing in  this  endeavor  was  to  observe  the  strictest  outward  regu- 
larity  of  form,  of  which  they  derived  their  ideas  more  from 


-    FRENCH  LITERATURE.  263 

Aristotle,  and  especially  from  Seneca,  than  from  any  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  Greek  models  themselves.  Three  of  the 
most  calebrated  of  the  French  tragic  poets,  Corneille,  Racine, 
and  Voltaire,  have  given,  it  would  seem,  an  immutable  shape  to 
the  tragic  stage  of  France  by  adopting  this  system,  which  has 
been  considered  by  the  French  critics  universally  as  alone  enti- 
tled to  any  authority,  and  who  have  viewed  every  deviation  from 
it  as  a  sin  against  good  taste.  The  treatise  of  Aristotle,  from 
which  they  have  derived  the  idea  of  the  far-famed  three  unities, 
of  action,  time,  and  place,  which  have  given  rise  to  so  many  crit- 
ical wars,  is  a  mere  fragment,  and  some  scholars  have  been  of 
the  opinion  that  it  is  not  even  a  fragment  of  the  true  original, 
but  of  an  extract  which  some  person  made  for  his  own  improve- 
ment. From  this  anxious  observance  of  the  Greek  rules,  under 
totally  different  circumstances,  it  is  obvious  that  great  inconven- 
iences and  incongruities  must  arise  ;  and  the  criticism  of  the 
Academy  on  a  tragedy  of  Corneille,  "  that  the  poet,  from  the 
fear  of  sinning  against  the  rules  of  art,  had  chosen  rather  to  sin 
against  the  rules  of  nature,"  is  often  applicable  to  the  dramatic 
writers  of  France. 

Corneille  (1606-1684)  ushered  in  a  new  era  in  the  French 
drama.  It  has  been  said  of  him  that  he  was  a  man  greater  in 
himself  than  in  his  works,  his  genius  being  fettered  by  the  rules 
of  the  French  drama  and  the  conventional  state  of  French  verse. 
The  day  of  mysteries  and  moralities  was  past,  and  the  comedies 
of  Hardy,  the  court  poet  of  Henry  IV.,  had,  in  their  turn,  been 
consigned  to  oblivion,  yet  there  was  an  increasing  taste  for  the 
drama.  The  first  comedy  of  Corneille,  "  Melite,"  was  followed 
by  many  others,  which,  though  now  considered  unreadable,  were 
better  than  anything  then  known.  The  appearance  of  the  "  Cid," 
in  1635,  a  drama  constructed  on  the  foundation  of  the  old  Span- 
ish romances,  constituted  an  era  in  the  dramatic  history  of 
France.  Although  not  without  great  faults,  resulting  from  strict 
adherence  to  the  rules,  it  was  the  first  time  that  the  depths  of 
passion  had  been  stirred  on  the  stage,  and  its  success  was  un- 
precedented. For  years  after,  his  pieces  followed  each  other  in 
rapid  succession,  and  the  history  of  the  stage  was  that  of  Cor- 
neille's  works.  In  the  "  Cid,"  the  triumph  of  love  was  exhibited  ; 
in  "  Les  Horaces,"  love  was  represented  as  punished  for  its  re- 
bellion against  the  laws  of  honor  ;  in  "  Cinna,"  all  more  tender 
considerations  are  sacrificed  to  the  implacable  duty  of  avenging 
a  father ;  while  in  "  Polyeucte,"  duty  triumphs  alone.  Corneille 
did  not  boldly  abandon  himself  to  the  guidance  of  his  genius  ;  he 
feared  criticism,  although  he  defied  it.  His  success  proved  the 
signal  for  envy  and  detraction  ;  he  became  angry  at  being  obliged 
to  fight  his  way,  and  therefore  withdrew  from  the  path  in  which 


264       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

he  was  likely  to  meet  enemies.  His  decline  was  as  rapid  as  his 
success  had  been  brilliant.  "  The  fall  of  the  great  Corneille," 
says  Fontenelle,  "  may  be  reckoned  as  among  the  most  remark- 
able examples  of  the  vicissitudes  of  human  affairs.  Even  that 
of  Belisarius  asking  alms  is  not  more  striking."  As  his  years 
increased,  he  became  more  anxious  for  popularity  ;  having  been 
so  long  in  possession  of  undisputed  superiority,  he  could  not  be- 
hold without  dissatisfaction  the  rising  glory  of  his  successors  ; 
and,  towards  the  close  of  his  life,  this  weakness  was  greatly  in- 
creased by  the  decay  of  his  bodily  organs. 

5.  PHILOSOPHY.  —  During  this  period,  in  a  region  far  above 
court  favor,  Descartes  (1596—1650)  elaborated  his  system  of 
philosophy,  in  creating  a  new  method  of  philosophizing.  The 
leading  peculiarity  of  his  system  was  the  attempt  to  deduce  all 
moral  and  religious  truth  from  self-consciousness.  I  think,  there- 
fore I  am,  was  the  famous  axiom  on  which  the  whole  was  built. 
From  this  he  inferred  the  existence  of  two  distinct  natures  in 
man,  the  mental  and  the  physical,  and  the  existence  of  certain 
ideas  which  he  called  innate  in  the  mind,  and  serving  to  connect 
it  with  the  spiritual  and  invisible.  Besides  these  new  views  in 
metaphysics,  Descartes  made  valuable  contributions  to  mathe- 
matical and  physical  science  ;  and  though  his  philosophy  is  now 
generally  discarded,  it  is  not  forgotten  that  he  opened  the  way 
for  Locke,  Newton,  and  Leibnitz,  and  that  his  system  was  in 
reality  the  base  of  all  those  that  superseded  it.  There  is  scarcely 
a  name  on  record,  the  bearer  of  which  has  given  a  greater  im- 
pulse to  mathematical  and  philosophical  inquiry  than  Descartes, 
and  he  embodied  his  thoughts  in  such  masterly  language,  that  it 
has  been  justly  said  of  him,  that  his  fame  as  a  writer  would  have 
been  greater  if  his  celebrity  as  a  thinker  had  been  less. 

The  age  of  Descartes  was  an  interesting  era  in  the  annals  of 
the  human  mind.  The  darkness  of  scholastic  philosophy  was 
gradually  clearing  away  before  the  light  which  an  improved 
method  of  study  was  shedding  over  the  natural  sciences.  A  sys- 
tem of  philosophy,  founded  on  observation,  was  preparing  the 
downfall  of  those  traditional  errors  which  had  long  held  the  mas- 
tery in  the  schools.  Geometricians,  physicians,  and  astronomers 
taught,  by  their  example,  the  severe  process  of  reasoning  which 
was  to  regenerate  all  the  sciences  ;  and  minds  of  the  first  order, 
scattered  in  various  parts  of  Europe,  communicated  to  each  other 
the  results  of  their  labors,  and  stimulated  each  other  to  new  ex- 
ertions. 

One  of  the  most  eminent  contemporaries  of  Descartes  was 
Pascal  (1628-1662).  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  wrote  a  treatise 
on  conic  sections,  which  was  followed  by  several  important  dis- 
coveries in  arithmetic  and  geometry.  His  experiments  in  nat- 


FRENCH  LITERATURE.  265 

ural  science  added  to  his  fame,  and  he  was  recognized  as  one  of 
the  most  eminent  geometricians  of  modern  times.  But  he  soon 
formed  the  design  of  abandoning  science  for  pursuits  exclusively 
religious,  and  circumstances  arose  which  hecame  the  occasion  of 
those  "  Provincial  Letters,"  which,  with  the  "  Pensees  de  la  Re- 
ligion," are  considered  among  the  finest  specimens  of  French  lit- 
erature. 

The  abbey  of  Port  Royal  occupied  a  lonely  situation  about  six 
leagues  from  Paris.  Its  internal  discipline  had  recently  under- 
gone a  thorough  reformation,  and  the  abbey  rose  to  such  a  high 
reputation,  that  men  of  piety  and  learning  took  up  their  abode 
in  its  vicinity,  to  enjoy  literary  leisure.  The  establishment  re- 
ceived pupils,  and  its  system  of  education  became  celebrated  in 
a  religious  and  intellectual  point  of  view.  The  great  rivals  of 
the  Port  Royalists  were  the  Jesuits.  Pascal,  though  not  a  mem- 
ber of  the  establishment,  was  a  frequent  visitor,  and  one  of  his 
friends  there,  having  been  drawn  into  a  controversy  with  the 
Sorbonne  on  the  doctrines  of  the  Jansenists,  had  recourse  to  his 
aid  in  replying.  Pascal  published  a  series  of  letters  in  a  dra- 
matic form,  in  which  he  brought  his  adversaries  on  the  stage  with 
himself,  and  fairly  cut  them  up  for  the  public  amusement.  These 
letters,  combining  the  comic  pleasantry  of  Moliere  with  the  elo- 
quence of  Demosthenes,  so  elegant  and  attractive  in  style,  and 
so  clear  and  popular  that  a  child  might  understand  them,  gained 
immediate  attention  ;  but  the  Jesuits,  whose  policy  and  doctrines 
they  attacked,  finally  induced  the  parliament  of  Provence  to  con- 
demn them  to  be  burned  by  the  common  hangman ;  and  the  Port 
Royalists,  refusing  to  renounce  their  opinions,  were  driven  from 
their  retreat,  and  the  establishment  broken  up.  Pascal's  master- 
piece is  the  "  Pensees  de  la  Religion  ;  "  it  consists  of  fragments 
of  thought,  without  apparent  connection  or  unity  of  design. 
These  thoughts  are  in  some  places  obscure ;  they  contain  repe- 
titions, and  even  contradictions,  and  require  that  arrangement 
that  could  only  have  been  supplied  by  the  hand  of  the  writer. 
It  has  often  been  lamented  that  the  author  never  constructed 
the  edifice  which  it  is  believed  he  had  designed,  and  of  which 
these  thoughts  were  the  splendid  materials. 

6.  THE  RISE  OF  THE  GOLDEX  AGE  OF  FRENCH  LITERA- 
TURE. —  When  Louis  XIV.  came  to  the  throne  (1638-1715), 
France  was  already  subject  to  conditions  certain  to  produce  a 
brilliant  period  in  literature.  She  had  been  "brought  into  close 
relations  with  Spain  and  Italy,  the  countries  then  the  most  ad- 
vanced in  intellectual  culture  ;  and  she  had  received  from  the 
study  of  the  ancient  masters  the  best  correctives  of  whatever 
might  have  been  extravagant  in  the  national  genius.  She  had 
learned  some  useful  lessons  from  the  polemical  distractions  of 


266       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

the  sixteenth  century.  The  religious  earnestness  excited  by  con- 
troversy was  gratified  by  preachers  of  high  endowments,  and  the 
political  ascendency  of  France,  among  the  kingdoms  of  Europe, 
imparted  a  general  freedom  and  buoyancy.  But  of  all  the  influ- 
ences which  contributed  to  perfect  the  literature  of  France  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  none  was  so  powerful 
as  that  of  the  monarch  himself,  who,  by  his  personal  power, 
rendered  his  court  a  centre  of  knowledge,  and,  by  his  govern- 
ment, imparted  a  feeling  of  security  to  those  who  lived  under  it. 
The  predominance  of  the  sovereign  became  the  most  prominent 
feature  in  the  social  character  of  the  age,  and  the  whole  circle 
of  the  literature  bears  its  impress.  Louis  elevated  and  improved, 
in  no  small  degree,  the  position  of  literary  men,  by  granting 
pensions  to  some,  while  he  raised  others  to  high  offices  of  state  ; 
or  they  were  recompensed  by  the  public,  through  the  general 
taste,  which  the  monarch  so  largely  contributed  to  diffuse. 

The  age,  unlike  that  which  followed  it,  was  one  of  order  and 
specialty  in  literature ;  and  in  classifying  its  literary  riches,  we 
shall  find  the  principal  authors  presenting  themselves  under  the 
different  subjects :  Racine  with  tragedy,  Moliere  with  comedy, 
Boileau  with  satirical  and  mock-heroic,  La  Fontaine  with  narra- 
tive poetry,  Bossuet,  Bourdaloue,  and  Massillon  with  pulpit  elo- 
quence ;  Patru,  Pellisson,  and  some  others  with  that  of  the  bar ; 
Bossuet,  de  Retz,  and  St.  Simon  with  history  and  memoirs  ; 
Rochefoucauld  and  La  Bruyere  with  moral  philosophy ;  Fenelon 
and  Madame  de  Lafayette  with  romance  ;  and  Madame  de  Se- 
vigne  with  letter-writing. 

The  personal  influence  of  the  king  was  most  marked  on  pulpit 
eloquence  and  dramatic  poetry.  Other  branches  found  less 
favor,  from  his  dislike  to  those  who  chiefly  treated  them.  The 
recollections  of  the  Fronde  had  left  in  his  mind  a  distrust  of 
Rochefoucauld.  A  similar  feeling  of  political  jealousy,  with  a 
thorough  hatred  of  bel  esprit,  especially  in  a  woman,  prevented 
him  from  appreciating  Madame  de  Sevigne  ;  and  he  seems  not 
even  to  have  observed  La  Bruyere,  in  his  modest  functions  as 
teacher  of  history  to  the  Duke  of  Burgundy.  He  had  no  taste 
for  the  pure  mental  speculations  of  Malebranche  or  Fenelon  ; 
and  in  metaphysics,  as  in  religion,  had  little  patience  for  what 
was  beyond  the  good  sense  of  ordinary  individuals.  The  same 
hatred  of  excess  rendered  him  equally  the  enemy  of  refiners  and 
free-thinkers,  so  that  the  like  exile  fell  to  the  lot  of  Arnauld  and 
Bayle,  the  one  carrying  to  the  extreme  the  doctrines  of  grace, 
and  the  other  those  of  skeptical  inquiry.  Nor  did  he  relish  the 
excessive  simplicity  of  La  Fontaine,  or  deem  that  his  talent  was 
a  sufficient  compensation  for  his  slovenly  manners  and  inaptitude 
for  court  life.  Of  all  these  writers  it  may  be  said,  that  they 


FRENCH  LITERATURE.  267 

flourished  rather  in  spite  of  the  personal  influence  of  the  mon- 
arch than  under  his  favor. 

7.  TRAGEDY.  —  The  first  dramas  of  Racine  (1639-1699) 
were  hut  feehle  imitations  of  Corneille,  who  advised  the  young 
author  to  attempt  no  more  tragedy.  He  replied  by  producing 
"  Andromaque,"  which  had  a  most  powerful  effect  upon  the 
stage.  The  poet  had  discovered  that  sympathy  was  a  more 
powerful  source  of  tragic  effect  than  admiration,  and  he  accord- 
ingly employed  the  powers  of  his  genius  in  a  truthful  expression 
of  feeling  and  character,  and  a  thrilling  alternation  of  hope  and 
fear,  anger  and  pity.  "  Andromaque  "  was  followed  almost  every 
year  by  a  work  of  similar  character.  Henrietta  of  England  in- 
duced Corneille  and  Racine,  unknown  to  each  other,  to  produce 
a  tragedy  on  Berenice,  in  order  to  contrast  the  powers  of  these 
illustrious  rivals.  They  were  represented  in  the  year  1670  ;  that 
of  Corneille  proved  a  failure,  but  Racine's  was  honored  by  the 
tears  of  the  court  and  the  city.  Soon  after,  partly  disgusted  at 
the  intrigues  against  him,  and  partly  from  religious  principle, 
Racine  abandoned  his  career  while  yet  in  the  full  vigor  of  his 
life  and  genius.  He  was  appointed  historiographer  to  the  king, 
conjointly  with  Boileau,  and  after  twelve  years  of  silence  he  was 
induced  by  Madame  de  Maintenon  to  compose  the  drama  of 
"  Esther  "  for  the  pupils  in  the  Maison  de  St.  Cyr,  which  met 
with  prodigious  success.  "Athalie,"  considered  the  most  per- 
fect of  his  works,  was  composed  with  similar  views ;  theatricals 
having  been  abandoned  at  the  school,  however,  the  play  was 
published,  but  found  no  readers.  Discouraged  by  this  second  in- 
justice, Racine  finally  abandoned  the  drama.  "  Athalie  "  was  but 
little  known  till  the  year  1716,  since  when  its  reputation  has 
considerably  augmented.  Voltaire  pronounced  it  the  most  per- 
fect work  of  human  genius.  The  subject  of  this  drama  is  taken 
from  the  twenty-second  and  twenty-third  chapter  of  II.  Chron- 
icles, where  it  is  written  that  Athaliah,  to  avenge  the  death  of 
her  son,  destroyed  all  the  seed  royal  of  the  house  of  Judah,  but 
that  the  young  Joash  was  stolen  from  among  the  rest  by  his  aunt 
Jehoshabeath,  the  wife  of  the  high-priest,  and  hidden  with  his 
nurse  for  six  years  in  the  temple.  Besides  numerous  tragedies, 
Racine  composed  odes,  epigrams,  and  spiritual  songs.  By  a  rare 
combination  of  talents  he  wrote  as  well  in  prose  as  in  verse.  His 
"History  of  the  Reign  of  Louis  XIV."  was  destroyed  by  a  con- 
flagration, but  there  remain  the  "  History  of  Port  Royal,"  some 
pleasing  letters,  nnd  some  academic  discourses.  The  tragedies 
of  Racine  are  more  elegant  than  those  of  Corneille,  though  less 
bold  and  striking.  Corneille's  principal  characters  are  heroes 
and  heroines  thrown  into  situations  of  extremity,  and  displaying 
strength  of  mind  superior  to  their  position.  Racine's  characters 


268       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

are  men,  not  heroes,  —  men  such  as  they  are,  not  such  as  they 
might  possibly  be. 

France  produced  no  other  tragic  dramatists  of  the  first  class 
in  this  age.  Somewhat  later,  Crebillon  (1674-1762),  in  such 
wild  tragedies  as  "  Atrea,"  "  Electra,"  and  "  Rhadamiste,"  in- 
troduced a  new  element,  that  of  terror,  as  a  source  of  tragic 
effect. 

Cardinal  Mazarin  had  brought  from  Italy  the  opera  or  lyric 
tragedy,  which  was  cultivated  with  success  by  Quinault  (1637- 
1688).  He  is  said  to  have  taken  the  bones  out  of  the  French 
language  by  cultivating  an  art  in  which  thought,  incident,  and 
dialogue  are  made  secondary  to  the  development  of  tender  and 
voluptuous  feeling. 

8.  COMEDY.  —  The  comic  drama,  which  occupied  the  French 
stage  till  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  the  comedy 
of  intrigue,  borrowed  from  Spain,  and  turning  on  disguises,  dark 
lanterns,  and  trap-doors  to  help  or  hinder  the  design  of  person- 
ages who  were  types,  not  of  individual  character,  but  of  classes, 
as  doctors,  lawyers,  lovers,  and  confidants.  It  was  reserved  for 
Moliere  (1622-1673)  to  demolish  all  this  childishness,  and  en- 
throne the  true  Thalia  on  the  French  stage.  Like  Shakspeare, 
he  was  both  an  author  and  an  actor.  The  appearance  of  the 
"  Precieuses  Ridicules  "  was  the  first  of  the  comedies  in  which 
the  gifted  poet  assailed  the  follies  of  his  age.  The  object  of  this 
satire  was  the  system  of  solemn  sentimentality  which  at  this 
time  was  considered  the  perfection  of  elegance.  It  will  be  re- 
membered that  there  existed  at  Paris  a  coterie  of  fashionable 
women  who  pretended  to  the  most  exalted  refinement  both  of 
feeling  and  expression,  and  that  these  were  waited  upon  and 
worshiped  by  a  set  of  nobles  and  litterateurs,  who  used  towards 
them  a  peculiar  strain  of  high-flown,  pedantic  gallantry.  These 
ladies  adopted  fictitious  names  for  themselves  and  gave  enig- 
matical ones  to  the  commonest  things.  They  lavished  upon  each 
other  the  most  tender  appellations,  as  though  in  contrast  to  the 
frigid  tone  in  which  the  Platonism  of  the  Hotel  required  them 
to  address  the  gentlemen  of  their  circle.  Ma  chere,  ma  pre- 
cieuse,  were  the  terms  most  frequently  used  by  the  leaders  of  this 
world  of  folly,  and  a  precieuse  came  to  be  synonymous  with  a 
lady  of  the  clique  ;  hence  the  title  of  the  comedy.  The  piece 
was  received  with  unanimous  applause  ;  a  more  signal  victory 
could  not  have  been  gained  by  a  comic  poet,  and  from  the  time 
of  its  first  representation  this  bombastic  nonsense  was  given  up. 
Moliere,  perceiving  that  he  had  struck  the  true  vein,  resolved  to 
study  human  nature  more  and  Plautus  and  Terence  less.  Com- 
edy after  comedy  followed,  which  were  true  pictures  of  the 
follies  of  society ;  but  whatever  was  the  theme  of  his  satire,  all 


FRENCH  LITERATURE.  269 

proved  that  he  had  a  falcon's  eye  for  detecting  vice  and  folly  in 
every  shape,  and  talons  for  pouncing  upon  all  as  the  natural 
prey  of  the  satirist.  On  the  boards  he  always  took  the  principal 
character  himself,  and  he  was  a  comedian  in  every  look  and  ges- 
ture. The  "  Malade  Imaginaira  "  was  the  last  of  his  works. 
When  it  was  produced  upon  the  stage,  the  poet  himself  was 
really  ill,  but  repressing  the  voice  of  natural  suffering,  to  affect 
that  of  the  hypochondriac  for  public  amusement,  he  was  seized 
with  a  convulsive  cough,  and  carried  home  dying.  Though  he 
was  denied  the  last  offices  of  the  church,  and  his  remains  were 
with  difficulty  allowed  Christian  burial,  in  the  following  century 
his  bust  was  placed  in  the  Academy,  and  a  monument  erected 
to  his  memory  in  the  cemetery  of  Pere  la  Chaise.  The  best  of 
Moliere's  works  are,  "  Le  Misanthrope,"  '"  Les  Femmes  Sa- 
vantes,"  and  "  Tartuffe  ;  "  these  are  considered  models  of  high 
comedy.  Other  comedians  followed,  but  at  a  great  distance  from 
him  in  point  of  merit. 

9.  FABLE,  SATIRE,  MOCK-HEROIC,  AND -OTHER  POETRY. — 
La  Fontaine  (1621-1695)  was  the  prince  of  fabulists;  his  fables 
appeared  successively  in  three  collections,  and  although  the  sub- 
jects of  some  of  these  are  borrowed,  the  dress  is  entirely  new. 
His  versification  constitutes  one  of  the  greatest  charms  of  his 
poetry,  and  seems  to  have  been  the  result  of  an  instinctive  sense 
of  harmony,  a  delicate  taste,  and  rapidity  of  invention.  There 
are  few  authors  in  France  more  popular,  none  so  much  the 
familiar  genius  of  every  fireside.  La  Fontaine  himself  was  a 
mere  child  of  nature,  indolent,  and  led  by  the  whim  of  the  mo- 
ment, rather  than  by  any  fixed  principle.  He  was  desired  by 
his  father  to  take  charge  of  the  domain  of  which  he  was  the 
keeper,  and  to  unite  himself  in  marriage  with  a  family  relative. 
With  unthinking  docility  he  consented  to  both,  but  neglected 
alike  his  official  duties  and  domestic  obligations  with  an  innocent 
unconsciousness  of  wrong.  He  was  taken  to  Paris  by  the  Duchess 
of  Bouillon  and  passed  his  days  in  her  coteries,  and  those  of 
Racine  and  Boileau,  utterly  forgetful  of  his  home  and  family, 
except  when  his  pecuniary  necessities  obliged  him  to  return  to 
sell  portions  of  his  property  to  supply  his  wants.  When  this 
was  exhausted,  he  became  dependent  on  the  kindness  of  female 
discerners  of  merit.  Henrietta  of  England  attached  him  to  her 
suite  ;  and  after  her  death,  Madame  de  la  Sabliere  gave  him 
apartments  at  her  house,  supplied  his  wants,  and  indulged  his 
humors  for  twenty  years.  When  she  retired  to  a  convent, 
Madame  d'Hervart,  the  wife  of  a  rich  financier,  offered  him  a 
similar  retreat.  While  on  her  way  to  make  the  proposal,  she 
met  him  in  the  street,  and  said,  "La  Fontaine,  will  you  come  and 
live  in  my  house?"  "I  was  just  going,  madame,"  he  replied,  as 


270       HANDBOOK   OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

if  his  doing  so  had  been  the  simplest  and  most  natural  thing  in 
the  world.  And  here  he  remained  the  rest  of  his  days.  France 
has  produced  numerous  writers  of  fables  since  the  time  of  La 
Fontaine,  but  none  worthy  of  comparison  with  him. 

The  writings  of  Descartes  and  Pascal,  with  the  precepts  of 
the  Academy  and  Port  Royal,  had  established  the  art  of  prose 
composition,  but  the  destiny  of  poetry  continued  doubtful.  Cor- 
neille's  masterpieces  afforded  models  only  in  one  department ; 
there  was  no  specific  doctrine  on  the  idea  of  what  poetry  ought 
to  be.  To  supply  this  was  the  mission  of  Boileau  (1636—1711)  ; 
and  he  fulfilled  it,  first  by  satirizing  the  existing  style,  and  then 
by  composing  an  "  Art  of  Poetry,"  after  the  manner  of  Horace. 
In  the  midst  of  men  who  made  verses  for  the  sake  of  making 
them,  and  composed  languishing  love-songs  upon  the  perfections 
of  mistresses  who  never  existed  except  in  their  own  imaginations, 
Boileau  determined  to  write  nothing  but  what  interested  his 
feelings,  to  break  with  this  affected  gallantry,  and  draw  poetry 
only  from  the  depths  of  his  own  heart.  His  debut  was  made  in 
unmerciful  satires  on  the  works  of  the  poetasters,  and  he  con- 
tinued to  plead  the  cause  of  reason  against  rhyme,  of  true  poetry 
against  false.  Despite  the  anger  of  the  poets  and  their  friends, 
his  satires  enjoyed  immense  favor,  and  he  consolidated  his  vic- 
tory by  writing  the  "  Art  of  Poetry,"  in  which  he  attempted  to  re- 
store it  to  its  true  dignity.  This  work  obtained  for  him  the  title 
of  Legislator  of  Parnassus.  The  mock-heroic  poem  of  the  "  Lu- 
trin "  is  considered  as  the  happiest  effort  of  his  muse,  though 
inferior  to  the  "  Rape  of  the  Lock,"  a  composition  of  a  similar 
kind.  The  occasion  of  this  poem  was  a  frivolous  dispute  be- 
tween the  treasurer  and  the  chapter  of  a  cathedral  concerning 
the  placing  of  a  reading-desk  (lutriri).  A  friend  playfully  chal- 
lenged Boileau  to  write  a  heroic  poem  on  the  subject,  to  Verify 
his  own  theory  that  the  excellence  of  a  heroic  poem  depended 
upon  the  power  of  the  inventor  to  sustain  and  enlarge  upon  a 
slender  groundwork.  Boileau  was  the  last  of  the  great  poets  of 
the  golden  age. 

The  horizon  of  the  poets  was  at  this  time  somewhat  circum- 
scribed. Confined  to  the  conventional  life  of  the  court  and  the 
city,  they  enjoyed  little  opportunity  for  the  contemplation  of 
nature.  The  policy  of  Louis  XIV.  proscribed  national  recollec- 
tions, so  that  the  social  life  of  the  day  was  alone  open  to  them. 
Poetry  thus  became  abstract  and  ideal,  or  limited  to  the  deline- 
ation of  those  passions  which  belong  to  a  highly  artificial  state 
of  society.  Madame  Deshoulieres  (1634-1694)  indeed  wrote 
some  graceful  idyls,  but  she  by  no  means  entered  into  the  spirit 
of  rural  life  and  manners,  like  La  Fontaine. 

10.  ELOQUENCE  OF  THE  PULPIT  AXD  OF  THE  BAR.  —  Louis 


FRENCH  LITERATURE.  271 

XI V.  afforded  to  religious  eloquence  the  most  efficacious  kind  of 
encouragement,  that  of  personal  attendance.  The  court  preach- 
ers had  no  more  attentive  auditor  than  their  royal  master,  who 
was  singularly  gifted  with  that  tenderness  of  conscience  which 
leads  a  man  to  condemn  himself  for  his  sins,  yet  indulge  in  their 
commission  ;  to  feel  a  certain  pleasure  in  self-accusation,  and  to 
enjoy  that  reaction  of  mind  which  consists  in  occasionally  hold- 
ing his  passions  in  abeyance.  This  attention  on  the  part  of  a 
great  monarch,  the  liberty  of  saying  everything,  the  refined  taste 
of  the  audience,  who  could  on  the  same  day  attend  a  sermon  of 
Bourdaloue  and  a  tragedy  of  Racine,  all  tended  to  lead  pulpit 
eloquence  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection  ;  and,  accordingly,  we 
find  the  function  of  court  preacher  exercised  successively  by 
Bossuet  (1627-1704),  Bourdaloue  (1632-1704),  and  Massillon 
(1663-1742),  the  greatest  names  that  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
has  boasted  in  any  aga  or  country.  Bossuet  addressed  the  con- 
science through  the  imagination,  Bourdaloue  through  the  judg- 
ment, and  Massillon  through  the  feelings.  Flechier  (1632— 
1710),  another  court  preacher,  renowned  chiefly  as  a  rhetorician, 
was  not  free  from  the  affectation  of  Les  Precieuses  ;  but  Bos- 
suet was  perhaps  the  most  distinguished  type  of  the  age  of  Louis 
XIV.,  in  all  save  its  vices.  For  the  instruction  of  the  Dauphin, 
to  whom  he  had  been  appointed  preceptor,  he  wrote  his  '*  Dis- 
uourse  upon  Universal  History,"  by  which  he  is  chiefly  known 
to  us.  The  Protestant  controversy  elicited  his  famous  "  Expo- 
sition of  the  Catholic  Doctrine."  A  still  more  celebrated  work 
is  the  "  Histoiy  of  the  Variations,"  the  leading  principle  of 
which  is,  that  to  forsake  the  authority  of  the  church  leads  one 
knows  not  whither,  that  there  can  be  no  new  religious  views 
except  false  ones,  and  that  there  can  be  no  escape  from  the  faith 
transmitted  from  age  to  age,  save  in  the  wastes  of  skepticism. 
In  his  controversy  with  Fenelon,  in  relation  to  the  mystical  doc- 
trines of  Madame  Guyon,  Bossuet  showed  himself  irritated,  and 
at  last  furious,  at  the  moderate  and  submissive  tone  of  his  op- 
ponent. He  procured  the  banishment  of  Fenelon  from  court, 
and  the  disgrace  of  his  friends ;  and  through  his  influence  the 
pope  condemned  the  "  Maxims  of  the  Saints,"  in  which  Fenelon 
endeavored  to  show  that  the  views  of  Madame  Guyon  were  those 
of  others  whom  the  church  had  canonized.  The  sermons  of 
Bossuet  were  paternal  and  familiar  exhortations ;  he  seldom 
prepared  them,  but,  abandoning  himself  to  the  inspiration  of  the 
moment,  was  now  simple  and  touching,  now  energetic  and  sub- 
lime. His  familiarity  with  the  language  of  inspiration  imparted 
to  his  discourses  a  tone  of  almost  prophetic  authority  ;  his  elo- 
quence appeared  as  a  native  instinct,  a  gift  direct  from  heaven, 
neither  marred  nor  improved  by  the  study  of  human  rules. 


272       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

France  does  not  acknowledge  the  Protestant  Saurin  (1677- 
1730),  as  the  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  expatriated 
him  in  childhood  ;  hut  his  sermons  occupy  a  distinguished  place 
in  the  theological  literature  of  the  French  language. 

Political  or  parliamentary  oratory  was  as  yet  unknown,  for 
the  parliament  no  sooner  touched  on  matters  of  state  and  gov- 
ernment, than  Louis  XIV.  entered,  booted  and  spurred,  with 
whip  in  hand,  and  not  figuratively,  hut  literally,  lashed  the  re- 
fractory assembly  into  silence  and  obedience.  But  the  eloquence 
of  the  bar  enjoyed  a  considerable  degree  of  freedom  in  this  age. 
Law  and  reason,  however,  were  too  often  overlaid  by  worthless 
conceits  and  a  fantastic  abuse  of  classic  and  scriptural  citations. 
Le  Maitre  (1608-1658),  Patru  (1604-1681),  Pellisson  (1624- 
1693),  Cochin  (1687-1749),  and  D'Aguesseau  (1668-1751), 
successively  purified  and  elevated  the  language  of  the  tribunals. 

11.  MORAL  PHILOSOPHY.  —  The  most  celebrated  moralist  of 
the  age  was  the  Duke  de  Rochefoucauld  (1613-1680).  He  was 
early  drawn  into  those  conflicts  known  as  the  wars  of  the  Fronde, 
though  he  seems  to  have  had  little  motive  for  fighting  or  in- 
triguing, except  his  restlessness  of  spirit  and  his  attachment  to 
the  Duchess  de  Longueville.  He  soon  quarreled  with  the  duch- 
ess, dissolved  his  alliance  with  Conde,  and  being  afterwards  in- 
cluded in  the  amnesty,  he  took  up  his  residence  at  Paris,  where 
he  was  one  of  the  brightest  ornaments  of  the  court  of  Louis  XIV. 
His  chosen  friends,  in  his  declining  years,  were  Madame  de 
Sevigne,  one  of  the  most  accomplished  women  of  the  age,  and 
Madame  de  Lafayette,  who  said  of  him,  "  He  gave  me  intellect, 
and  I  reformed  his  heart."  But  if  the  taint  was  removed  from 
his  heart,  it  continued  in  the  understanding.  His  famous  "  Max- 
ims," published  in  1665,  gained  for  the  author  a  lasting  reputa- 
tion, not  less  for  the  perfection  of  his  style,  than  for  the  boldness 
of  his  paradoxes.  The  leading  peculiarity  of  this  work  is  the 
principle  that  self-interest  is  the  ruling  motive  in  human  nature, 
placing  every  virtue,  as  well  as  every  vice,  under  contribution 
to  itself.  It  is  generally  agreed  that  Rochefoucauld's  views  of 
human  nature  were  perverted  by  the  specimens  of  it  which  he 
had  known  in  the  wars  of  the  Fronde,  which  were  stimulated 
by  vice,  folly,  and  a  restless  desire  of  power.  His  "  Memoirs 
of  the  Reign  of  Anne  of  Austria "  embody  the  story  of  the 
Fronde,  and  his  "  Maxims  "  the  moral  philosophy  he  deduced 
from  it. 

While  Pascal,  in  proving  all  human  remedies  unworthy  of 
confidence,  had  sought  to  drive  men  upon  faith  by  pursuing  them 
with  despair,  and  Rochefoucauld,  by  his  pitiless  analysis  of  the 
disguises  of  the  human  heart,  led  his  readers  to  suspect  their 
most  natural  emotions,  and  well-nigh  took  away  the  desire  of 


FRENCH  LITERATURE.  273 

virtue  by  proving  its  impossibility,  La  Bruyere  (1639-1696)  en- 
deavored to  make  the  most  of  our  nature,  such  as  it  is,  to  ren- 
der men  better,  even  with  their  imperfections,  to  assist  them  by 
a  moral  code  suited  to  their  strength,  or  rather  to  their  weakness. 
His  "Characters  of  our  Age  "  is  distinguished  for  the  exactness 
and  variety  of  the  portraits,  as  well  as  for  the  excellence  of  its 
style.  The  philosophy  of  La  Bruyere  is  unquestionably  based 
on  reason,  and  not  on  revelation. 

In  the  moral  works  of  Nicole,  the  Port  Royalist  (1611-1645), 
we  find  a  system  of  truly  Christian  ethics,  derived  from  the  pre- 
cepts of  revelation ;  they  are  elegant  in  style,  though  they  dis- 
play little  originality. 

The  only  speculative  philosopher  of  this  age,  worthy  of  men- 
tion, is  Malebranche  (1631-1715),  a  disciple  of  Descartes ;  but, 
unlike  his  master,  instead  of  admitting  innate  ideas,  he  held  that 
we  see  all  in  Deity,  and  that  it  is  only  by  our  spiritual  union 
with  the  Being  who  knows  all  things  that  we  know  anything. 
He  professed  optimism,  and  explained  the  existence  of  evil  by 
saying  that  the  Deity  acts  only  as  a  universal  cause.  His  object 
was  to  reconcile  philosophy  with  revelation  ;  his  works,  though 
models  of  style,  are  now  little  read. 

12.  HISTORY  AND  MEMOIKS.  —  History  attained  no  degree 
of  excellence  during  this  period.  Bossuet's  "  Discourse  on  Uni- 
versal History  "  was  a  sermon,  with  general  history  as  the  text. 
At  a  somewhat  earlier  date,  Mezeray  (1610-1683)  compiled  a 
history  of  France.  The  style  is  clear  and  nervous,  and  the 
spirit  which  pervades  it  is  bold  and  independent,  but  the  facts 
are  not  always  to  be  relied  on.  The  "  History  of  Christianity," 
by  the  Abbe  Fleury  (1640-1723),  was  pronounced  by  Voltaire 
to  be  the  best  work  of  the  kind  that  had  ever  appeared.  Rollin 
(1661-1741)  devoted  his  declining  years  to  the  composition  of 
historical  works  for  the  instruction  of  young  people.  His 
"  Ancient  History "  is  more  remarkable  for  the  excellence  of 
his  intentions  than  for  the  display  of  historical  talent.  Indeed, 
the  historical  writers  of  this  period  may  be  said  to  have  marked 
rather  than  filled  a  void. 

The  writers  of  memoirs  were  more  happy.  At  an  earlier 
period,  Brantome  (1527-1614),  a  gentleman  attached  to  the 
suite  of  Charles  IX.  and  Henry  III.,  employed  his  declining 
years  in  describing  men  and  manners  as  he  had  observed  them ; 
and  his  memoirs  are  admitted  to  embody  but  too  faithfully  a 
representation  of  that  singular  mixture  of  elegance  and  gross- 
ness,  of  superstition  and  impiety,  of  chivalrous  feelings  and 
licentious  morals,  which  characterized  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  Duke  of  Sully  (1559-1641),  the  skillful  financier  of  Henry 
IV.,  left  valuable  memoirs  of  the  stirring  events  of  his  day. 
18 


274       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

The  "  Memoirs "  of  the  Cardinal  de  Retz  (1614-1679),  who 
took  so  active  a  part  in  the  agitations  of  the  Fronde,  embody 
the  enlarged  views  of  the  true  historian,  and  breathe  the  impet- 
uous spirit  of  a  man  whose  native  element  is  civil  commotion,  and 
who  looks  on  the  chieftainship  of  a  party  as  worthy  to  engage 
the  best  powers  of  his  head  and  heart ;  but  his  style  abounds 
with  negligences  and  irregularities  which  would  have  shocked 
the  litterateurs  of  the  day. 

The  Duke  de  St.  Simon  (1675-1755)  is  another  of  those  who 
made  no  pretensions  to  classical  writing.  All  the  styles  of  the 
seventeenth  century  are  found  in  him.  His  language  has  been 
compared  to  a  torrent,  which  appears  somewhat  incumbered  by  the 
debris  which  it  carries,  yet  makes  its  way  with  no  less  rapidity. 

Count  Hamilton  (1646-1720)  narrates  the  adventures  of  his 
brother-in-law,  Count  de  Grammont,  of  which  La  Harpe  says, 
"  Of  all  frivolous  books,  it  is  the  most  diverting  and  ingenious." 
Much  lively  narration  is  here  expended  on  incidents  better  for- 
gotten. 

13.  ROMANCE  AND  LETTER- WRITING.  —  The  growth  of  kingly 
power,  the  order  which  it  established,  and  the  civilization  which 
followed  in  its  train,  restrained  the  development  of  public  life 
and  increased  the  interests  of  the  social  relations.  From  this 
new  state  of  things  arose  a  modified  kind  of  romance,  in  which 
elevated  sentiments  replaced  the  achievements  of  mediaeval 
fiction  and  the  military  exploits  of  Mademoiselle  de  Scudery's 
tales.  Madame  de  Lafayette  introduced  that  kind  of  romance 
in  which  the  absorbing  interest  is  that  of  conflicting  passion,  and 
external  events  were  the  occasion  of  developing  the  inward  life 
of  thought  and  feeling.  She  first  depicted  manners  as  they 
really  were,  relating  natural  events  with  gracefulness,  instead  of 
narrating  those  that  never  could  have  had  existence. 

The  illustrious  Fenelon  (1651—1715)  was  one  of  the  few  au- 
thors of  this  period  who  belonged  exclusively  to  no  one  class. 
He  appears  as  a  divine  in  his  "  Sermons  "  and  "  Maxims  ;  "  as  a 
rhetorician  in  his  "  Dialogues  on  Eloquence  ;  "  as  a  moralist  in 
his  "  Education  of  Girls  ;  "  as  a  politician  in  his  "  Examination 
of  the  Conscience  of  a  King ;  "  and  it  may  be  said  that  all  these 
characters  are  combined  in  "  Telemachus,"  which  has  procured 
for  him  a  widespread  fame,  and  which  classes  him  among  the 
romancers.  Telemachus  was  composed  with  the  intention  of 
its  becoming  a  manual  for  his  pupil,  the  young  Duke  of  Ber- 
gundy,  on  his  entrance  into  manhood.  Though  its  publication 
caused  him  the  loss  of  the  king's  favor,  it  went  through  numer- 
ous editions,  and  was  translated  into  every  language  of  Europe. 
It  was  considered,  in  its  day,  a  manual  for  kings,  and  it  became 
a  standard  book,  on  account  of  the  elegance  of  its  style,  the 


FRENCH  LITERATURE.  275 

purity  of  its  morals,  and  the  classic  taste  it  was  likely  to  foster 
iu  the  youthful  mind. 

Madame  de  Sevigne*  made  no  pretensions  to  authorship. 
Her  letters  were  written  to  her  daughter,  without  the  slightest 
idea  that  they  would  be  read,  except  by  those  to  whom  they 
were  addressed  ;  but  they  have  immortalized  their  gifted  au- 
thor, and  have  been  pronounced  worthy  to  occupy  an  eminent 
place  among  the  classics  of  French  literature.  The  matter 
which  these  celebrated  letters  contain  is  multifarious  ;  they  are 
sketches  of  Madame  de  Sevigne's  friends,  Madame  de  Lafay- 
ette, Madame  Scarron,  and  all  the  principal  personages  of  that 
brilliant  court,  from  which,  however,  she  was  excluded,  in  con- 
sequence of  her  early  alliance  with  the  Fronde,  her  friendship 
for  Fouquet,  and  her  Jansenist  opinions.  All  the  occurrences, 
as  well  as  the  characters  of  the  day,  are  touched  in  these  letters  ; 
and  so  graphic  is  the  pen,  so  clear  and  easy  the  style,  that  we 
seem  to  live  in  those  brilliant  days,  and  to  see  all  that  was  going 
on.  Great  events  are  detailed  in  the  same  tone  as  court  gos- 
sip ;  Louis  XIV.,  Turenne,  Conde,  the  wars  .of  France  and  of 
the  empire  are  freely  mingled  with  details  of  housewifery,  proj- 
ects of  marriage,  —  in  short,  the  seventeenth  century  is  depicted 
in  the  correspondence  of  two  women  who  knew  nothing  so  im- 
portant as  their  own  affairs. 

Considerable  interest  attaches  also  to  the  letters  of  Madame 
de  Maintenon  (1635-1719),  a  lady  whose  life  presents  singular 
contrasts,  worthy  of  the  time.  To  her  influence  on  the  king, 
after  her  private  marriage  to  him,  is  attributed  much  that  is  in- 
auspicious in  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  the  combination  of 
ascetic  devotion  and  religious  bigotry  with  the  most  flagrant  im- 
morality, the  appointment  of  unskillful  generals  and  weak-minded 
ministers,  the  persecution  of  the  Jansenists,  and,  above  all,  the 
revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  which  had  secured  religious 
freedom  to  the  Protestants. 


PERIOD  THIRD. 

THE   LITERATURE   OF   THE  AGE    OF   THE    REVOLUTION  AND  OF  THE 
NINETEENTH  CENTURY  (1700-1885). 

1.  THE  DAWX  OF  SKEPTICISM.  —  In  the  age  just  past  we 
have  seen  religion,  antiquity,  and  the  monarchy  of  Louis  XIV., 
each  exercising  a  distinct  and  powerful  influence  over  the  buoy- 
ancy of  French  genius,  which  cheerfully  submitted  to  their  re- 
straining power.  A  school  of  taste  and  elegance  had  been 
formed,  under  these  circumstances,  which  gave  law  to  the  rest 
of  Europe  and  constituted  France  the  leading  spirit  of  the  age. 


276       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  dominant  influences  of  the  eighteenth 
century  were  a  skeptical  philosophy,  a  preference  for  modern 
literature,  and  a  rage  for  political  reform.  The  transition, 
however,  was  not  sudden  nor  immediate,  and  we  come  now  to 
the  consideration  of  those  works  which  occupy  the  midway  posi- 
tion between  the  submissive  age  of  Louis  XIV.  and  the  daring 
infidelity  and  republicanism  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  eighteenth  century  began  with  the  first  timid  protestation 
against  the  splendid  monarchy  of  Louis  XIV.,  the  domination 
of  the  Catholic  Church,  and  the  classical  authority  of  antiquity, 
and  it  ended  when  words  came  to  deeds,  in  the  sanguinary  rev- 
olution of  1789.  When  the  first  generation  of  great  men  who 
sunned  themselves  in  the  glance  of  Louis  XIV.  had  passed 
away,  there  were  none  to  succeed  them  ;  the  glory  of  the  mon- 
arch began  to  fade  as  the  noble  cortege  disappeared,  and  admi- 
ration and  enthusiasm  were  no  more.  The  new  generation, 
•which  had  not  shared  the  glory  and  prosperity  of  the  old  mon- 
arch, was  not  subjugated  by  the  recollections  of  his  early  splen- 
dor, and  was  not,  like  the  preceding,  proud  to  wear  his  yoke. 
A  certain  indifference  to  principle  began  to  prevail ;  men  ven- 
tured to  doubt  opinions  once  unquestioned  ;  the  habit  of  jesting 
with  everything  and  unblushing  cynicism  appeared  almost  under 
the  eyes  of  the  aged  Louis ;  even  Massillon,  who  exhorted  the 
people  to  obedience,  at  the  same  time  reminded  the  king  that 
it  was  necessary  to  merit  it  by  respecting  their  rights.  The 
Protestants,  exiled  by  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes, 
revenged  themselves  by  pamphlets  against  the  monarch  and  the 
church,  and  these  works  found  their  way  into  France,  and  fos- 
tered there  the  rising  discontent  and  contempt  for  the  authority 
of  the  government. 

Among  these  refugees  was  Bayle  (1647-1706),  the  coolest 
and  boldest  of.  doubters.  He  wrote  openly  against  the  intoler- 
ance of  Louis  XIV.,  and  he  affords  the  first  announcement  of 
the  characteristics  of  the  century.  His  "  Historical  and  Critical 
Dictionary,"  a  vast  magazine  of  knowledge  and  incredulity,  was 
calculated  to  supersede  the  necessity  of  study  to  a  lively  and 
thoughtless  age.  His  skepticism  is  learned  and  philosophical, 
and  he  ridicules  those  who  reject  without  examination  still  more 
than  those  who  believe  with  docile  credulity.  Jean  Baptiste 
Rousseau  (1670-1741),  the  lyric  poet  of  this  age,  displayed  in 
his  odes  considerable  energy,  and  a  kind  of  pompous  harmony, 
which  no  other  had  imparted  to  the  language,  yet  he  fails  to 
excite  the  sympathy.  In  his  writings  we  find  that  free  com- 
mingling of  licentious  morals  with  a  taste  for  religious  sublim- 
ities which  characterized  the  last  years  of  Louis  XIV.  The 
Abbe"  Chaulieu  (1639-1720)  earned  the  appellation  of  the 


FRENCH  LITERATURE.  277 

Anacreon  of  the  Temple,  but  he  did  not,  like  Rousseau,  prosti- 
tute poetry  in  strains  of  low  debauchery. 

The  tragedians  followed  in  the  footsteps  of  Racine  with  more 
or  less  success,  and  comedy  continued,  with  some  vigor,  to  rep- 
resent the  corrupt  manners  of  the  age.  Le  Sage  (1668-1747) 
applied  his  talent  to  romance;  and,  like  Moliere,  appreciated 
human-  folly  without  analyzing  it.  "  Gil  Bias  "  is  a  picture  of 
the  human  heart  under  the  aspect  at  once  of  the  vicious  and  the 
ridiculous. 

Fontenelle  (1657-1757),  a  nephew  of  the  great  Corheille,  is 
regarded  as  the  link  between  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries,  he  having  witnessed  the  splendor  of  the  best  days  of 
Louis  XIV.,  and  lived  long  enough  to  see  the  greatest  men  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  He  made  his  debut  in  tragedy,  in 
which,  however,  he  found  little  encouragement.  In  his  "  Plu- 
rality of  Worlds,"  and  "  Dialogues  of  the  Dead,"  there  is  much 
that  indicates  the  man  of  science.  His  other  works  are  valued 
rather  for  their  delicacy  and  impartiality  than  for  striking  orig- 
inality. 

Lamotte  (1672-1731)  was  more  distinguished  in  criticism 
than  in  any  other  sphere  of  authorship.  He  raised  the  standard 
of  revolt  against  the  worship  of  antiquity,  and  would  have  de- 
throned poetry  itself  on  the  ground  of  its  inutility.  Thus  skep- 
ticism began  by  making  established  literary  doctrines  matters  of 
doubt  and  controversy.  Before  attacking  more  serious  creeds 
»t  fastened  on  literary  ones. 

Such  is  the  picture  presented  by  the  earlier  part  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.  Part  of  the  generation  had  remained  attached 
to  the  traditions  of  the  great  age.  Others  opened  the  path  into 
which  the  whole  country  was  about  to  throw  itself.  The  faith  of 
the  nation  in  its  political  institutions,  its  religious  and  literary 
creed,  was  shaken  to  its  foundation ;  the  positive  and  palpable 
began  to  engross  every  interest  hitherto  occupied  by  the  ideal ; 
and  this  disposition,  so  favorable  to  the  cultivation  of  science, 
brought  with  it  a  universal  spirit  of  criticism.  The  habit  of 
reflecting  was  generally  diffused,  people  were  not  afraid  to  ex- 
ercise their  own  judgment,  every  man  had  begun  to  have  a 
higher  estimate  of  his  own  opinions,  and  to  care  less  for  those 
hitherto  received  as  undoubted  authority.  Still,  literature  had 
not  taken  any  positive  direction,  nor  had  there  yet  appeared 
men  of  sufficiently  powerful  genius  to  give  it  a  decisive  impulse. 

2.  PROGRESS  OF  SKEPTICISM.  —  The  first  powerful  attack  on 
the  manners,  institutions,  and  establishments  of  France,  and  in- 
deed of  Europe  in  general,  is  that  contained  in  the  "  Persian 
Letters  "  of  the  Baron  de  Montesquieu  (1689-1755)  ;  in  which, 
under  the  transparent  veil  of  pleasantries  aimed  at  the  Moslem 


278       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

religion,  he  sought  to  consign  to  ridicule  the  belief  in  every  spe- 
cies of  dogma.  But  the  celebrity  of  Montesquieu  is  founded  on 
his  "Spirit  of  Laws,"  the  greatest  monument  of  human  genius 
in  the  eighteenth  century.  It  is  a  profound  analysis  of  law  in 
its  relation  with  government,  customs,  climate,  religion,  and  com- 
merce. The  book  is  inspired  with  a  spirit  of  justice  and  human- 
ity ;  but  it  places  the  mind  too  much  under  the  dominion  of 
matter,  and  argues  for  necessity  rather  than  liberty,  thus  de- 
priving moral  obligation  of  much  of  its  absolute  character.  It 
is  an  extraordinary  specimen  of  argument,  terseness,  and  erudi- 
tion. 

The  maturity  of  the  eighteenth  century  is  found  in  Voltaire 
(1694-1778)  ;  he  was  the  personification  of  its  rashness,  its  zeal, 
its  derision,  its  ardor,  and  its  universality.  In  him  nature  had, 
so  to  speak,  identified  the  individual  with  the  nation,  bestowing 
on  him  a  character  in  the  highest  degree  elastic,  having  lively 
sensibility  but  no  depth  of  passion,  little  system  of  principle  or 
conduct,  but  that  promptitude  of  self-direction  which  supplies  its 
place,  a  quickness  of  perception  amounting  almost  to  intuition, 
and  an  unexampled  degree  of  activity,  by  which  he  was  in  some 
sort  many  men  at  once.  No  writer,  even  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, knew  so  many  things  or  treated  so  many  subjects.  That 
which  was  the  ruin  of  some  minds  was  the  strength  of  his.  Rich 
in  diversified  talent  and  in  the  gifts  of  fortune,  he  proceeded  to 
the  conquest  of  his  age  with  the  combined  power  of  the  highest 
endowments  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances.  He  was 
driven  again  and  again,  as  a  moral  pest,  from  the  capital  of 
France  by  the  powers  that  fain  would  have  preserved  the  people 
from  his  opinions,  yet  ever  gaining  ground,  his  wit  always  wel- 
come, and  his  opinions  gradually  prevailing,  one  audacious  senti- 
ment after  another  broached,  and  branded  with  infamy,  yet 
secretly  entertained,  till  the  futile  struggle  was  at  length  given 
up,  and  the  nation,  as  with  one  voice,  avowed  itself  his  disciple. 

It  has  been  said  that  Voltaire  showed  symptoms  of  infidelity 
from  infancy.  When  at  college  he  gave  way  to  sallies  of  wit, 
mirth,  and  profanity  which  astonished  his  companions  and  terri- 
fied his  preceptors.  He  was  twice  imprisoned  in  the  Bastile, 
and  many  times  obliged  to  fly  from  the  country.  In  England 
he  became  acquainted  with  Bolingbroke  and  all  the  most  distin- 
guished men  of  the  tune,  and  in  the  school  of  English  philosophy 
he  learned  to  use  argument,  as  well  as  ridicule,  in  his  war  with 
religion.  In  1740  we  find  him  assisting  Frederick  the  Great  to 
get  up  a  refutation  of  Machiavelli ;  again,  he  is  appointed  histo- 
riographer of  France,  Gentleman  of  the  Bed-chamber,  and  Mem- 
ber of  the  Academy ;  then  he  accepts  an  invitation  to  reside  at 
the  Court  of  Prussia,  where  he  soon  quarrels  with  the  king. 


FRENCH  LITERATURE.  279 

After  many  vicissitudes  he  finally  purchased  the  estate  of  Fer- 
ney,  near  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  where  he  resided  during  the  rest 
of  his  days.  From  this  retreat  he  poured  out  an  exhaustless  va- 
riety of  books,  which  were  extensively  circulated  and  eagerly  pe- 
rused. He  was  the  admiration  of  all  the  wits  and  philosophers 
of  Europe,  and  numbered  among  his  pupils  and  correspondents 
some  of  the  greatest  sovereigns  of  the  age.  At  the  age  of  eighty- 
four  he  again  visited  Paris.  Here  his  levees  were  more  crowded 
than  those  of  any  emperor ;  princes  and  peers  thronged  his 
ante-chamber,  and  when  he  rode  through  the  streets  a  train 
attended  him  which  stretched  far  over  the  city.  He  was  made 
president  of  the  Academy,  and  crowned  with  laurel  at  the 
theatre,  where  his  bust  was  placed  on  the  stage  and  adorned 
with  palms  and  garlands.  He  died  soon  after,  without  the 
rites  of  the  church,  and  was  interred  secretly  at  a  Benedictine 
abbey. 

The  national  enthusiasm  which  decreed  Voltaire,  as  he  de- 
scended to  the  tomb,  such  a  triumph  as  might  have  honored  a 
benefactor  of  the  race,  gave  place  to  doubt  and  disputation  as 
to  his  merits.  In  tragedy  he  is  admitted  to  rank  after  Corneille 
and  Racine ;  in  "  Zai're,"  which  is  his  masterpiece,  there  is 
neither  the  lofty  conception  of  the  one,  nor  the  perfect  versifica- 
tion of  the  other,  but  there  is  a  warmth  of  passion,  an  enthusi- 
asm of  feeling,  and  a  gracefulness  of  expression  which  fascinate 
and  subdue.  As  an  epic  poet  he  has  least  sustained  his  renown ; 
though  the  "  Henriade  "  has  unquestionably  some  great  beauties, 
its  machinery  is  tame,  and  the  want  of  poetic  illusion  is  severely 
felt.  His  poetry,  especially  that  of  his  later  years,  is  by  no 
means  so  disgraceful  to  the  author  as  the  witticisms  in  prose,  the 
tales,  dialogues,  romances,  and  pasquinades  which  were  eagerly 
sought  for  and  readily  furnished,  and  which  are,  with  little  ex- 
ception, totally  unworthy  of  an  honorable  man.  As  a  historian, 
Voltaire  lacked  reflection  and  patience  for  investigation.  His 
"History  of  Charles  XII.,"  however,  was  deservedly  successful; 
the  reason  being  that  he  chose  for  his  hero  the  most  romantic 
and  adventurous  of  sovereigns,  to  describe  whom  there  was  more 
need  of  rapid  narrative  and  brilliant  coloring  than  of  profound 
knowledge  and  a  just  appreciation  of  human  nature.  In  his  his- 
tory of  the  age  of  Louis  XIV.,  Voltaire  sought  not  only  to  pre- 
sent a  picture,  but  a  series  of  researches  destined  to  instruct  the 
memory  and  exercise  the  judgment.  The  English  historians, 
imitating  his  mode,  have  surpassed  him  in  erudition  and  philo- 
sophic impartiality.  Still  later,  his  own  countrymen  have  car- 
ried this  species  of  writing  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection. 
Throughout  the  "  Essay  on  the  Manners  of  Nations  "  we  find 
traces  of  that  hatred  of  religion  which  he  openly  cherished  in 


280       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

the  latter  part  of  his  life.  The  style,  however,  is  pleasing,  the 
facts  well  arranged,  and  the  portraits  traced  with  originality  and 
vivacity. 

Some  have  attributed  to  Voltaire  the  serious  design  of  over- 
turning the  three  great  bases  of  society,  religion,  morality,  and 
civil  government ;  but  he  had  not  the  genius  of  a  philosopher, 
and  there  is  no  system  of  philosophy  in  his  works.  That  he  had 
a  design  to  amuse  and  influence  his  age,  and  to  avenge  himself 
on  his  enemies,  is  obvious  enough.  Envy  and  hatred  employed 
against  him  the  weapons  of  religion,  hence  he  viewed  it  only  as 
an  instrument  of  persecution.  His  great  powers  of  mind  were 
continually  directed  by  the  opinions  of  the  times,  and  the  desire 
of  popularity  was  his  ruling  motive.  The  character  of  his  earlier 
writings  shows  that  he  did  not  bring  into  the  world  a  very  in- 
dependent spirit ;  they  display  the  lightness  and  frivolity  of  the 
time  with  the  submission  of  a  courtier  for  every  kind  of  author- 
ity, but  as  his  success  increased  everything  encouraged  him  to 
imbue  his  works  with  that  spirit  which  found  so  general  a  wel- 
come. In  vain  the  authority  of  the  civil  government  endeavored 
to  arrest  the  impulse  which  was  gaining  strength  from  day  to 
day  ;  in  vain  this  director  of  the  public  mind  was  imprisoned  and 
exiled  ;  the  farther  he  advanced  in  his  career  and  the  more  au- 
daciously he  propagated  his  views  on  religion  and  government, 
the  more  he  was  rewarded  with  the  renown  which  he  sought. 
Monarchs  became  his  friends  and  his  flatterers  ;  opposition  only 
increased  his  energy,  and  made  him  often  forget  moderation  and 
good  taste. 

3.  FRENCH  LITERATURE  DURING  THE  REVOLUTION.  —  The 
names  of  Voltaire  and  Montesquieu  eclipse  all  others  in  the  first 
half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  but  the  influence  of  Voltaire  was 
by  far  the  most  immediate  and  extensive.  After  he  had  reached 
the  zenith  of  his  glory,  about  the  middle  of  the  century,  there 
appeared  in  France  a  display  of  various  talent,  evoked  by  his 
example  and  trained  by  his  instructions,  yet  boasting  an  inde- 
pendent existence.  In  the  works  of  these  men  was  consum- 
mated the  literary  revolution  of  which  we  have  marked  the  be- 
ginnings, a  revolution  more  striking  than  any  other  ever  wit- 
nessed in  the  same  space  of  time.  It  was  no  longer  a  few 
eminent  men  that  surrendered  themselves  boldly  to  the  skeptical 
philosophy  which  is  the  grand  characteristic  of  the  eighteenth 
century  ;  writers  of  inferior  note  followed  in  the  same  path ;  the 
new  opinions  took  entire  possession  of  all  literature  and  coop- 
erated with  the  state  of  the  morals  and  the  government  to  bring 
about  a  fearful  revolution.  The  whole  strength  of  the  literature 
of  this  age  being  directed  towards  the  subversion  of  the  national 
institutions  and  religion,  formed  a  homogeneous  body  of  science. 


FRENCH  LITERATURE.  281 

literature,  and  the  arts,  and  a  compact  phalanx  of  all  writers 
under  the  common  name  of  philosophers.  Women  had  their 
share  in  the  maintenance  of  this  league  ;  the  salons  of  Mesdames 
du  Deffand  (1696-1780),  Geoffrin  (b.  1777),  and  De  1'Espinasse 
(1732-1776)  were  its  favorite  resorts  ;  but  the  great  rendezvous 
was  that  of  the  Baron  d'Holbach,  whence  its  doctrines  spread 
far  and  wide,  blasting,  like  a  malaria,  whatever  it  met  with  on 
its  way  that  had  any  connection  with  religion,  morals,  or  vener- 
able social  customs.  Besides  Voltaire,  who  presided  over  this 
coterie,  at  least  in  spirit,  the  daily  company  included  Diderot,  an 
enthusiast  by  nature  and  a  cynic  and  sophist  by  profession  ; 
D'Alembert,  a  genius  of  the  first  order  in  mathematics,  though 
less  distinguished  in  literature ;  the  malicious  Marmontel,  the 
philosopher  Helvetius,  the  Abbe  Raynal,  the  furious  enemy  of 
all  modern  institutions  ;  the  would-be  sentimentalist  Grimm,  and 
D'Holbach  himself.  Hume,  Gibbon,  Bolingbroke,  and  others 
were  affiliated  members.  Their  plan  was  to  write  a  book  which 
would  in  some  sense  supersede  all  others,  itself  forming  a  li- 
brary containing  the  most  recent  discoveries  in  philosophy,  and 
the  best  explanations  and  details  on  every  topic,  literary  and 
scientific. 

The  project  of  this  great  enterprise  of  an  Encyclopaedia  as  an 
immense  vehicle  for  the  development  of  the  opinions  of  the  phi- 
losophers, alarmed  the  government,  and  the  parliament  and  the 
clergy  pronounced  its  condemnation.  The  philosophy  of  Des- 
cartes and  the  eminent  thinkers  of  the  seventeenth  century  as- 
sumed the  soul  of  man  as  the  starting-point  in  the  investigation 
of  physical  science.  The  men  of  the  eighteenth  century  had  be- 
come tired  of  following  out  the  sublimities  and  abstractions  of 
the  Cartesians,  and  they  took  the  opposite  course ;  beginning 
from  sensation,  they  did  not  stop  short  of  the  grossest  material- 
ism and  positive  atheism. 

Such  were  the  principles  of  the  Encyclopaedia,  more  fully  de- 
veloped and  explained  in  the  writings  of  Condillac  (1715-1780), 
the  head  of  this  school  of  philosophy.  His  first  work,  "  On  the 
Origin  of  Human  Knowledge,"  contains  the  germ  of  all  that  he 
afterwards  published.  In  his  "  Treatise  on  Sensation,"  he  en- 
deavored, but  in  vain,  to  derive  the  notion  of  duty  from  sensa- 
tion, and  expert  as  he  was  in  logic,  he  could  not  conceal  the 
great  gulf  which  his  theory  left  between  these  two  terms.  Few 
writers  have  enjoyed  more  success ;  he  brought  the  science  of 
thought  within  the  reach  of  the  vulgar  by  stripping  it  of  every- 
thing elevated,  and  every  one  was  surprised  and  delighted  to 
find  that  philosophy  was  so  easy  a  thing.  Having  determined 
not  to  establish  morality  on  any  innate  principles  of  the  soul, 
these  philosophers  founded  it  on  the  fact  common  to  all  animated 


282       HANDBOOK   OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

nature,  the  feeling  of  self-interest.  Already  deism  had  rejected 
the  evidence  of  a  divine  revelation.  Now  atheism  raised  a  more 
audacious  front,  and  proclaimed  that  all  religious  sentiment  was 
but  the  reverie  of  a  disordered  mind.  The  works  in  which  this 
opinion  is  most  expressly  announced,  date  from  the  period  of  the 
Encyclopaedia. 

D'Alembert  (1717-1773)  is  now  chiefly  known  as  the  author 
of  the  preliminary  discourse  of  the  Encyclopaedia,  which  is 
ranked  among  the  principal  works  of  the  age. 

Diderot  (1714—1784),  had  he  devoted  himself  to  any  one 
sphere,  instead  of  wandering  about  in  the  chaos  of  opinions 
which  rose  and  perished  around  him,  might  have  left  a  lasting 
reputation,  and  posterity,  instead  of  merely  repeating  his  name, 
would  have  spoken  of  his  works.  He  may  be  regarded  as  a 
writer  injurious  at  once  to  literature  and  to  morals. 

The  most  faithful  disciple  of  the  philosophy  of  this  period  was 
Helvetius  (1715-1771),  known  chiefly  by  his  work,  "On  the 
Mind,"  the  object  of  which  is  to  prove  that  physical  sensibility 
is  the  origin  of  all  our  thoughts.  Of  all  the  writers  who  main- 
tained this  opinion,  none  have  represented  it  in  so  gross  a  man- 
ner. His  work  was  condemned  by  the  Sorbonne,  the  pope,  and 
the  parliament ;  it  was  burned  by  the  hand  of  the  hangman,  and 
the  author  was  compelled  to  retract  it. 

Jean  Jacques  Rousseau  (1712-1778)  was  a  writer  who 
marched  under  none  of  the  recognized  banners  of  the  day.  The 
Encyclopaedists  had  flattered  themselves  that  they  had  tuned  the 
opinion  of  all  Europe  to  their  philosophical  strain,  when  sud- 
denly they  heard  his  discordant  note.  Without  family,  without 
friends,  without  home,  wandering  from  place  to  place,  from  one 
condition  in  life  to  another,  he  conceived  a  species  of  revolt 
against  society,  and  a  feeling  of  bitterness  against  those  civil 
organizations  in  which  he  could  never  find  a  suitable  place.  He 
combated  the  atheism  of  the  Encyclopaedists,  their  materialism 
and  contempt  for  moral  virtue,  for  pure  deism  was  his  creed. 
He  believed  in  a  Supreme  Being,  a  future  state,  and  the  excel- 
lence of  virtue,  but  denying  all  revealed  religion,  he  would  have 
men  advance  in  the  paths  of  virtue,  freely  and  proudly,  from 
love  of  virtue  itself,  and  not  from  any  sense  of  duty  or  obliga- 
tion. In  the  "  Social  Contract "  he  traced  the  principles  of  gov- 
ernment and  laws  in  the  nature  of  man.  and  endeavored  to  show 
the  end  which  they  proposed  to  themselves  by  living  in  commu- 
nities, and  the  best  means  of  attaining  this  end. 

The  two  most  notable  works  of  Rousseau  are  "Julie,"  or  the 
"  Nouvelle  Heloise,"  and  "  Emile."  The  former  is  a  kind  of 
romance,  owing  its  interest  mainly  to  development  of  character, 
and  not  to  incident  or  plot.  Emile  embodies  a  system  of  educa- 


FRENCH  LITERATURE.  283 

tion  in  which  the  author's  thoughts  are  digested  and  arranged. 
He  gives  himself  an  imaginary  pupil,  the  representative  of  that 
life  of  spontaneous  development  which  was  the  writer's  ideal. 
In  this  work  there  is  an  episode,  the  "  Savoyard  Vicar's  Confes- 
sion of  Faith,"  which  is  a  declaration  of  pure  deism,  leveled  es- 
pecially against  the  errors  of  Catholicism.  It  raised  a  perfect 
tempest  against  the  author  from  every  quarter.  The  council  of 
Geneva  caused  his  book  to  be  burned  by  the  executioner,  and 
the  parliament  of  Paris  threatened  him  with  imprisonment. 
Under  these  circumstances  he  wrote  his  "  Confessions,"  which 
he  believed  would  vindicate  him  before  the  world.  The  reader, 
who  may  expect  to  find  this  book  abounding  with  at  least  as 
much  virtue  as  a  man  may  possess  without  Christian  principle, 
will  find  in  it  not  a  single  feature  of  greatness  ;  it  is  a  proclama- 
tion of  disagreeable  faults;  and  yet  he  would  persuade  us  that 
he  was  virtuous,  by  giving  the  clearest  proofs  that  he  was  not. 

To  the  names  of  Montesquieu,  Voltaire,  and  Rousseau,  must 
be  added  that  of  Buffon  (1707-1788),  and  we  have  the  four 
writers  of  this  age  who  left  all  their  contemporaries  far  behind. 
Buffon  having  been  appointed  superintendent  of  the  Jardin  des 
Plantes,  and  having  enriched  this  fine  establishment,  and  gath- 
ered into  it,  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  various  productions  of 
nature,  conceived  the  project  of  composing  a  natural  history, 
which  should  embrace  the  whole  immensity  of  being,  animate 
and  inanimate.  He  first  laid  down  the  theory  of  the  earth,  then 
treated  the  natural  history  of  man,  afterwards  that  of  viviparous 
quadrupeds  and  birds.  The  first  volumes  of  his  work  appeared 
in  1749  ;  the  most  important  of  the  supplementary  matter  which 
followed  was  the  "  Epochs  of  Nature."  He  gave  incredible  at- 
tention to  his  style,  and  is  one  of  the  most  brilliant  writers  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  No  naturalist  has  ever  equaled  him  in 
the  magnificence  of  his  theories,  or  the  animation  of  his  descrip- 
tions of  the  manners  and  habits  of  animals.  It  is  said  that  he 
wrote  the  "  Epochs  of  Nature  "  eleven  times  over.  He  not  only 
recited  his  compositions  aloud,  in  order  to  judge  of  the  rhythm 
and  cadence,  but  he  made  a  point  of  being  in  full  dress  before 
he  sat  down  to  write,  believing  that  the  splendor  of  his  habili- 
ments impressed  his  language  with  that  pomp  and  elegance 
which  he  so  much  admired,  and  which  is  his  distinguishing  char- 
acteristic. Buffon,  while  maintaining  friendship  with  the  cele- 
brated men  of  his  age,  did  not  identify  himself  with  the  party  of 
the  encyclopaedists,  or  the  sects  into  which  they  were  divided. 
But  he  lived  among  men  who  deemed  physical  nature  alone 
worthy  of  study,  and  the  wits  of  the  age  who  had  succeeded  in 
discovering  how  a  Supreme  Being  might  be  dispensed  with. 
Buffon  evaded  the  subject  entirely,  and  amid  all  his  lofty  soar- 


284       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

ings  showed  no  disposition  to  rise  to  the  Great  First  Cause. 
After  his  time,  science  lost  its  contemplative  and  poetical  char- 
acter, and  acquired  that  of  intelligent  observation.  It  became 
a  practical  thing,  and  entered  into  close  alliance  with  the  arts. 
The  arts  and  sciences,  thus  combined,  became  the  glory  of 
France,  as  literature  had  been  in  the  preceding  age. 

The  declining  years  of  Voltaire  and  Rousseau  witnessed  no 
rising  genius  of  similar  power,  but  some  authors  of  a  secondary 
rank  deserve  notice.  Marmontel  (1728-1799)  is  distinguished 
as  the  writer  of  "  Belisarius,"  a  philosophical  romance,  "  Moral 
Tales,"  and  "  Elements  of  Literature."  He  endeavors  to  lead 
his  readers  to  the  enjoyments  of  literature,  instead  of  detaining 
them  with  frigid  criticisms. 

La  Harpe  (1739-1803)  displayed  great  eloquence  in  literary 
criticism,  and  some  of  his  works  maintain  their  place,  though 
they  have  little  claim  to  originality. 

Many  writers  devoted  themselves  to  history,  but  the  spirit  of 
French  philosophy  was  uncongenial  to  this  species  of  composi- 
tion, and  the  age  does  not  afford  one  remarkable  historian.  The 
fame  of  the  Abbe  Raynal  (1718-1796)  rests  chiefly  on  his  "  His- 
tory of  the  Two  Indies."  It  is  difficult  to  conceive  how  a  sober 
man  could  have  arrived  at  such  delirium  of  opinion,  and  how  he 
could  so  complacently  exhibit  principles  which  tended  to  over- 
throw the  whole  system  of  society.  Scarcely  a  crime  was  com- 
mitted during  the  revolution,  with  which  this  century  closes,  but 
could  find  its  advocate  in  this  declaimer.  When,  however,  Ray- 
nal found  himself  in  the  midst  of  the  turmoils  he  had  suggested, 
he  behaved  with  justice,  moderation,  and  courage ;  thus  proving 
that  his  opinions  were  not  the  result  of  experience. 

The  days  of  true  religious  eloquence  were  past ;  faith  was  ex- 
tinct among  the  greater  part  of  the  community,  and  cold  and 
timid  among  the  rest.  Preachers,  in  deference  to  their  audi- 
ence, kept  out  of  view  whatever  was  purely  religious,  and  en- 
larged on  those  topics  which  coincided  with  mere  human  moral- 
ity. Religion  was  introduced  only  as  an  accessory  which  it  was 
necessary  to  disguise  skillfully,  in  order  to  escape  derision.  Gen- 
uine pulpit  eloquence  was  out  of  the  question  under  these  circum- 
stances. 

Forensic  eloquence  had  been  improving  in  simplicity  and  seri- 
ousness since  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and 
men  of  the  law  were  now  led  by  the  circumstances  of  the  times 
to  trace  out  universal  principles,  rather  than  to  discuss  isolated 
facts.  The  eloquence  of  the  bar  thus  acquired  more  extensive 
influence  ;  the  measures  of  the  government  converted  it  into  a 
hostile  power,  and  it  furnished  itself  with  weapons  of  reason  and 
erudition  which  had  not  been  thought  of  before. 


FRENCH  LITERATURE.  285 

We  come  now  close  upon  the  epoch  when  the  national  spirit 
was  no  longer  to  be  traced  in  books,  but  in  actions.  The  reign 
of  Louis  XV.  had  been  marked  with  general  disorder,  and  while 
he  was  sinking  into  the  grave,  amid  the  scorn  of  the  people,  the 
magistrates  were  punished  for  opposing  the  royal  authority,  and 
the  public  were  indignant  at  the  arbitrary  proceeding.  Beau- 
marchais  (1732-1799)  became  the  organ  of  this  feeling,  and  his 
memoirs,  like  his  comedies,  are  replete  with  enthusiasm,  cyn- 
icism, and  buffoonery.  Literature  was  never  so  popular  ;  it  was 
regarded  as  the  universal  and  powerful  instrument  which  it  be- 
hooved every  man  to  possess.  All  grades  of  society  were  filled 
with  authors  and  philosophers ;  the  public  mind  was  tending  to- 
wards some  change,  without  knowing  what  it  would  have  ;  from 
the  monarch  on  the  throne  to  the  lowest  of  the  people,  all  per- 
ceived the  utter  discordance  that  prevailed  between  existing 
opinions  and  existing  institutions. 

In  the  midst  of  the  dull  murmur  which  announced  the  ap- 
proaching storm,  literature,  as  though  its  work  of  agitation  had 
been  completed,  took  up  the  shepherd's  reed  for  public  amuse- 
ment. "  Posterity  would  scarcely  believe,"  says  an  eminent  his- 
torian, "  that  '  Paul  and  Virginia'  and  the  '  Indian  Cottage  '  were 
composed  at  this  juncture  by  Bernardin  de  St.  Pierre  (1737— 
1814),  as  also  the  '  Fables  of  Florian,'  which  are  the  only  ones 
that  have  been  considered  readable  since  those  of  La  Fontaine." 
About  the  same  time  appeared  the  "  Voyage  of  Anacharsis,"  in 
which  the  Abbe  Barthelemy  (1716-1795)  embodied  his  erudi- 
tion in  an  attractive  form,  presenting  a  lively  picture  of  Greece 
in  the  time  of  Pericles. 

Among  the  more  moral  writers  of  this  age  was  Necker 
(1732-1804),  the  financial  minister  of  Louis  XVI.,  who  main- 
tained the  cause  of  religion  against  the  torrent  of  public  opinion 
in  works  distinguished  for  delicacy  and  elevation, '  seriousness 
and  elegance. 

When  the  storm  at  length  burst,  the  country  was  exposed  to 
every  kind  of  revolutionary  tyranny.  The  first  actors  in  the 
work  of  destruction  were,  for  the  most  part,  actuated  by  good 
intentions  ;  but  these  were  soon  superseded  by  men  of  a  lower 
class,  envious  of  all  distinctions  of  rank  and  deeply  imbued  with 
the  spirit  of  the  philosophers.  Some  derived,  from  the  writings 
of  Rousseau,  a  hatred  of  everything  above  them  ;  others  had 
taken  from  Mably  his  admiration  of  the  ancient  republics  of 
Greece  and  Rome,  and  would  reproduce  them  in  France ;  others 
had  borrowed  from  Raynal  the  revolutionary  torch  which  he 
had  lighted  for  the  destruction  of  all  institutions ;  others,  edu- 
cated in  the  atheistic  fanaticism  of  Diderot,  trembled  with  rage 
at  the  very  name  of  a  priest  or  religion ;  and  thus  the  Revolu- 


286       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

tion  was  gradually  handed  over  to  the  guidance  of  passion  and 
personal  interest. 

In  hurrying  past  these  years  of  anarchy  and  bloodshed,  we 
cast  a  glance  upon  the  poet,  Andre  Chenier  (1762-1794),  who 
dared  to  write  against  the  excesses  of  his  countrymen,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  he  was  cited  before  the  revolutionary  tribunal, 
condemned,  and  executed. 

4.  FRENCH  LITERATURE  UNDER  THE  EMPIRE.  —  Napoleon, 
on  the  establishment  of  the  empire,  gave  great  encouragement  to 
the  arts,  but  none  to  literature.  Books  were  in  little  request ; 
old  editions  were  sold  for  a  fraction  of  their  original  price ;  but 
new  works  were  dear,  because  the  demand  for  them  was  so 
limited.  When  literature  again  lifted  its  head,  it  appeared  that 
in  the  chaos  of  events  a  new  order  of  thought  had  been  gen- 
erated. The  feelings  of  the  people  were  for  the  freer  forms  of 
modern  literature,  introduced  by  Madame  de  Stae'l  and  Chateau- 
briand, rather  than  the  ancient  classics  and  the  French  models 
of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Madame  de  Stae'l  (1766-1817)  has  been  pronounced  by  the 
general  voice  to  be  among  the  greatest  of  all  female  authors. 
She  was  early  introduced  to  the  society  of  the  cleverest  men  in 
Paris,  with  whom  her  father's  house  was  a  favorite  resort ;  and 
before  she  was  twelve  years  of  age,  such  men  as  Raynal,  Mar- 
montel,  and  Grimm  used  to  converse  with  her  as  though  she 
were  twenty,  calling  out  her  ready  eloquence,  inquiring  into  her 
studies,  and  recommending  new  books.  She  thus  imbibed  a  taste 
for  society  and  distinction,  and  for  bearing  her  part  in  the  brill- 
iant conversation  of  the  salon.  At  the  age  of  twenty  she  became 
the  wife  of  the  Baron  de  Stae'l,  the  Swedish  minister  at  Paris. 
On  her  return,  after  the  Reign  of  Terror,  Madame  de  Stae'l  be- 
came the  centre  of  a  political  society,  and  her  drawing-rooms  were 
the  resort  of  distinguished  foreigners,  ambassadors,  and  authors. 
On  the  accession  of  Napoleon,  a  mutual  hostility  arose  between 
him  and  this  celebrated  woman,  which  ended  in  her  banishment 
and  the  suppression  of  her  works. 

"  The  Six  Years  of  Exile  "  is  the  most  simple  and  interesting 
of  her  productions.  Her  "  Considerations  on  the  French  Revo- 
lution "  is  the  most  valuable  of  her  political  articles.  Among  her 
works  of  fiction,  "  Corinne  "  and  "  Delphine  "  have  had  the  high- 
est popularity.  But  of  all  her  writings,  that  on  "  Germany  "  is 
considered  worthy  of  the  highest  rank,  and  it  was  calculated  to 
influence  most  beneficially  the  literature  of  her  country,  by  open- 
ing to  the  rising  generation  of  France  unknown  treasures  of  lit- 
erature and  philosophy.  Writers  like  Delavigne,  Lamartine, 
Beranger,  De  Vigny,  and  Victor  Hugo,  though  in  no  respect 
imitators  of  Madame  de  Stae'l,  are  probably  much  indebted  to 
her  for  the  stimulus  to  originality  which  her  writings  afforded. 


FRENCH  LITERATURE.  287 

Another  female  author,  who  lived,  like  Madame  de  Stael 
through  the  Revolution,  and  exercised  an  influence  on  public 
events,  was  Madame  de  Genlis  (1746-1830).  Her  works, 
which  extend  to  at  least  eighty  volumes,  are  chiefly  educational 
treatises,  moral  tales,  and  historical  romances.  Her  political 
power  depended  rather  on  her  private  influence  in  the  Orleans 
family  than  upon  her  pen. 

Chfiteaubriand  (1769-1848)  must  be  placed  side  by  side  with 
Madame  de  Stael,  as  another  of  those  brilliant  and  versatile 
geniuses  who  have  dazzled  the  eyes  of  their  countrymen,  and 
exerted  a  permanent  influence  on  French  literature.  While  the 
eighteenth  century  had  used  against  religion  all  the  weapons  of 
ridicule,  he  defended  it  by  poetry  and  romance.  Christianity  he 
considered  the  most  poetical  of  all  religions,  the  most  attractive, 
the  most  fertile  in  literary,  social,  and  artistic  results,  and  he  de- 
velops his  theme  with  every  advantage  of  language  and  style  in 
the  "  Genius  of  Christianity  "  and  the  "  Martyrs."  Some  of  the 
characteristics  of  Chateaubriand,  however,  have  produced  a  seri- 
ously injurious  effect  on  French  literature,  and  of  these  the  most 
contagious  and  corrupting  is  his  passion  for  the  glitter  of  words 
and  the  pageantry  of  high-sounding  phrases. 

The  salutary  reaction  against  skepticism,  produced  in  litera- 
ture by  Madame  de  Stael  and  Chateaubriand  was  carried  into 
philosophy  by  Maine  de  Biran  (1766-1824),  and  more  particu- 
larly by  Royer-Collard  (1763-1846)  who  took  a  decided  stand 
against  the  school  of  Condillac  and  the  materialists  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.  Royer-Collard  restored  its  spiritual  character  to 
the  science  of  the  human  mind,  by  introducing  into  it  the  psy- 
chological discoveries  of  the  Scotch  school.  Benjamin  Constant 
(1767-1830)  infused  into  political  science  a  spirit  of  freedom  be- 
fore quite  unknown.  In  his  works  he  attempted  to  limit  the  au- 
thority of  the  government,  to  build  up  society  on  personal  free- 
dom, and  on  the  guaranties  of  individual  right.  His  writings 
combine  extraordinary  power  of  logic  with  great  variety  and 
beauty  of  style. 

Proceeding  in  another  direction,  Bonald  (1753-1846)  opposed 
the  spirit  of  the  French  Revolution,  by  establishing  the  authority 
of  the  church  as  the*  only  criterion  of  truth  and  morality.  As 
Rousseau  had  placed  sovereign  power  in  the  will  of  the  people, 
Bonald  placed  it  in  that  of  God,  as  it  is  manifested  to  man 
through  language  and  revelation,  and  of  this  revelation  he  re- 
garded the  Catholic  church  as  the  interpreter.  He  develops  his 
doctrines  in  numerous  works,  especially  in  his  "  Primitive  Legis- 
lation," which  is  characterized  by  boldness,  dogmatism,  sophistry 
in  argument,  and  by  severity  and  purity  of  style. 

The  peculiarities  of  Bonald  were  carried  still  farther  by  De 


288       HANDBOOK   OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

Maistre  (1755-1852),  whose  hatred  of  the  Revolution  led  him 
into  the  system  of  an  absolute  theocracy,  such  as  was  dreamed  of 
by  Gregory  VII.  and  Innocent  III. 

5.  FRENCH  LITERATURE  FROM  THE  RESTORATION  TO  THE 
PRESENT  TIME. —  The  influences  already  spoken  of,  in  connection 
with  the  literary  progress  which  began  in  Germany  and  England 
towards  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  produced  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  nineteenth  century  a  revival  in  French  literature ; 
but  the  conflict  of  opinions,  the  immense  number  of  authors,  and 
their  extraordinary  fecundity,  render  it  difficult  to  examine  or 
classify  them.  We  first  notice  the  great  advances  in  history  and 
biography.  Among  the  earlier  specimens  may  be  mentioned  the 
voluminous  works  of  Sismondi  and  the  "Biographic  Universelle," 
in  fifty-two  closely  printed  volumes,  the  most  valuable  body  of 
biography  that  any  modern  literature  can  boast.  Since  1830, 
historians  and  literary  critics  have  occupied  the  foreground  in 
French  literature.  The  historians  have  divided  themselves  into 
two  schools,  the  descriptive  and  the  philosophical.  With  the  one 
class  history  consists  of  a  narration  of  facts  in  connection  with  a 
picture  of  manners,  bringing  scenes  of  the  past  vividly  before 
the  mind  of  the  reader,  leaving  him  to  deduce  general  truths  from 
the  particular  ones  brought  before  him.  The  style  of  these  writ- 
ers is  simple  and  manly,  and  no  opinions  of  their  own  shine 
through  their  statements.  The  chief  representatives  of  this  class, 
who  regard  Sir  Walter  Scott  as  their  master,  are  Thierry,  Ville- 
inain,  Barante,  and  in  historical  sketches  and  novels,  Dumas  and 
De  Vigny. 

The  philosophical  school,  on  the  other  hand,  consider  this 
scenic  narrative  more  suitable  to  romance  than  to  history  ;  they 
seek  in  the  events  of  the  past  the  chain  of  causes  and  effects  in 
order  to  arrive  at  general  conclusions  which  may  direct  the  con- 
duct of  men  in  the  future.  At  the  head  of  this  school  is  Guizot 
(1787—1876),  who  has  developed  his  historical  views  in  his  es- 
says on  the  "  History  of  France,"  and  more  particularly  in  his 
"  History  of  European  Civilization,"  in  which  he  points  out  the 
origin  of  modern  civilization,  and  follows  the  progress  of  the 
human  mind  from  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire.  The  philo- 
sophical historians  have  been  again  divided  according  to  their 
different  theories,  but  the  most  eminent  of  them  are  those  whom 
Chateaubriand  calls  fatalists ;  men  who,  having  surveyed  the 
course  of  public  events,  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  indi- 
vidual character  has  had  little  influence  on  the  political  destinies 
of  mankind,  that  there  is  a  general  and  inevitable  series  of  events 
which  regularly  succeed  each  other  with  the  certainty  of  cause 
and  effect,  and  that  it  is  as  easy  to  trace  it  as  it  is  impossible  to 
resist  or  divert  it  from  its  course.  A  tendency  to  these  views  is 


FRENCH  LITERATURE.  289 

visible  in  almost  every  French  historian  and  philosopher  of  the 
present  time.  The  philosophy  of  history  thus  grounded  has,  in 
their  hands,  assumed  the  aspect  of  a  science. 

HISTORY. —  Among  the  celebrated  writers  who  have  combined 
the  philosophical  and  narrative  styles  are  the  brothers  Amadee 
and  Augustine  Thierry  (1787-1873),  (1795-1856),  who  pro- 
duced a  "  History  of  the  Gauls,"  of  "  The  Norman  Conquest," 
and  other  excellent  works ;  Sismondi  (1773-1842),  whose  history 
of  the  "Italian  Republics"  and  of  the  "French  People"  are 
characterized  by  immense  erudition;  Thiers  (1797-1877),  whose 
clearness  of  style  is  combined  with  comprehensiveness  and  elo- 
quence ;  Mignet  (1796-1884),  celebrated  for  his  history  of  the 
French  Revolution.  The  voluminous  "  History  of  France,"  by 
Henri  Martin  (1810-1884),  is  perhaps  the  best  and  most  im- 
portant work  treating  the  whole  subject  in  detail. 

The  downfall  of  the  July  Monarchy  brought  forth  works  of 
importance  on  this  subject,  the  most  noted  of  which  are  those 
by  Lamartine,  Michelet,  and  Louis  Blanc.  Lamartine's  "  His- 
tory of  the  Girondins  "  was  written  from  a  constitutional  and  re- 
publican point  of  view,  and  was  not  without  influence  in  produc- 
ing the  Revolution  of  1848,  but  it  is  the  work  of  an  orator  and 
poet  rather  than  that  of  a  historian.  The  historical  and  political 
works  of  Michelet  (1778—1873)  are  of  a  more  original  character ; 
his  imaginative  powers  are  of  the  highest  order,  and  his  style  is 
striking  and  picturesque.  The  work  of  Louis  Blanc  (1813- 
1883)  is  that  of  a  sincere  and  ardent  republican,  and  is  useful 
from  that  point  of  view,  as  is  that  of  Quinet  (1803-1875). 
Lanfrey  places  the  character  of  Napoleon  in  a  new  and  far  from 
favorable  light.  Taine,  so  distinguished  in  literary  criticism,  has 
discussed  elaborately  the  causes  of  the  Revolution. 

POETRY  AND  THE  DRAMA  ;  RISE  OF  THE  ROMANTIC  SCHOOL. 
—  During  the  Middle  Ages  men  of  letters  followed  each  other 
in  the  cultivation  of  certain  literary  forms,  often  with  little  re- 
gard to  their  adaptation  to  the  subject.  The  vast  extension  of 
thought  and  knowledge  in  the  sixteenth  century  broke  up  the 
old  forms  and  introduced  the  practice  of  treating  each  sub- 
ject in  a  manner  more  or  less  appropriate  to  it.  The  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries  witnessed  a  return  to  the  ob- 
servance of  arbitrary  rules,  though  the  evil  effects  were  some- 
what counterbalanced  by  the  enlargement  of  thought  and  the 
increasing  knowledge  of  other  literature,  ancient  and  modern. 
The  great  Romantic  movement,  which  began  in  the  second  quar- 
ter of  the  nineteenth  century,  repeated  on  a  larger  scale  the 
movement  of  the  sixteenth  to  break  up  and  discard  many  stiff 
and  useless  literary  forms,  to  give  strength  and  variety  to  such 
as  were  retained,  and  to  enrich  the  language  by  new  inventions 
19 


290       HANDBOOK   OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE, 

and  revivals.  The  supporters  of  this  reform  long  maintained 
an  animated  controversy  with  the  adherents  of  the  classical 
school,  and  it  was  only  after  several  years  that  the  younger  com- 
batants came  out  victorious.  The  objects  of  the  school  were  so 
violently  opposed  that  the  king  was  petitioned  to  forbid  the  ad- 
mission of  any  Romantic  drama  at  the  Theatre  Frangais,  the 
petitioners  asserting  that  the  object  of  their  adversaries  was  to 
burn  everything  that  had  been  adored  and  to  adore  everything 
that  had  been  burned.  The  representation  of  Victor  Hugo's 
"  Hernani "  was  the  culmination  of  the  struggle,  and  since  that 
time  all  the  greatest  men  of  letters  in  France  have  been  on  the 
innovating  side.  In  belles-lettres  and  history  the  result  has 
been  most  remarkable.  Obsolete  rules  which  had  so  long  regu- 
lated the  French  stage  have  been  abolished  ;  poetry  not  dramatic 
has  been  revived ;  prose  romance  and  Hte^a^y— ciitieism  have 
been  brought  to  a  degree  of  perfection  previously  unknown  ;  and 
in  history  more  various  and  remarkable  works  have  been  pro- 
duced than  ever  before,  while  the  modern  French  language,  if 
it  lacks  the  precision  and  elegance  to  which  from  1680  to  1800 
all  else  had  been  sacrificed,  has  become  a  much  more  suitable  in- 
strument for  the  accurate  and  copious  treatment  of  scientific 
subjects.  At  the  time  of  the  accession  of  Charles  X.  (1824), 
the  only  writers  of  eminence  were  Beranger  (1780—1857),  La- 
martine  (1790-1869),  and  Lamennais  (1782-1854),  and  they 
mark  the  transition  between  the  old  and  new.  Beranger  was 
the  poet  of  the  people ;  most  of  his  earlier  compositions  were 
political,  extolling  the  greatness  of  the  fallen  empire  or  bewail- 
ing the  low  state  of  France  under  the  restored  dynasty.  They 
were  received  with  enthusiasm  and  sung  from  one  end  of  the 
country  to  the  other.  His  later  songs  exhibit  a  not  unpleasing 
change  from  the  audacious  and  too  often  licentious  tone  of  his 
earlier  days.  In  the  hands  of  Lamartine  the  language,  softened 
and  harmonized,  loses  that  clear  epigrammatic  expression 
which,  before  him,  had  appeared  inseparable  from  French  po- 
etry. His  works  are  pervaded  by  an  earnest  religious  feeling 
and  a  rare  delicacy  of  expression.  "  Jocelyn,"  a  romance  in 
verse,  the  "  Meditations,"  and  "  Harmonies  "  are  among  his  best 
works. 

Victor  Hugo  (b.  1800)  at  the  age  of  twenty-five  was  the  ac- 
knowledged master  in  poetry  as  in  the  drama,  and  this  position  he 
still  holds.  In  him  all  the  Romantic  characteristics  are  expressed 
and  embodied, — disregard  of  arbitrary  rules,  free  choice  of 
subjects,  variety  and  vigor  of  metre,  and  beauty  of  diction. 
His  poetical  influence  has  been  represented  in  three  different 
schools,  corresponding  in  point  of  time  with  the  first  outburst  of 
the  movement,  a  brief  period  of  reaction,  and  the  closing  years 


FRENCH  LITERATURE.  291 

of  the  second  empire.  Of  the  first,  Theophile  Gautier  (1811- 
1872)  was  the  most  distinguished  member.  The  next  genera- 
tion produced  those  remarkable  poets,  Theodore  de  Banville 
(b.  1820),  who  composed  a  large  amount  of  verse  faultless  in 
form  and  exquisite  in  shade  and  color,  but  so  neutral  in  tone 
that  it  has  found  few  admirers,  and  Charles  Baudelaire  (1821- 
1867),  who  offends  by  the  choice  of  unpopular  subjects  and  the 
terrible  truth  of  his  analysis. 

The  poems  of  De  Vigny  are  sweet  and  elegant,  though 
somewhat  lacking  in  the  energy  belonging  to  lyric  composition. 
Those  of  Alfred  de  Musset  (1800-1857)  are  among  the  finest 
in  the  language. 

The  Gascon  poet  Jasmin  has  produced  a  good  deal  of  verse 
in  the  western  dialect  of  the  Langue  d'oc,  and  recently  a  more 
cultivated  and  literary  school  of  poets  has  arisen  in  Provence, 
the  chief  of  whom  is  Mistral. 

The  effect  of  the  Romantic  movement  on  the  drama  has  been 
the  introduction  of  a  species  of  play  called  the  drame,  as  op- 
posed to  regular  comedy  and  tragedy,  and  admitting  of  freer 
treatment.  Victor  Hugo,  Alexandra  Dumas  (1803-1874),  Vic- 
torien  Sardou  (b.  1831),  Alexandra  Dumas  fils  (b.  1821),  Le-. 
gouve  (b.  1807),  Scribe  (1791-1861),  Octave  Feuillet  (b.  1812), 
have  produced  works  of  this  class. 

The  literature  of  France  during  the  last  generation  has  been 
prolific  in  dramas  and  romances,  all  of  which  indicate  a  chaos 
of  opinion.  It  is  not  professedly  infidel,  like  that  of  the  eight- 
eenth century,  nor  professedly  pietistic,  like  that  of  the  seven- 
teenth. It  seems  to  have  no  general  aim,  the  opinions  and 
efforts  of  the  authors  being  seldom  consistent  with  themselves 
for  any  length  of  time.  No  one  can  deny  that  this  literature  en- 
gages the  reader's  most  intense  interest  by  the  seductive  sagacity 
of  the  movement,  the  variety  of  incident,  and  the  most  perfect 
command  of  those  means  calculated  to  produce  certain  ends. 

In  1866  appeared  a  collection  of  poems,  "  Le  Parnasse  Con- 
temporain,"  which  included  contributions  of  many  poets  already 
named,  and  of  others  unknown.  Two  other  collections  fol- 
lowed, one  in  1869  and  one  in  1876,  by  numerous  contributors, 
who  have  mostly  published  separate  works.  They  are  called 
collectively,  half  seriously  and  half  in  derision,  "  Les  Parnas- 
siens."  Their  cardinal  principle  is  a  devotion  to  poetry  as  an 
art,  with  diversity  of  aim  and  subject.  Of  these,  Coppee  de- 
votes himself  to  domestic  and  social  subjects  ;  Louise  Siefert 
indulges  in  the  poetry  of  despair ;  Glatigny  excels  all  in  indi- 
viduality of  poetical  treatment.  The  Parnassiens  number  three 
or  four  score  poets  ;  the  average  of  their  work  is  high,  though  to 
none  can  be  assigned  the  first  rank. 


292       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

FICTION.  —  Previous  to  1830  no  writer  of  fiction  had  formed 
a  school,  nor  had  this  form  of  literature  heen  cultivated  to  any 
great  extent.  From  the  immense  influence  of  Walter  Scott,  or 
from  other  causes,  there  suddenly  appeared  a  remarkable  group 
of  novelists,  Hugo,  Gautier,  Dumas,  Merimee,  Balzac,  George 
Sand,  Sandeau,  Charles  de  Bernard,  and  others  scarcely  inferior. 
It  is  remarkable  that  the  excellence  of  the  first  group  has  been 
maintained  by  a  new  generation,  Murger,  About,  Feuillet,  Flau- 
bert, Erckmann-Chatrian,  Droz,  Daudet,  Cherbulliez,  Gaboriau, 
Dumas  fils,  and  others. 

During  this  period  the  romance-writing  of  France  has  taken 
two  different  directions.  The  first,  that  of  the  novel  of  incident, 
of  which  Scott  was  the  model ;  the  second,  that  of  analysis  and 
character,  illustrated  by  the  genius  of  Balzac  and  George  Sand. 
The  stories  of  Hugo  are  novels  of  incident  with  ideal  character 
painting.  Dumas's  works  are  dramatic  in  character  and  charm- 
ing for  their  brilliancy  and  wit.  His  "  Trois  Mousquetaires  " 
and  "  Monte  Christo  "  are  considered  his  best  novels.  Of  a 
similar  kind  are  the  novels  of  Eugene  Sue.  Both  writers  were 
followed  by  a  crowd  of  companions  and  imitators.  The  taste 
for  the  novel  of  incident,  which  had  nearly  died  out,  was  re- 
newed in  another  form,  with  the  admixture  of  domestic  interest, 
by  the  literary  partners,  Erckmann-Chatrian. 

Theophile  Gautier  modified  the  incident  novel  in  many  short 
tales,  a  kind  of  writing  for  which  the  French  have  always  been 
famous,  and  of  which  the  writings  of  Gautier  were  masterpieces. 
With  him  may  be  classed  Prosper  Merimee  (1803-1871),  one 
of  the  most  exquisite  masters  of  the  language. 

Since  1830  the  tendency  has  been  towards  novels  of  contem- 
porary life.  The  two  great  masters  of  the  novel  of  character 
and  manners,  as  opposed  to  that  of  history  and  incident,  are 
Honore  de  Balzac  (1799-1850)  and  Aurore  Dudevant,  com- 
monly called  George  Sand  (d.  1876),  whose  early  writings  are 
strongly  tinged  with  the  spirit  of  revolt  against  moral  and  social 
arrangements ;  later  she  devoted  herself  to  studies  of  country 
life  and  manners,  involving  bold  sketches  of  character  and  dra- 
matic situations.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  characteristics  of 
her  work  is  the  apparently  inexhaustible  imagination  with  which 
she  continued  to  the  close  of  her  long  life  to  pour  forth  many 
volumes  of  fiction  year  after  year.  Balzac,  as  a  writer,  was 
equally  productive.  In  the  "  Comedie  Humaine  "  he  attempted 
to  cover  the  whole  ground  of  human,  or  at  least  of  French  life, 
and  the  success  he  attained  was  remarkable.  The  influence  of 
these  two  writers  affected  the  entire  body  of  those  who  suc- 
ceeded them  with  very  few  exceptions.  Among  these  are  Jules 
Sandeau,  whose  novels  are  distinguished  by  minute  character- 
drawing  in  tones  of  a  sombre  hue. 


FRENCH  LITERATURE.  293 

Saintine,  the  author  of  "  Picciola,"  Mme.  Craven  (Rec.it 
d'une  Soeur),  Henri  Beyle,  who,  under  the  nom  de  phime  of 
Stendhal,  wrote  the  "  Chartreuse  de  Parme,"  a  powerful  novel 
of  the  analytical  kind,  and  Henri  Murger,  a  painter  of  Bo- 
hemian life.  Octave  Feuillet  has  attained  great  popularity 
in  romances  of  fashionable  life.  Gustave  Flaubert  (b.  1821), 
with  great  acuteness  and  knowledge  of  human  nature,  combines 
scholarship  and  a  power  over  the  language  not  surpassed  by  any 
writer  of  the  century.  Edmond  About  (b.  1828)  is  distinguished 
by  his  refined  wit.  One  of  the  most  popular  writers  of  the 
second  empire  is  Ernest  Feydeau  (1821-1874),  a  writer  of  great 
ability,  but  morbid  and  affected  in  the  choice  and  treatment  of 
his  subjects.  Of  late,  many  writers  of  the  realist  school  have 
striven  to  outdo  their  predecessors  in  carrying  out  the  princi- 
ples of  Balzac ;  among  these  are  Gaboriau,  Cherbulliez,  Droz, 
Belot,  Alphonse  Daudet. 

CRITICISM.  —  Previous  to  the  Romantic  movement  in  France 
the  office  of  criticism  had  been  to  compare  all  literary  produc- 
tions with  certain  established  rules,  and  to  judge  them  accord- 
ingly. The  theory  of  the  new  school  was,  that  a  work  should 
be  judged  by  itself  alone  or  by  the  author's  ideal.  The  great 
master  of  this  school  was  Sainte-Bauve  (1804-1869),  who  pos- 
sessed a  rare  combination  of  great  and  accurate  learning,  com- 
pass and  profundity  of  thought,  and  above  all  sympathy  in  judg- 
ment. Hippolyte  Taine  (b.  1828),  the  most  brilliant  of  living 
French  critics,  Theophile  Gautier,  Arsene  Houssaye,  Jules  Janin 
(d.  1874),  Sarcey,  and  others,  are  distinguished  in  this  branch 
of  letters. 

MISCELLANEOUS.  —  Among  earlier  writers  of  the  nineteenth 
century  are  Sismondi,  whose  "  Literature  of  Southern  Europe  " 
remains  without  a  rival,  the  work  of  Ginguene  on  "  Italian 
Literature,"  and  of  Renouard  on  "  Provencal  Poetry."  In  intel- 
lectual philosophy  Jouffroy  and  Damiron  continued  the  work 
begun  by  Royer-Collard,  that  of  destroying  the  influence  of  sen- 
sualism and  materialism.  The  philosophical  writings  of  Cousin 
(1792-1867)  are  models  of  didactic  prose,  and  in  his  work  on 
"  The  Beautiful,  True,  and  Good  "  he  raises  the  science  of 
aesthetics  to  its  highest  dignity.  Lamennais  (1782-1854)  exhib- 
its in  his  writings  various  phases  of  religious  thought,  ending  in 
rationalism.  Comte  (1798-1857),  in  his  "  Positive  Philosophy," 
shows  power  of  generalization  and  force  of  logic,  though  tending 
to  atheism  and  socialism.  De  Tocqueville  and  Chevalier  are 
distinguished  in  political  science,  the  former  particularly  for  his 
able  work  on  "  Democracy  in  America."  Renan  (b.  1823)  is  a 
prominent  name  in  theological  writing,  and  Montalembert  (1810- 
1870)  a  historian  with  strong  religious  tendencies. 


294       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

Among  the  orators  Lacordaire,  Pere  Felix,  Pere  Hyacinthe, 
and  Coquerel  are  best  known. 

Among  the  women  of  France  distinguished  for  their  literary 
abilities  are  Mme.  Durant,  who,  under  the  name  of  Henri 
Greville,  has  given,  in  a  series  of  tales,  many  charming  pictures 
of  Russian  life,  Mile.  Clarisse  Bader,  who  has  produced  valuable 
historical  works  on  the  condition  of  women  in  all  ages,  and  Mme. 
Adam,  a  brilliant  writer  and  journalist. 

In  science,  Pasteur  and  Milne-Edwards  hold  the  first  rank  in 
biology,  Paul  Bert  in  physiology,  and  Quatref ages  in  anthropol- 
ogy of  races* 


SPANISH  LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION.  —  I.  Spanish  Literature  and  its  Divisions.  — 2.  The  Language. 

PERIOD  FIRST.  —  1.  Early  National  Literature  ;  the  Poern  of  the  Cid ;  Berceo,  Alfonso 
the  Wise,  Segura ;  Don  Juan  Manuel,  the  Archpriest  of  Hita,  Santob,  Ayala.  —  2.  Old 
Ballads. — 3.  The  Chronicles. — 4.  Romances  of  Chivalry. — 5.  The  Drama.  —  6.  Provencal 
Literature  in  Spain. — 7.  The  Influence  of  Italian  Literature  in  Spain.— 8.  The  Can- 
cioneros  and  Prose  Writing. — 9.  The  Inquisition. 

PERIOD  SECOND. — 1.  The  Effect  of  Intolerance  on  Letters.  —  2.  Influence  of  Italy  on 
Spanish  Literature ;  Boscan,  Garcilasso  de  la  Vega,  Diego  de  Mendoza.  —  3.  History ; 
Cortez,  Gomara,  Oviedo,  Las  Casas. — 4.  The  Drama,  Rueda,  Lope  de  Vega,  Calderon 
de  la  Barca.  —  5.  Romances  and  Tales ;  Cervantes,  and  other  Writers  of  Fiction.  —  6.  His- 
torical Narrative  Poems ;  Ercilla.  —  7.  Lyric  Poetry  ;  the  Argensolas ;  Luis  de  Leon. 
Quevedo,  Herrera,  Gougora,  and  others.  —  8.  Satirical  and  other  Poetry.  — 9.  History  and 
other  Prose  Writing ;  Zurita,  Mariana,  Sandoval,  and  others. 

PERIOD  THIRD.—!.  French  Influence  on  the  Literature  of  Spain. — 2.  The  Dawn  of 
Spanish  Literature  in  the  Eighteenth  Century ;  Feyjoo,  Isla,  Moratin  the  elder,  Yriarte, 
Melendez,  Gonzalez,  Quintana,  Moratin  the  younger.  — 3.  Spanish  Literature  in  the  Nine- 
teenth Century. 

INTRODUCTION. 

1.  SPANISH  LITERATURE  AND  ITS  DIVISIONS.  —  At  the  pe- 
riod of  the  subversion  of  the  Empire  of  the  West,  in  the  fifth 
century,  Spain  was  invaded  by  the  Suevi,  the  Alans,  the  Van- 
dals, and  the  Visigoths.  The  country  which  had  for  six  centu- 
ries been  subjected  to  the  dominion  of  the  Romans,  and  had 
adopted  the  language  and  arts  of  its  masters,  now  experienced 
those  changes  in  manners,  opinions,  military  spirit,  and  language, 
which  took  place  in  the  other  provinces  of  the  empire,  and  which 
were,  in  fact,  the  origin  of  the  nations  which  arose  on  the  over- 
throw of  the  Roman  power.  Among  the  conquerors  of  Spain, 
the  Visigoths  were  the  most  numerous  ;  the  ancient  Roman  sub- 
jects were  speedily  confounded  with  them,  and  their  dominion 
soon  extended  over  nearly  the  whole  country.  In  the  year  710 
the  peninsula  was  invaded  by  the  Arabs  or  Moors,  and  from 
that  time  the  active  and  incessant  struggles  of  the  Spanish  Chris- 
tians against  the  invaders,  and  their  necessary  contact  with  Ara- 
bian civilization,  began  to  elicit  sparks  of  intellectual  energy. 
Indeed,  the  first  utterance  of  that  popular  feeling  which  became 
the  foundation  of  the  national  literature  was  heard  in  the  midst 
of  that  extraordinary  contest,  which  lasted  for  more  than  seven 
centuries,  so  that  the  earliest  Spanish  poetry  seems  but  a  breath- 
ing of  the  energy  and  heroism  which,  at  the  time  it  appeared, 
animated  the  Spanish  Christians  throughout  the  peninsula.  Over- 
whelmed by  the  Moors,  they  did  not  entirely  yield  ;  a  small  but 
valiant  band,  retreating  before  the  fiery  pursuit  of  their  enemies, 


296       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

established  themselves  in  the  extreme  northwestern  portion  of 
their  native  land,  amidst  the  mountains  and  the  fastnesses  of 
Biscay  and  Asturias,  while  the  others  remained  under  the  yoke 
of  the  conquerors,  adopting,  in  some  degree,  the  manners  and 
habits  of  the  Arabians.  On  the  destruction  of  the  caliphat  of 
Cordova,  in  the  year  1031,  the  dismemberment  of  the  Moslem 
territories  into  petty  independent  kingdoms,  often  at  variance 
with  each  other,  afforded  the  Christians  a  favorable  opportunity 
of  reconquering  their  country.  One  after  another  the  Moorish 
states  fell  before  them.  The  Moors  were  driven  farther  and 
farther  to  the  south,  and  by  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century 
they  had  no  dominion  in  Spain  except  the  kingdom  of  Granada, 
which  for  two  centuries  longer  continued  the  splendid  abode  of 
luxury  and  magnificence. 

As  victory  inclined  more  and  more  to  the  Spanish  arms,  the 
Castilian  dialect  rapidly  grew  into  a  vehicle  adequate  to  express 
the  pride  and  dignity  of  the  prevailing  people,  and  that  enthu- 
siasm for  liberty  which  was  long  their  finest  characteristic.  The 
poem  of  the  Cid  early  appeared,  and  in  the  thirteenth  century  a 
numerous  family  of  romantic  ballads  followed,  all  glowing  with 
heroic  ardor.  As  another  epoch  drew  near,  the  lyric  form  be- 
gan to  predominate,  in  which,  however,  the  warm  expressions  of 
the  Spanish  heart  were  restricted  by  a  fondness  for  conceit  and 
allegory.  The  rudiments  of  the  drama,  religious,  pastoral,  and 
satiric,  soon  followed,  marked  by  many  traits  of  original  thought 
and  talent.  Thus  the  course  of  Spanish  literature  proceeded, 
animated  and  controlled  by  the  national  character,  to  the  end  of 
the  fifteenth  century. 

In  the  sixteenth,  the  original  genius  of  the  Spaniards,  and  their 
proud  consciousness  of  national  greatness,  contributed  to  the 
maintenance  and  improvement  of  their  literature  in  the  face  of 
the  Inquisition  itself.  Released  by  the  conquest  of  Granada 
(1492)  from  the  presence  of  internal  foes,  prosperous  at  home 
and  powerful  abroad,  Spain  naturally  rose  to  high  mental  dig- 
nity ;  and  with  all  that  she  gathered  from  foreign  contributions, 
her  writers  kept  much  of  their  native  vein,  more  free  than  at 
first  from  Orientalism,  but  still  breathing  of  their  own  romantic 
land.  A  closo  connection,  however,  for  more  than  one  hundred 
years  with  Italy,  familiarized  the  Spanish  mind  with  eminent 
Italian  authors  and  with  the  ancient  classics. 

During  the  seventeenth  century,  especially  from  the  middle  to 
the  close,  the  decay  of  letters  kept  pace  with  the  decline  of  Span- 
ish power,  until  the  humiliation  of  both  seemed  completed  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.  About  that  time,  however,  the  Spanish 
drama  received  a  full  development  and  attained  its  perfection. 
In  the  eighteenth  century,  under  the  government  of  the  Bour- 


SPANISH   LITERATURE.  297 

bons,  and  partly  through  the  patronage  of  Philip  V.,  there  was 
a  certain  revival  of  literature  ;  but  unfortunately,  parties  divided, 
and  many  of  the  educated  Spaniards  were  so  much  attracted 
by  French  glitter  as  to  turn  with  disgust  from  their  own  writers. 
The  political  convulsions,  of  which  Spain  has  been  the  victim 
since  the  time  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  have  greatly  retarded  the  prog- 
ress of  national  literature,  and  the  nineteenth  century  has  thus 
far  produced  little  which  is  worthy  of  mention. 

The  literary  history  of  Spain  may  be  divided  into  three  pe- 
riods :  — 

The  first,  extending  from  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century  to 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth,  will  contain  the  literature  of  the 
country  from  the  first  appearance  of  the  present  written  language 
to  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of  Charles  V.,  and  will  include  the 
genuinely  national  literature,  and  that  portion  which,  by  imitat- 
ing the  refinement  of  Provence  or  of  Italy,  was,  during  the  same 
interval,  more  or  less  separated  from  the  popular  spirit  and 
genius. 

The  second,  the  period  of  literary  success  and  national  glory, 
extending  from  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  to  the 
close  of  the  seventeenth,  will  embrace  the  literature  from  the 
accession  of  the  Austrian  family  to  its  extinction. 

The  third,  the  period  of  decline,  extends  from  the  beginning 
of  the  eighteenth  to  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  or 
from  the  accession  of  the  Bourbon  family  to  the  present  time. 

2.  THE  LANGUAGE.  —  The  Spanish  Christians  who,  after  the 
Moorish  conquest,  had  retreated  to  the  mountains  of  Asturias, 
carried  with  them  the  Latin  language  as  they  had  received  it 
corrupted  from  the  Romans,  and  still  more  by  the  elements  in- 
troduced into  it  by  the  invasion  of  the  northern  tribes.  In  their 
retreat  they  found  themselves  amidst  the  descendants  of  the  Ibe- 
rians", the  earliest  race  which  had  inhabited  Spain,  who  appeared 
to  have  shaken  off  little  of  the  barbarism  that  had  resisted  alike 
the  invasion  of  the  Romans  and  of  the  Goths,  and  who  retained 
the  original  Iberian  or  Basque  tongue.  Coming  in  contact  with 
this,  the  language  of  those  Christians  underwent  new  modifica- 
tions ;  later,  when  they  advanced  in  their  conquest  toward  the 
south  and  the  east,  and  found  themselves  surrounded  by  those 
portions  of  their  race  that  had  remained  among  the  Arabs, 
known  as  Mu9arabes,  they  felt  that  they  were  in  the  presence 
of  a  civilization  and  refinement  altogether  superior  to  their  own. 
As  the  Goths,  between  the  fifth  and  eighth  centuries,  had  re- 
ceived a  vast  number  of  words  from  the  Latin,  because  it  was 
the  language  of  a  people  with  whom  they  were  intimately  min- 
gled, and  who  were  much  more  intellectual  and  advanced  than 
themselves,  so,  for  the  same  reason,  the  whole  nation,  between 


298       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

the  eighth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  received  another  increase  of 
their  vocabulary  from  the  Arabic,  and  accommodated  themselves 
in  a  remarkable  degree  to  the  advanced  cultui'e  of  their  southern 
countrymen,  and  of  their  new  Moorish  subjects. 

It  appears  that  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  this 
new  dialect  had  risen  to  the  dignity  of  being  a  written  lan- 
guage ;  and  it  spread  gradually  through  the  country.  It  differed 
from  the  pure  or  the  corrupted  Latin,  and  still  more  from  the 
Arabic ;  yet  it  was  obviously  formed  by  a  union  of  both,  modi- 
fied by  the  analogies  and  spirit  of  the  Gothic  constructions  and 
dialects,  and  containing  some  remains  of  the  vocabularies  of  the 
Iberians,  the  Celts,  the  Phoenicians,  and  of  the  German  tribes, 
who  at  different  periods  had  occupied  the  peninsula.  This,  like 
the  other  languages  of  Southern  Europe,  was  called  originally 
the  Romance,  from  the  prevalence  of  the  Roman  and  Latin  ele- 
ments. 

The  territories  of  the  Christian  Spaniards  were  divided  into 
three  longitudinal  sections,  having  each  a  separate  dialect,  aris- 
ing from  the  mixture  of  different  primitive  elements.  The  Cat- 
alan was  spoken  in  the  east,  the  Castilian  in  the  centre,  while 
the  Galician,  which  originated  the  Portuguese,  prevailed  in  the 
west. 

The  Catalan  or  Limousin,  the  earliest  dialect  cultivated  in 
the  peninsula,  bore  a  sti-ong  resemblance  to  the  Proven9al,  and 
when  the  bards  were  driven  from  Provence  they  found  a  home 
in  the  east  of  Spain,  and  numerous  celebrated  troubadours  arose 
in  Aragon  and  Catalonia.  But  many  elements  concurred  to 
produce  a  decay  of  the  Catalan,  and  from  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century  it  rapidly  declined.  It  is  still  spoken  in  the 
Balearic  Islands  and  among  the  lower  classes  of  some  of  the 
eastern  parts  of  Spain,  but  since  the  sixteenth  century  the  Cas- 
tilian alone  has  been  the  vehicle  of  literature. 

The  Castilian  dialect  followed  the  fortune  of  the  Castilian 
arms,  until  it  finally  became  the  established  language,  even  of 
the  most  southern  provinces,  where  it  had  been  longest  withstood 
by  the  Arabic.  Its  clear,  sonorous  vowels  and  the  beautiful  ar- 
ticulation of  its  syllables,  give  it  a  greater  resemblance  to  the 
Italian  than  any  other  idiom  of  the  peninsula.  But  amidst  this 
euphony  the  ear  is  struck  with  the  sound  of  the  German  and 
Arabic  guttural,  which  is  unknown  in  the  other  languages  in 
which  Latin,  roots  predominate. 


SPANISH  LITERATURE.  299 


PERIOD   FIRST. 

FROM  THE  FIRST  APPEARANCE  OF  THE  WRITTEN  LANGUAGE  TO  THE 
EARLY  PART  OF  THE  REIGN  OF  CHARLES  V.  (1200-1500). 

1.  EARLY  NATIONAL,  LITERATURE.  —  There  are  two  traits 
of  the  earliest  Spanish  literature  wliich  so  peculiarly  distinguish 
it  that  they  deserve  to  he  noticed  from  the  outset  —  religious 
faith  and  knightly  loyalty.  The  Spanish  national  character,  as 
it  has  existed  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  present  day,  was 
formed  in  that  solemn  contest  which  began  when  the  Moors 
landed  beneath  the  rock  of  Gibraltar,  and  which  did  not  end 
until  eight  centuries  after,  when  the  last  remnants  of  the  race 
were  driven  from  the  shores  of  Spain.  During  this  contest, 
especially  that  part  of  it  when  the  earliest  Spanish  poetry  ap- 
peared, nothing  but  an  invincible  faith  and  a  not  less  invincible 
loyalty  to  their  own  princes  could  have  sustained  the  Christian 
Spaniards  in  their  struggles  against  their  infidel  oppressors.  It 
was,  therefore,  a  stern  necessity  which  made  these  two  high 
qualities  elements  of  the  Spanish  national  character,  and  it  is 
not  surprising  that  we  find  submission  to  the  church  and  loyalty 
to  the  king  constantly  breathing  through  every  portion  of  Span- 
ish literature. 

The  first  monument  of  the  Spanish,  or,  as  it  was  oftener  called, 
the  Castilian  tongue,  the  most  ancient  epic  in  any  of  the  Romance 
languages,  is  "  The  Poem  of  the  Cid."  It  consists  of  more  than 
three  thousand  lines,  and  was  probably  not  composed  later  than  the 
year  1200.  This  poem  celebrates  the  achievements  of  the  great 
hero  of  the  chivalrous  age  of  Spain,  Rodrigo  Diaz  (1020-1099), 
who  obtained  from  five  Moorish  kings,  whom  he  had  vanquished 
in  battle,  the  title  of  El  Seid,  or  my  lord.  He  was  also  called 
by  the  Spaniards  El  Campeador  or  El  Cid  Campeador,  the  Cham- 
pion or  the  Loi-d  Champion,  and  he  well  deserved  the  honorable 
title,  for  he  passed  almost  the  whole  of  his  life  in  the  field  against 
'  the  oppressors  of  his  country,  and  led  the  conquering  arms  of 
the  Christians  over  nearly  a  quarter  of  Spain.  No  hero  has 
been  so  universally  celebrated  by  his  countrymen,  and  poetry 
and  tradition  have  delighted  to  attach  to  his  name  a  long  series 
of  fabulous  achievements,  which  remind  us  as  often  of  Amadis 
and  Arthur,  as  they  do  of  the  sober  heroes  of  history.  His 
memory  is  so  sacredly  dear  to  the  Spanish  nation,  that  to  say 
u  by  the  faith  of  Rodrigo,"  is  still  considered  the  strongest  vow 
of  loyalty. 

The  poem  of  the  Cid  is  valuable  mainly  for  the  living  picture 
it  presents  of  manners  and  character  in  the  eleventh  century.  It 
is  a  contemporary  and  spirited  exhibition  of  the  chivalrous  times 


300       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

of  Spain,  given  occasionally  with  an  admirable  and  Homeric 
simplicity.  It  is  the  history  of  the  most  romantic  hero  of  Span- 
ish tradition,  continually  mingled  with  domestic  and  personal 
details,  that  bring  the  character  of  the  Cid  and  his  age  very 
near  to  our  own  sympathies  and  interests.  The  language  is  the 
same  which  he  himself  spoke  —  still  only  imperfectly  developed 
—  it  expresses  the  bold  and  original  spirit  of  the  time,  and  the 
metre  and  rhyme  are  rude  and  unsettled  ;  but  the  poem  through- 
out is  striking  and  original,  and  breathes  everywhere  the  true 
Castilian  spirit.  During  the  thousand  years  which  elapsed  from 
the  time  of  the  decay  of  Greek  and  Roman  culture  down  to  the 
appearance  of  the  Divine  Comedy,  no  poetry  was  produced  so 
original  in  its  tone,  or  so  full  of  natural  feeling,  picturesqueness, 
and  energy. 

There  are  a  few  other  poems,  anonymous,  like  that  of  the  Cid, 
whose  language  and  style  carry  them  back  to  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. The  next  poetry  we  meet  is  by  a  known  author,  Gonzalo 
(1220-1260),  a  priest  commonly  called  Berceo,  from  the  place 
of  his  birth.  His  works,  all  on  religious  subjects,  amount  to 
more  than  thirteen  thousand  lines.  His  language  shows  some 
advance  from  that  in  which  the  Cid  was  written,  but  the  power 
and  movement  of  that  remarkable  legend  are  entirely  wanting  in 
these  poems.  There  is  a  simple-hearted  piety  in  them,  however, 
that  is  very  attractive,  and  in  some  of  them  a  story-telling  spirit 
that  is  occasionally  vivid  and  graphic. 

Alfonso,  surnamed  the  Wise  (1221-1284),  united  the  crowns 
of  Leon  and  Castile,  and  attracted  to  his  court  many  of  the  phi- 
losophers and  learned  men  of  the  East.  He  was  a  poet  closely 
connected  with  the  Prove^al  troubadours  of  his  time,  and  so 
skilled  in  astronomy  and  the  occult  sciences  that  his  fame  spread 
throughout  Europe.  He  had  more  political,  philosophical,  and 
elegant  learning  than  any  man  of  his  age,  and  made  further  ad- 
vances in  some  of  the  exact  sciences.  At  one  period  his  consid- 
eration was  so  great,  that  he  was  elected  Emperor  of  Germany ; 
but  his  claims  were  set  aside  by  the  subsequent  election  of  Ru- 
dolph of  Hapsburg.  The  last  great  work  undertaken  by  Alfonso 
was  a  kind  of  code  known  as  "Las  Siete  Partidas,"  or  The 
Seven  Parts,  from  the  divisions  of  the  work  itself.  This  is  the 
most  important  legislative  monument  of  the  age,  and  forms  a 
sort  of  Spanish  common  law,  which,  with  the  decisions  under  it, 
has  been  the  basis  of  Spanish  jurisprudence  ever  since.  Be- 
coming a  part  of  the  Constitution  of  the  State  in  all  Spanish  col- 
onies, it  has,  from  the  time  Louisiana  and  Florida  were  added 
to  the  United  States,  become  in  some  cases  the  law  in  our  own 
country. 

The  life  of  Alfonso  was  full  of  painful  vicissitudes.     He  was 


SPANISH  LITERATURE.  301 

driven  from  his  throne  by  factious  nobles  and  a  rebellious  son, 
and  died  in  exile,  leaving  behind  him  the  reputation  of  being  the 
wisest  fool  in  Christendom.  Mariana  says  of  him  :  "  He  was 
more  fit  for  letters  than  for  the  government  of  his  subjects  ;  he 
studied  the  heavens  and  watched  the  stars,  but  forgot  the  earth 
and  lost  his  kingdom."  Yet  Alfonso  is  among  the  chief  found- 
ers of  his  country's  intellectual  fame,  and  he  is  to  be  remembered 
alike  for  the  great  advancement  Castilian  prose  composition 
made  in  his  hands,  for  his  poetry,  for  his  astronomical  tables  — 
which  all  the  progress  of  modern  science  has  not  deprived  of 
their  value  —  and  for  his  great  work  on  legislation,  which  is  at 
this  moment  an  authority  in  both  hemispheres. 

Juan  Lorenzo  Segura  (1176-1250)  was  the  author  of  a  poem 
containing  more  than  ten  thousand  lines,  on  the  history  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great.  In  this  poem  the  manners  and  customs  of 
Spain  in  the  thirteenth  century  are  substituted  for  those  of  an- 
cient Greece,  and  the  Macedonian  hero  is  invested  with  all  the 
virtues  and  even  equipments  of  European  chivalry. 

Don  Juan  Manuel  (1282-1347),  a  nephew  of  Alfonso  the 
Wise,  was  one  of  the  most  turbulent  and  dangerous  Spanish  bar- 
ons of  his  time.  His  life  was  full  of  intrigue  and  violence,  and 
for  thirty  years  he  disturbed  his  country  by  his  military  and  re- 
bellious enterprises.  But  in  all  these  circumstances,  so  adverse 
to  intellectual  pursuits,  he  showed  himself  worthy  of  the  family 
in  which  for  more  than  a  century  letters  had  been  honored  and 
cultivated.  Don  Juan  is  known  to  have  written  twelve  works, 
but  it  is  uncertain  how  many  of  these  are  still  in  existence  ;  only 
one,  "  Count  Lucanor,"  has  been  placed  beyond  the  reach  of  ac- 
cident by  being  printed.  The  Count  Lucanor  is  the  most  valu- 
able monument  of  Spanish  literature  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
and  one  of  the  earliest  prose  works  in  the  Castilian  tongue,  as 
the  Decameron,  which  appeared  about  the  same  time,  was  the 
first  in  the  Italian.  Both  are  collections  of  tales ;  but  the  object 
of  the  Decameron  is  to  amuse,  while  the  Count  Lucanor  is  the 
production  of  a  statesman,  instructing  a  grave  and  serious  nation 
in  lessons  of  policy  and  morality  in  the  form  of  apologues. 
These  stories  have  suggested  many  subjects  for  the  Spanish 
stage,  and  one  of  them  contains  the  groundwork  of  Shakspeare's 
"  Taming  of  the  Shrew." 

Juan  Ruiz,  arch-priest  of  Hita  (1292-1351),  was  a  contempo- 
rary of  Dan  Manuel.  His  works  consist  of  nearly  seven  thou- 
sand verses,  forming  a  series  of  stories  which  appear  to  be 
sketches  from  his  own  history,  mingled  with  fictions  and  allego- 
ries. The  most  curious  is  '*  The  Battle  of  Don  Carnival  with 
Madame  Lent,"  in  which  Don  Bacon,  Madame  Hungbeef,  and 
a  train  of  other  savory  personages,  are  marshaled  in  mortal  com- 


302       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL.  LITERATURE. 

bat.  The  cause  of  Madame  Lent  triumphs,  and  Don  Carnival 
is  condemned  to  solitary  imprisonment  and  one  spare  meal  each 
day.  At  the  end  of  forty  days  the  allegorical  prisoner  escapes, 
raises  new  followers,  Don  Breakfast  and  others,  and  re-appears 
in  alliance  with  Don  Amor.  The  poetry  of  the  arch-priest  is 
very  various  in  tone.  In  general,  it  is  satirical  and  pervaded 
by  a  quiet  humor.  His  happiest  success  is  in  the  tales  and  apo- 
logues which  illustrate  the  adventures  that  constitute  a  frame- 
work for  his  poetry,  which  is  natural  and  spirited ;  and  in  this, 
as  in  other  points,  he  strikingly  resembles  Chaucer.  Both  often 
sought  their  materials  in  Northern  French  poetry,  and  both  have 
that  mixture  of  devotion  and  of  licentiousness  belonging  to  their 
age,  as  well  as  to  the  personal  character  of  each. 

Rabbi  Santob,  a  Jew  of  Carrion  (fl.  1350),  was  the  author  of 
many  poems,  the  most  important  of  which  is  "  The  Dance  of 
Death,"  a  favorite  subject  of  the  painters  and  poets  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages,  representing  a  kind  of  spiritual  masquerade,  in  which 
persons  of  every  rank  and  age  appear  dancing  with  the  skeleton 
form  of  Death.  In  this  Spanish  version  it  is  perhaps  more  strik- 
ing and  picturesque  than  in  any  other  —  the  ghastly  nature  of 
the  subject  being  brought  into  very  lively  contrast  with  the  fes- 
tive tone  of  the  verses.  This  grim  fiction  had  for  several  centu- 
ries great  success  throughout  Europe. 

Pedro  Lopez  Ayala  (1332-1407),  grand  chancellor  of  Castile 
under  four  successive  sovereigns,  was  both  a  poet  and  a  histo- 
rian. His  poem,  "  Court  Rhymes,"  is  the  most  remarkable  of 
his  productions.  His  style  is  grave,  gentle,  and  didactic,  with 
occasional  expressions  of  poetic  feeling,  which  seem,  however,  to 
belong  as  much  to  their  age  as  to  their  author. 

2.  OLD  BALLADS.  —  From  the  thirteenth  to  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, the  period  we  have  just  gone  over,  the  courts  of  the  differ- 
ent sovereigns  of  Europe  were  the  principal  centres  of  refine- 
ment and  civilization,  and  this  was  peculiarly  the  case  in  Spain 
during  this  period,  when  literature  was  produced  or  encouraged 
by  the  sovereigns  and  other  distinguished  men.  But  this  was 
not  the  only  literature  of  Spain.  The  spirit  of  poetry  diffused 
throughout  the  peninsula,  excited  by  the  romantic  events  of 
Spanish  histoiy,  now  began  to  assume  the  form  of  a  popular  lit- 
erature, and  to  assert  for  itself  a  place  which  in  some  particulars 
it  has  maintained  ever  since.  This  popular  literature  may  be 
distributed  into  four  different  classes.  The  first  contains  the 
Ballads,  or  the  narrative  and  lyrical  poetry  of  the  common  peo- 
ple from  the  earliest  times  ;  the  second,  the  Chronicles,  or  the 
half-genuine,  half-fabulous  histories  of  the  great  events  and  he- 
roes of  the  national  annals ;  the  third  class  comprises  the  Ro- 
mances of  Chivalry,  intimately  connected  with  both  the  others, 


SPAXJSH  LITERATURE.  303 

and,  after  a  time,  as  passionately  admired  by  the  whole  nation ; 
and  the  fourth  includes  the  Drama,  which  in  its  origin  has  al- 
ways been  a  popular  and  religious  amusement,  and  was  hardly 
less  so  in  Spain  than  it  was  in  Greece  or  in  France.  These  four 
classes  compose  what  was  generally  most  valued  in  Spanish  life- 
erature  during  the  latter  part  of  the  fourteenth  century,  the 
whole  of  the  fifteenth,  and  much  of  the  sixteenth.  They  rested 
on  the  deep  foundations  of  the  national  character,  and  therefore 
by  their  very  nature  were  opposed  to  the  Provencal,  the  Italian, 
and  the  courtly  schools,  which  flourished  during  the  same  pe- 
riod. 

The  metrical  structure  of  the  old  Spanish  ballad  was  extremely 
simple,  consisting  of  eight-syllable  lines,  which  are  composed 
with  great  facility  in  other  languages  as  well  as  the  Castilian. 
Sometimes  they  were  broken  into  stanzas  of  four  lines  each, 
thence  called  redondillas,  or  roundelays,  but  their  prominent 
peculiarity  is  that  of  the  asonante,  an  imperfect  rhyme  that 
echoes  the  same  vowel,  but  not  the  same  final  consonant  in  the 
terminating  syllables.  This  metrical  form  was  at  a  later  period 
adopted  by  the  dramatists,  and  is  now  used  in  every  department 
of  Spanish  poetry. 

The  old  Spanish  ballads  comprise  more  than  a  thousand 
poems,  first  collected  in  the  sixteenth  century,  whose  authors  and 
dates  are  alike  unknown.  Indeed,  until  after  the  middle  of  that 
century,  it  is  difficult  to  find  ballads  written  by  known  authors. 
These  collections,  arranged  without  regard  to  chronological  order, 
relate  to  the  fictions  of  chivalry,  especially  to  Charlemagne  and 
his  peers,  to  the  traditions  and  history  of  Spain,  to  Moorish  ad- 
ventures, and  to  the  private  life  and  manners  of  the  Spaniards 
themselves ;  they  belong  to  the  unchronicled  popular  life  and 
character  of  the  age  which  gave  them  birth.  The  ballads  of 
chivalry,  with  the  exception  of  those  relating  to  Charlemagne, 
occupy  a  less  important  place  than  those  founded  on  national 
subjects.  The  historical  ballads  are  by  far  the  most  numerous 
and  the  most  interesting  ;  and  of  those  the  first  in  the  order  of 
time  are  those  relating  to  Bernardo  del  Carpio,  concerning  whom 
there  are  about  forty.  Bernardo  (fl.  800)  was  the  offspring  of 
a  secret  marriage  between  the  Count  de  Saldana  and  a  sister  of 
Alfonso  the  Chaste,  at  which  the  king  was  so  much  offended 
that  he  sent  the  Infanta  to  a  convent,  and  kept  the  Count  in  per- 
petual imprisonment,  educating  Bernardo  as  his  own  son,  and 
keeping  him  in  ignorance  of  his  birth.  The  achievements  of 
Bernardo  ending  with  the  victory  of  Roncesvalles,  his  efforts  to 
procure  the  release  of  his  father,  the  falsehood  of  the  king,  and 
the  despair  and  rebellion  of  Bernardo  after  the  death  of  the 
Count  in  prison,  constitute  the  romantic  incidents  of  these  bal- 
lads. 


304       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

The  next  series  is  that  on  Fernan  Gonzalez,  a  chieftain  who, 
in  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century,  recovered  Castile  from  the 
Moors  and  became  its  first  sovereign  count.  The  most  roman- 
tic are  those  which  describe  his  being  twice  rescued  from  prison 
by  his  heroic  wife,  and  his  contest  with  King  Sancho,  in  which 
he  displayed  all  the  turbulence  and  cunning  of  a  robber  baron 
of  the  Middle  Ages. 

The  Seven  Lords  of  Lara  form  the  next  group ;  some  of 
them  are  beautiful,  and  the  story  they  contain  is  one  of  the 
most  romantic  in  Spanish  history.  The  Seven  Lords  of  Lara 
are  betrayed  by  their  uncle  into  the  hands  of  the  Moors,  and 
put  to  death,  while  their  father,  by  the  basest  treason,  is  con- 
fined in  a  Moorish  prison.  An  eighth  son,  the  famous  Mudarra, 
whose  mother  is  a  noble  Moorish  lady,  at  last  avenges  all  the 
wrongs  of  his  race. 

But  from  the  earliest  period,  the  Cid  has  been  the  occasion 
of  more  ballads  than  any  other  of  the  great  heroes  of  Spanish 
history  or  fable.  They  were  first  collected  in  1612,  and  have 
been  continually  republished  to  the  present  day.  There  are  at 
least  a  hundred  and  sixty  of  them,  forming  a  more  complete 
series  than  any  other,  all  strongly  marked  with  the  spirit  of 
their  age  and  country. 

The  Moorish  ballads  form  a  large  and  brilliant  class  by  them- 
selves. The  period  when  this  style  of  poetry  came  into  favor 
was  the  century  after  the  fall  of  Granada,  when  the  south,  with 
its  refinement  and  effeminacy,  its  magnificent  and  fantastic  ar- 
chitecture, the  foreign  yet  not  strange  manners  of  its  people, 
and  the  stories  of  their  warlike  achievements,  all  took  strong 
hold  of  the  Spanish  imagination,  and  made  of  Granada  a  fairy 
land. 

Of  the  ballads  relating  to  private  life,  most  of  them  are 
effusions  of  love,  others  are  satirical,  pastoral,  and  burlesque, 
and  many  descriptive  of  the  manners  and  amusements  of  the 
people  at  large  ;  but  all  of  them  are  true  representations  of 
Spanish  life.  They  are  marked  by  an  attractive  simplicity  of 
thought  and  expression,  united  to  a  sort  of  mischievous  shrewd- 
ness. No  such  popular  poetry  exists  in  any  other  language,  and 
no  other  exhibits  in  so  great  a  degree  that  nationality  which  is 
the  truest  element  of  such  poetry  everywhere.  The  English 
and  Scotch  ballads,  with  which  they  may  most  naturally  be 
compared,  belong  to  a  ruder  state  of  society,  which  gave  to  the 
poetry  less  dignity  and  elevation  than  belong  to  a  people  who, 
like  the  Spanish,  were  for  centuries  engaged  in  a  contest  enno- 
bled by  a  sense  of  religion  and  loyalty,  and  which  could  not  fail 
to  raise  the  minds  of  those  engaged  in  it  far  above  the  atmos- 
phere that  settled  around  the  bloody  feuds  of  rival  barons,  or 


SPANISH  LITERATURE.  306 

the  gross  maraudings  of  border  warfare.  The  great  Castilian 
heroes,  the  Cid,  Bernardo  del  Carpio,  and  Pelayo,  are  even  now 
an  essential  portion  of  the  faith  and  poetry  of  the  common  peo- 
ple of  Spain,  and  are  still  honored  as  they  were  centuries  ago. 
The  stories  of  Guarinos  and  of  the  defeat  at  Roncesvalles  are 
still  sung  by  the  wayfaring  muleteers,  as  they  were  when  Don 
Quixote  heard  them  on  his  journey  to  Toboso,  and  the  show- 
men still  rehearse  the  same  adventures  in  the  streets  of  Seville, 
that  they  did  at  the  solitary  inn  of  Montesinos  when  he  encoun- 
tered them  there. 

3.  THE  CHRONICLES.  —  As  the  great  Moorish  contest  was 
transferred  to  the  south  of  Spam,  the  north  became  compara- 
tively quiet.  Wealth  and  leisure  followed  ;  the  castles  became 
the  abodes  of  a  crude  but  free  hospitality,  and  the  distinctions 
of  society  grew  more  apparent.  The  ballads  from  this  time 
began  to  subside  into  the  lower  portions  of  society  ;  the  educated 
sought  forms  of  literature  more  in  accordance  with  their  in- 
creased knowledge  and  leisure,  and  their  more  settled  system  of 
social  life.  The  oldest  of  these  forms  was  that  of  the  Spanish 
prose  chronicles,  of  which  there  are  general  and  royal  chroni- 
cles, chronicles  of  particular  events,  chronicles  of  particular  per- 
sons, chronicles  of  travels,  and  romantic  chronicles. 

The  first  of  these  chronicles  in  the  order  of  time  as  well  as 
that  of  merit,  comes  from  the  royal  hand  of  Alfonso  the  Wise, 
and  is  entitled  "  The  Chronicle  of  Spain."  It  begins  with  the 
creation  of  the  world,  and  concludes  with  the  deatli  of  St.  Fer- 
dinand, the  father  of  Alfonso.  The  last  part,  relating  to  the 
history  of  Spain,  is  by  far  the  most  attractive,  and  sets  forth  in 
a  truly  national  spirit  all  the  rich  old  traditions  of  the  country. 
This  is  not  only  the  most  interesting  of  the  Spanish  chronicles, 
but  the  most  interesting  of  all  that  in  any  country  mark  the 
transition  from  its  poetical  and  romantic  traditions  to  the  grave 
exactness  of  historical  truth.  The  chronicle  of  the  Cid  was 
probably  taken  from  this  work. 

Alfonso  XI.  ordered  the  annals  of  the  kingdom  to  be  con- 
tinued down  to  his  own  reign,  or  through  the  period  from  1252 
to  1312.  During  many  succeeding  reigns  the  royal  chronicles 
were  continued,  —  that  of  Ferdinand  and  Jsabella,  by  Pulgar, 
is  the  last  instance  of  the  old  style  ;  but  though  the  annals  were 
still  kept  up,  the  free  and  picturesque  spirit  that  gave  them  life 
was  no  longer  there. 

The  chronicles  of  particular  events  and  persons  are  most  of 
them  of  little  value. 

Among  the  chronicles  of  travels,  the  oldest  one  of  any  value 
is  an  account  of  a  Spanish  embassy  to  Tamerlane,  the  great 
Tartar  potentate. 

20 


306       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

Of  the  romantic  chronicles,  the  principal  specimen  is  that 
of  Don  Roderic,  a  fabulous  account  of  the  reign  of  King  Rod- 
eric,  the  conquest  of  the  country  by  the  Moors,  and  the  first 
attempts  to  recover  it  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century. 
The  style  is  heavy  and  verbose,  although  upon  it  Southey  has 
founded  much  of  his  beautiful  poem  of  "  Roderic,  the  last  of  the 
Goths."  This  chronicle  of  Don  Roderic,  which  was  little  more 
than  a  romance  of  chivalry,  marks  the  transition  to  those  ro- 
mantic fictions  that  had  already  begun  to  inundate  Spain. 
But  the  series  which  it  concludes  extends  over  a  period  of  two 
hundred  and  fifty  years,  from  the  time  of  Alfonso  the  Wise  to 
the  accession  of  Charles  V.  (1221-1516),  and  is  unrivaled  in 
the  richness  and  variety  of  its  poetic  elements.  In  truth,  these 
old  Spanish  chronicles  cannot  be  compared  with  those  of  any 
other  nation,  and  whether  they  have  their  foundation  in  truth 
or  in  fable,  they  strike  their  strong  roots  further  down  into  the 
deep  soil  of  popular  feeling  and  character.  The  old  Spanish 
loyalty,  the  old  Spanish  religious  faith,  as  both  were  formed 
and  nourished  in  long  periods  of  national  trial  and  suffering, 
everywhere  appear;  and  they  contain  such  a  body  of  antiq- 
uities, traditions,  and  fables  as  has  been  offered  to  no  other 
people ;  furnishing  not  only  materials  from  which  a  multitude 
of  old  Spanish  plays,  ballads,  and  romances  have  been  drawn, 
but  a  mine  which  has  unceasingly  been  wrought  by  the  rest  of 
Europe  for  similar  purposes,  and  which  still  remains  unex- 
hausted. 

4.  ROMANCES  OF  CHIVALRY.  — The  ballads  originally  belonged 
to  the  whole  nation,  but  especially  to  its  less  cultivated  portions. 
The  chronicles,  on  the  contrary,  belonged  to  the  knightly 
classes,  who  sought  in  these  picturesque  records  of  their  fathers 
a  stimulus  to  their  own  virtue.  But  as  the  nation  advanced  in 
refinement,  books  of  less  grave  character  were  demanded,  and 
the  spirit  of  poetical  invention  soon  turned  to  the  national  tra- 
ditions, and  produced  from  these  new  and  attractive  forms  of 
fiction.  Before  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  the  ro- 
mances of  chivalry  connected  with  the  stories  of  Arthur  and 
the  knights  of  the  Round  Table,  and  Charlemagne  and  his 
peers,  which  had  appeared  in  France  two  centuries  before,  were 
scarcely  known  in  Spain  ;  but  after  that  time  they  were  imi- 
tated, and  a  new  series  of  fictions  was  invented,  which  soon 
spread  through  the  world,  and  became  more  famous  than  either 
of  its  predecessors. 

This  extraordinary  family  of  romances  is  that  of  which 
"  Amadis  "  is  the  poetical  head  and  type,  and  this  was  probably 
produced  before  the  year  1400,  by  Vasco  de  Lobeira,  a  Portu- 
guese. The  structure  and  tone  of  this  fiction  are  original,  and 


SPANISH  LITERATURE.  307 

much  more  free  than  those  of  the  French  romances  that  had 
preceded  it.  The  stories  of  Arthur  and  Charlemagne  are  both 
somewhat  limited  in  invention  by  the  adventures  ascribed  to 
them  in  the  traditions  and  chronicles,  while  that  of  Amadis  be- 
longs purely  to  the  imagination,  and  its  sole  purpose  is  to  set 
forth  the  character  of  a  perfect  knight.  Amadis  is  admitted  by 
general  consent  to  be  the  best  of  all  the  old  romances  of  chiv- 
alry. The  series  which  followed,  founded  upon  the  Amadis, 
reached  the  number  of  twenty-four.  They  were  successively 
translated  into  French,  and  at  once  became  famous.  Consider- 
ing the  passionate  admiration  which  this  work  so  long  excited, 
and  the  influence  that,  with  little  merit  of  its  own,  it  has  ever 
since  exercised  on  the  poetry  and  romance  of  modern  Europe, 
it  is  a  phenomenon  without  parallel  in  literary  history. 

Many  other  series  of  romances  followed,  numbering  more 
•than  seventy  volumes,  most  of  them  in  folio,  and  their  influence 
over  the  Spanish  character  extended  through  two  hundred  years. 
Their  extraordinary  popularity  may  be  accounted  for,  if  we  re- 
member that,  when  they  first  appeared  in  Spain,  it  had  long 
been  peculiarly  the  land  of  knighthood.  Extravagant  and  im- 
possible as  are  many  of  the  adventures  recorded  in  these  books 
of  chivalry,  they  so  little  exceeded  the  absurdities  of  living  men 
that  many  persons  took  the  romances  themselves  to  be  true  his- 
tories, and  believed  them.  The  happiest  work  of  the  greatest 
genius  Spain  has  produced  bears  witness  on  every  page  to  the 
prevalence  of  an  absolute  fanaticism  for  these  books  of  chivalry, 
and  becomes  at  once  the  seal  of  their  vast  popularity  and  the 
monument  of  their  fate. 

5.  THE  DRAMA.  —  The  ancient  theatre  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  was  continued  in  some  of  its  grosser  forms  in  Constan- 
tinople and  in  other  parts  of  the  fallen  empire  far  into  the  Mid- 
dle Ages.  But  it  was  essentially  mythological  or  heathenish,  and, 
as  such,  it  was  opposed  by  the  Christian  church,  which,  how- 
ever, provided  a  substitute  for  what  it  thus  opposed,  by  adding  a 
dramatic  element  to  its  festivals.  Thus  the  manger  at  Bethle- 
hem, with  the  worship  of  the  shepherds  and  magi,  was  at  a 
very  early  period  solemnly  exhibited  every  year  before  the  altars 
of  the  churches,  at  Christmas,  as  were  the  tragical  events  of  the 
last  days  of  the  Saviour's  life,  during  Lent  and  at  the  approach 
of  Easter.  To  these  spectacles,  dialogue  was  afterwards  added, 
and  they  were  called,  as  we  have  seen,  Mysteries ;  they  were 
used  successfully  not  only  as  a  means  of  amusement,  but  for  the 
religious  edification  of  an  ignorant  multitude,  and  in  some  coun- 
tries they  have  been  continued  quite  down  to  our  own  times. 
The  period  when  these  representations  were  first  made  in  Spain 
cannot  now  be  determined,  though  it  was  certainly  before  the 


308       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  no  distinct  account  of  them 
now  remains. 

A  singular  combination  of  pastoral  and  satirical  poetry  indi- 
cates the  first  origin  of  the  Spanish  secular  drama.  Towards 
the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  these  pastoral  dialogues  were 
converted  into  real  dramas  by  Euzina,  and  were  publicly  repre- 
sented. But  the  most  important  of  these  early  productions  is 
the  "  Tragi-comedy  of  Calisto  and  Melibcea,"  or  "  Celestina." 
Though  it  can  never  have  been  represented,  it  has  left  unmis- 
takable traces  of  its  influence  on  the  national  drama  ever  since. 
It  was  translated  into  various  languages,  and  few  works  ever 
had  a  more  brilliant  success.  The  great  fault  of  the  Celestina 
is  its  shameless  libertinism  of  thought  and  language ;  and  its 
chief  merits  are  its  life-like  exhibition  of  the  most  unworthy 
forms  of  human  character,  and  its  singularly  pure,  rich,  and 
idiomatic  Castilian  style. 

The  dramatic  writers  of  this  period  seem  to  have  had  no  idea 
of  founding  a  popular  national  drama,  of  which  there  is  no  trace 
as  late  as  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 

6.  PROVENCAL  LITERATURE  IN  SPAIN.  —  When  the  crown 
of  Provence  was  transferred,  by  the  marriage  of  its  heir,  in  1113, 
to  Berenger,  Count  of  Barcelona,  numbers  of  the  Provencal 
poets  followed  their  liege  lady  from  Aries  to  Barcelona,  and 
established  themselves  in  her  new  capital.  At  the  very  com- 
mencement, therefore,  of  the  twelfth  century,  Provencal  refine- 
ment was  introduced  into  the  northeastern  corner  of  Spain. 
Political  causes  soon  carried  it  farther  towards  the  centre  of  the 
country.  The  Counts  of  Barcelona  obtained,  by  marriage,  the 
kingdom  of  Aragon,  and  soon  spread  through  their  new  territo- 
ries many  of  the  refinements  of  Provence.  The  literature  thus 
introduced  retained  its  Proven9al  character  till  it  came  in  con- 
tact with  that  more  vigorous  spirit  which  had  been  advancing 
from  the  northwest,  and  which  afterwards  gave  its  tone  to  the 
consolidated  monarchy. 

The  poetry  of  the  troubadours  in  Catalonia,  as  well  as  in  its 
native  home,  belonged  much  to  the  court,  and  the  highest  in 
rank  and  power  were  earliest  and  foremost  on  its  lists.  From 
1209  to  1229,  the  war  against  the  Albigenses  was  carried  on 
with  extraordinary  cruelty  and  fury.  To  this  sect  nearly  all  the 
contemporary  troubadours  belonged,  and  when  they  were  com- 
pelled to  escape  from  the  burnt  and  bloody  ruins  of  their  homes, 
many  of  them  hastened  to  the  friendly  court  of  Aragon,  sure  of 
being  protected  and  honored  by  princes  who  were  at  the  same 
time  poets. 

From  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century,  the  songs  of  the 
troubadours  were  rarely  heard  in  the  land  that  gave  them  birth 


SPANISH  LITERATURE.  309 

three  hundred  years  before  ;  and  the  plant  that  was  not  per- 
mitted to  expand  in  its  native  soil,  soon  perished  in  that  to 
which  it  had  been  transplanted.  After  the  opening  of  the  four- 
teenth centuiy,  no  genuinely  Proven9al  poetry  appears  in  Cas- 
tile, and  from  the  middle  of  that  century  it  begins  to  recede 
from  Catalonia  and  Aragon ;  or  rather,  to  be  corrupted  by  the 
hardier  dialect  spoken  there  by  the  mass  of  the  people.  The 
retreat  of  the  troubadours  over  the  Pyrenees,  from  Aix  to  Bar- 
celona, from  Barcelona  to  Saragossa  and  Valencia,  is  every- 
where marked  by  the  wrecks  and  fragments  of  their  peculiar 
poetry  and  cultivation.  At  length,  oppressed  by  the  more  pow- 
erful Castilian,  what  remained  of  the  language,  that  gave  the 
first  impulse  to  poetic  feeling  in  modern  times,  sank  into  a  neg- 
lected dialect. 

7.  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  ITALIAN  LITEKATTJRE  IN  SPAIN.  — 
The  influence  of  the  Italian  literature  over  the  Spanish,  though 
less  apparent  at  first,  was  more  deep  and  lasting  than  that  of  the 
Prove^al.  The  long  wars  that  the  Christians  of  Spain  waged 
against  the  Moors  brought  them  into  closer  spiritual  connection 
with  the  Church  of  Rome  than  any  other  people  of  modern  times. 
Spanish  students  repaired  to  the  famous  universities  of  Italy, 
and  returned  to  Spain,  bringing  with  them  the  influence  of  Ital- 
ian culture ;  and  commercial  and  political  relations  still  further 
promoted  a  free  communication  of  the  manners  and  literature 
of  Italy  to  Spain.  The  language,  also,  from  its  affinity  with  the 
Spanish,  constituted  a  still  more  important  and  effectual  medium 
of  intercourse.  In  the  reign  of  John  II.  (1407-1454),  the  atx 
tempt  to  form  an  Italian  school  in  Spain  became  apparent. 
This  sovereign  gathered  about  him  a  sort  of  poetical  court,  and 
gave  an  impulse  to  refinement  that  was  perceptible  for  several 
generations. 

Among  those  who  interested  themselves  most  directly  in  the 
progress  of  poetry  in  Spain,  the  first  in  rank,  after  the  king  him- 
self, was  the  Marquis  of  Villena  (1384—1434),  whose  fame  rests 
chiefly  on  the  "  Labors  of  Hercules,"  a  short  prose  treatise  or 
allegory. 

First  of  all  the  courtiers  and  poets  of  this  reign,  in  point  of 
merit,  stands  the  Marquis  of  Santillana  (1398-1458),  whose 
works  belong  more  or  less  to  the  Provencal,  Italian,  and  Spanish 
schools.  He  was  the  founder  of  an  Italian  and  courtly  school  in 
Spanish  poetry  —  one  adverse  to  the  national  school  and  finally 
overcome  by  it,  but  one  that  long  exercised  a  considerable  sway. 
Another  poet  of  the  court  of  John  II.  is  Juan  de  Mena,  his- 
toriographer of  Castile.  His  principal  works  are,  "The  Coro- 
nation "  and  "  The  Labyrinth,"  both  imitations  of  Dante.  They 
are  of  consequence  as  marking  the  progress  of  the  language* 


310       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

The  principal  poem  of  Manrique  the  younger,  one  of  an  illus 
trious  family  of  that  name,  who  were  poets,  statesmen,  and  sol- 
diers, on  the  death  of  his  father,  is  remarkable  for  depth  and 
truth  of  feeling.  Its  greatest  charm  is  its  beautiful  simplicity, 
and  its  merit  entitles  it  to  the  place  it  has  taken  among  the  most 
admired  portions  of  the  elder  Spanish  literature. 

8.  THE  CANCIONEROS   AND   PROSE  WRITINGS.  —  The  most 
distinct  idea  of  the  poetical  culture  of  Spain,  during  the  fifteenth 
century,  may  be  obtained  from  the  "  Cancioneros,"  or  collections 
of  poetry,  sometimes  all  by  one  author,  sometimes  by  many. 
The  oldest  of  these  dates  from  about  1450,  and  was  the  work  of 
Baena.    Many  similar  collections  followed,  and  they  were  among 
the  fashionable  wants  of  the  age.     In  1511,  Castillo  printed  at 
Valencia  the   "  Cancionero   General,"   which  contained  poems 
attributed  to  about  a  hundred  different  poets,  from  the  time  of 
Santillana  to  the  period  in  which  it  was  made.     Ten  editions  of 
this  remarkable  book  followed,  and  in  it  we  find  the  poetry  most 
in  favor  at  the  court  and  with  the  refined  society  of  Spain.     It 
contains  no  trace  of  the  earliest  poetry  of  the  country,  but  the 
spirit  of  the  troubadours  is  everywhere  present ;  the  occasional 
imitations  from  the  Italian  are  more  apparent  than  successful, 
and  in  general  it  is  wearisome  and  monotonous,  overstrained, 
formal,  and  cold.     But  it  was  impossible  that  such  a  state  of 
poetical  culture  should  become  permanent  in  a  country  so  full 
of  stirring  events  as  Spain  was  in  the  age  that  followed  the  fall 
of  Granada  and  the  discovery  of  America ;  everything  announced 
a  decided  movement  in  the  literature  of  the  nation,  and  almost 
everything  seemed  to  favor  and  facilitate  it. 

The  prose  writers  of  the  fifteenth  century  deserve  mention 
chiefly  because  they  were  so  much  valued  in  their  own  age. 
Their  writings  are  encumbered  with  the  bad  taste  and  pedantry 
of  the  time.  Among  them  are  Lucena,  Alfonso  de  la  Torre, 
i'ulgar,  and  a  few  others. 

9.  THE  INQUISITION.  —  The  first  period  of  the  history  of 
Spanish  literature,  now  concluded,  extends  through  nearly  four 
centuries,  from  the  first  breathings  of  the  poetical  enthusiasm  of 
the  mass  of  the  people,  down  to  the  decay  of  the  courtly  litera- 
ture in  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 
The  elements  of  a  national  literature  which  it  contains  —  the  old 
ballads,  the  old  chronicles,  the  old  theatre  —  are  of  a  vigor  and 
promise  not  to  be  mistaken.     They  constitute  a  mine  of  more 
various  wealth  than  had  been  offered  under  similar  circum- 
stances, at  so  early  a  period,  to  any  other  people ;  and   they 
give  indications  of  a  subsequent  literature  that  must  vindicate 
for  itself  a  place  among  the  permanent  monuments  of  modern 
civilization. 


SPANISH  LITERATURE.  311 

The  condition  of  things  in  Spain,  at  the  close  of  the  iteign  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  seemed  to  promise  a  long  period  of  na- 
tional prosperity.  But  one  institution,  destined  to  check  and 
discourage  all  intellectual  freedom,  was  already  beginning  to 
give  token  of  its  great  and  blighting  power.  The  Christian 
Spaniards  had  from  an  early  period  been  essentially  intolerant. 
The  Moors  and  the  Jews  were  regarded  by  them  with  an  intense 
and  bitter  hatred ;  the  first  as  their  conquerors,  and  the  last  for 
the  oppressive  claims  which  their  wealth  gave  them  on  numbers 
of  the  Christian  inhabitants  ;  and  as  enemies  of  the  Cross,  it 
was  regarded  as  a  merit  to  punish  them.  The  establishment 
of  the  Inquisition,  therefore,  in  1481,  which  had  been  so  effect- 
ually used  to  exterminate  the  heresy  of  the  Albigenses,  met  with 
little  opposition,  The  Jews  and  the  Moors  were  its  first  vic- 
tims, and  with  them  it  was  permitted  to  deal  unchecked  by  the 
power  of  the  state.  But  the  movements  of  this  power  were  in 
darkness  and  secrecy.  From  the  moment  when  the  Inquisition 
laid  its  grasp  on  the  object  of  its  suspicions  to  that  of  his  execu- 
tion, no  voice  was  heard  to  issue  from  its  cells.  The  very  wit- 
nesses it  summoned  were  punished  with  death  if  they  revealed 
the  secrets  of  its  dread  tribunals  ;  and  often  of  the  victim  noth- 
ing was  known  but  that  he  had  disappeared  from  his  accustomed 
haunts  never  again  to  be  seen.  The  effect  was  appalling.  The 
imaginations  of  men  were  filled  with  horror  at  the  idea  of  a 
power  so  vast,  so  noiseless,  constantly  and  invisibly  around  them, 
whose  blow  was  death,  but  whose  step  could  neither  be  heard 
nor  followed  amidst  the  gloom  into  which  it  retreated.  From 
this  time,  Spanish  intolerance  took  that  air  of  sombre  fanaticism 
which  it  never  afterwards  lost.  The  Inquisition  gradually  en- 
larged its  jurisdiction,  until  none  was  too  humble  to  escape  its 
notice,  or  too  high  to  be  reached  by  its  power.  From  an  inquiry 
into  the  private  opinions  of  individuals  to  an  interference  with 
books  and  the  press  was  but  a  step,  and  this  was  soon  taken, 
hastened  by  the  appearance  and  progress  of  the  Reformation  of 
Luther. 

PERIOD   SECOND. 

FROM    THE   ACCESSION  OF  THE   AUSTRIAN  FAMILY  TO   ITS  EXTINC- 
TION (1500-1700). 

1.  THE  EFFECT  OF  INTOLERANCE  ON  LETTERS.  —  The  cen- 
tral point  in  Spanish  history  is  the  capture  of  Granada.  During 
nearly  eight  centuries  before  that  event,  the  Christians  of  Spain 
were  occupied  with  conflicts  that  developed  extraordinary  ener- 
gies, till  the  whole  land  was  filled  to  overflowing  with  a  power 
which  had  hardly  yet  been  felt  in  Europe.  But  no  sooner  was 


312       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

the  last  Mooi'ish  fortress  yielded  up,  than  this  accumulated  flood 
broke  loose  and  threatened  to  overspread  the  best  portions  of 
the  civilized  world.  Charles  the  Fifth,  grandson  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella,  inherited  not  only  Spain,  but  Naples,  Sicily,  and 
the  Low  Countries.  The  untold  wealth  of  the  Indies  was  al- 
ready beginning  to  pour  into  his  treasury.  He  was  elected  Em- 
peror of  Germany,  and  he  soon  began  a  career  of  conquest  such 
as  had  not  been  imagined  since  the  days  of  Charlemagne.  Suc- 
cess and  glory  ever  waited  for  him  as  he  advanced,  and  this 
brilliant  aspect  seemed  to  promise  that  Spain  would  erelong  be 
at  the  head  of  an  empire  more  extensive  than  the  Roman.  But 
a  moral  power  was  at  work,  destined  to  divide  Europe  anew, 
and  the  monk  Luther  was  already  become  a  counterpoise  to  the 
military  master  of  so  many  kingdoms.  During  the  hundred  and 
thirty  years  of  struggle,  that  terminated  with  the  peace  of  West- 
phalia, though  Spain  was  far  removed  from  the  fields  where  the 
most  cruel  battles  of  the  religious  wars  were  fought,  the  interest 
she  took  in  the  contest  may  be  seen  from  the  presence  of  her 
armies  in  every  part  of  Europe  where  it  was  possible  to  assail 
the  great  movement  of  the  Reformation. 

In  Spain,  the  contest  with  Protestantism  was  of  short  dura- 
tion. By  successive  decrees  the  chnrch  ordained  that  all  persons 
who  kept  in  their  possession  books  infected  with  the  doctrines 
of  Luther,  and  even  all  who  failed  to  denounce  such  persons, 
should  be  excommunicated,  and  subjected  to  cruel  and  degrading 
punishments.  The  power  of  the  Inquisition  was  consummated 
in  1546,  when  the  first  "  Index  Expurgatorius  "  was  published 
in  Spain.  This  was  a  list  of  the  books  that  all  persons  were 
forbidden  to  buy,  sell,  or  keep  possession  of,  under  penalty  of 
confiscation  and  death.  The  tribunals  were  authorized  and  re- 
quired to  proceed  against  all  persons  supposed  to  be  infected 
with  the  new  belief,  even  though  they  were  cardinals,  dukes, 
kings,  or  emperors,  —  a  power  more  formidable  to  the  progress 
of  intellectual  improvement,  than  had  ever  before  been  granted 
to  any  body  of  men,  civil  or  ecclesiastical. 

The  portentous  authority  thus  given  was  freely  exercised.  The 
first  public  auto  da  fe  of  Protestants  was  held  in  1559,  and  many 
others  followed.  The  number  of  victims  seldom  exceeded  twenty 
burned  at  one  time,  and  fifty  or  sixty  subjected  to  the  severest 
punishments  ;  but  many  of  those  who  suffered  were  among  the 
active  and  leading  minds  of  the  age.  Men  of  learning  were  par- 
ticularly obnoxious  to  suspicion,  nor  were  persons  of  the  holiest 
lives  beyond  its  reach  if  they  showed  a  tendency  to  inquiry.  So 
effectually  did  the  Inquisition  accomplish  its  purpose,  that,  from 
the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Philip  II.,  the  voice  of  religious 
dissent  was  scarcely  heard  in  the  land.  The  great  body  of  the 


SPANISH  LITERATURE.  313 

Spanish  people  rejoiced  alike  in  their  loyalty  and  their  ortho- 
doxy, and  the  few  who  differed  from  the  mass  of  their  fellow- 
subjects  were  either  silenced  by  their  fears,  or  sunk  away  from 
the  surface  of  society.  From  that  time  down  to  its  overthrow, 
in  1808,  this  institution  was  chiefly  a  political  engine. 

The  result  of  such  extraordinary  traits  in  the  national  charac- 
ter could  not  fail  to  be  impressed  upon  the  literature.  Loyalty, 
which  had  once  been  so  generous  an  element  in  the  Spanish  char- 
acter and  cultivation,  was  now  infected  with  the  ambition  of 
universal  empire,  and  the  Christian  spirit  which  gave  an  air  of 
duty  to  the  wildest  forms  of  adventure  in  its  long  contest  with 
misbelief,  was  now  fallen  into  a  bigotry  so  pervading  that  the 
romances  of  the  time  are  full  of  it,  and  the  national  theatre  be- 
comes its  grotesque  monument. 

Of  course  the  literature  of  Spain  produced  during  this  interval 
—  the  earlier  part  of  which  was  the  period  of  the  greatest  glory 
the  country  ever  enjoyed  —  was  injuriously  affected  by  so  dis- 
eased a  condition  of  the  national  mind.  Some  departments 
hardly  appeared  at  all,  others  were  strangely  perverted,  while 
yet  others,  like  the  drama,  ballads,  and  lyrical  verse,  grew  exu- 
berant and  lawless,  from  the  very  restraints  imposed  on  the  rest. 
But  it  would  be  an  error  to  suppose  that  these  peculiarities  in 
Spanish  literature  were  produced  by  the  direct  action  either  of 
the  Inquisition  or  of  the  government.  The  foundations  of  this 
dark  work  were  laid  deep  and  sure  in  the  old  Castilian  character. 
It  was  the  result  of  the  excess  and  misdirection  of  that  very 
Christian  zeal  which  fought  so  gloriously  against  the  intrusion 
of  Mohammedanism  into  Spain,  and  of  that  loyalty  which  sus- 
tained the  Spanish  princes  so  faithfully  through  the  whole  of 
that  terrible  contest.  This  state  of  things,  however,  involved 
the  ultimate  sacrifice  of  the  best  elements  of  the  national  char- 
acter. Only  a  little  more  than  a  century  elapsed,  before  the 
government  that  had  threatened  the  world  with  a  universal  em- 
pire, was  hardly  able  to  repel  invasion  from  abroad  or  maintain 
its  subjects  at  home.  The  vigorous  poetical  life  which  had  been 
kindled  through  the  country  in  its  ages  of  trial  and  adversity, 
was  evidently  passing  out  of  the  whole  Spanish  character.  The 
crude  wealth  from  their  American  possessions  sustained,  for  a 
century  longer,  the  forms  of  a  miserable  political  existence  ;  but 
the  earnest  faith,  the  loyalty,  the  dignity  of  the  Spanish  people 
were  gone,  and  little  remained  in  their  place  but  a  weak  sub- 
serviency to  unworthy  masters  of  state,  and  a  low,  timid  bigotry 
in  whatever  related  to  religion.  The  old  enthusiasm  faded  away, 
and  the  poetry  of  the  country,  which  had  always  depended  more 
on  the  state  of  the  popular  feeling  than  any  other  poetry  of 
modern  times,  faded  and  failed  with  it. 


314       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

2.  INFLUENCE  OF  ITALY  ON  SPANISH  LITERATURE. — The 
political  connection  between  Spain  and  Italy  in  the  early  part 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  the  superior  civilization  and  refine- 
ment of  the  latter  country,  could  not  fail  to  influence  Spanish 
literature.  Juan  Boscan  (d.  1543)  was  the  first  to  attempt  the 
proper  Italian  measures  as  they  were  then  practiced.  He  es- 
tablished in  Spain  the  Italian  iambic,  the  sonnet,  and  canzone  of 
Petrarch,  the  terza  rima  of  Dante,  and  the  flowing  octaves  of 
Ariosto.  As  an  original  poet,  the  talents  of  Boscan  were  not 
of  the  highest  order. 

Garcilasso  de  la  Vega  (1503-1536),  the  contemporary  and 
friend  of  Boscan,  united  with  him  in  introducing  an  Italian 
school  of  poetry,  which  has  been  an  important  part  of  Spanish 
literature  ever  since.  The  poems  of  Garcilasso  are  remarkable 
for  their  gentleness  and  melancholy,  and  his  versification  is  un- 
commonly sweet,  and  well  adapted  to  the  tender  and  sad  char- 
acter of  his  poetry. 

The  example  set  by  Boscan  and  Garcilasso  so  well  suited  the 
demands  of  the  age,  that  it  became  as  much  a  fashion  at  the 
court  of  Charles  V.  to  write  in  the  Italian  manner,  as  it  did  to 
travel  in  Italy,  or  make  a  military  campaign  there.  Among 
those  who  did  most  to  establish  the  Italian  influence  in  Spanish 
literature  was  Diego  de  Mendoza  (1503-1575),  a  scholar,  a 
soldier,  a  poet,  a  diplomatist,  a  statesman,  a  historian,  and  a 
man  who  rose  to  great  consideration  in  whatever  he  undertook. 
One  of  his  earliest  works,  "  Lazarillo  de  Tormes,"  the  auto- 
biography of  a  boy,  little  Lazarus,  was  written  with  the  object 
of  satirizing  all  classes  of  society  under  the  character  of  a  ser- 
vant, who  sees  them  in  undress  behind  the  scenes.  The  style  of 
this  work  is  bold,  rich,  and  idiomatic,  and  some  of  its  sketches 
are  among  the  most  fresh  and  spirited  that  can  be  found  in  the 
whole  class  of  prose  works  of  fiction.  It  has  been  more  or  less 
a  favorite  in  all  languages,  down  to  the  present  day,  and  was 
the  foundation  of  a  class  of  fictions  which  the  "  Gil  Bias  "  of  Le 
Sage  has  made  famous  throughout  the  world.  Mendoza,  after 
having  filled  many  high  offices  under  Charles  V.,  when  Philip 
ascended  the  throne,  was,  for  some  slight  offense,  banished  from 
the  court  as  a  madman.  In  the  poems  which  he  occasionally 
wrote  during  his  exile,  he  gave  the  influence  of  his  example  to 
the  new  form  introduced  by  Boscan  and  Garcilasso.  At  a  later 
period  he  occupied  himself  in  writing  some  portions  of  the  his- 
tory of  his  native  city,  Granada,  relating  to  the  rebellion  of  the 
Moors  (1568-1570).  Familiar  with  everything  of  which  he 
speaks,  there  is  a  freshness  and  power  in  his  sketches  that  carry 
us  at  once  into  the  midst  of  the  scenes  and  events  he  describes. 
"  The  War  of  Granada  "  is  an  imitation  of  Sallust.  Nothing 


SPANISH  LITERATURE.  315 

in  the  style  of  the  old  chronicles  is  to  be  compared  to  it,  and 
little  in  any  subsequent  period  is  equal  to  it  for  manliness,  vigor, 
and  truth. 

3.  HISTORY.  —  The  imperfect  chronicles  of  the  age  of  Charles 
V.  were  surpassed  in  importance  by  the  histories  or  narratives, 
more  or  less  ample,  of  the  discoverers  of  the  western  world,  all 
of  which  were  interesting  from  their  subject  and  their  materials. 
First  in  the  foreground  of  this  picturesque  group  stands  Fer- 
nando Cortes  (1485-1554),  of  whose  voluminous  documents  the 
most  remarkable  were  five  long  reports  to  the  Emperor  on  the 
affairs  of  Mexico. 

The  marvelous  achievements  of  Cortes,  however,  were  more 
fully  recorded  by  Gomara  (b.  1510),  the  oldest  of  the  regular 
historians  of  the  New  World.  His  principal  works  are  the 
"  History  of  the  Indies,"  chiefly  devoted  to  Columbus  and  the 
conquest  of  Peru,  and  the  "  Chronicle  of  New  Spain,"  which  is 
merely  the  history  and  life  of  Cortes,  under  which  title  it  has 
since  been  republished.  The  style  of  Gomara  is  easy  and  flow- 
ing, but  his  work  was  of  no  permanent  authority,  in  consequence 
of  the  great  and  frequent  mistakes  into  which  he  was  led  by 
those  who  were  too  much  a  part  of  the  story  to  relate  it  fairly. 
These  mistakes  Bernal  Diaz,  an  old  soldier  who  had  been  long 
in  the  New  World,  set  himself  at  work  to  correct,  and  the  book 
he  thus  produced,  with  many  faults,  has  something  of  the  honest 
nationality,  and  the  fervor  and  faith  of  the  old  chronicles. 

Among  those  who  have  left  records  of  their  adventures  in 
America,  one  of  the  most  considerable  is  Oviedo  (1478-1557), 
who  for  nearly  forty  years  devoted  himself  to  the  affairs  of  the 
Spanish  colonies  in  which  he  resided.  His  most  important  work 
is  "  The  Natural  and  General  History  of  the  Indies,"  a  series 
of  accounts  of  the  natural  condition,  the  aboriginal  inhabitants, 
and  the  political  affairs  of  the  Spanish  provinces  in  America,  as 
they  stood  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  is  of  great 
value  as  a  vast  repository  of  facts,  and  not  without  merit  as  a 
composition. 

In  Las  Casas  (1474-1566)  Oviedo  had  a  formidable  rival, 
who,  pursuing  the  same  course  of  inquiries  in  the  New  World, 
came  to  conclusions  quite  opposite.  Convinced  from  his  first 
arrival  in  Hispaniola  that  the  gentle  nature  and  slight  frames 
of  the  natives  were  subjected  to  toil  and  servitude  so  hard  that 
they  were  wasting  away,  he  thenceforth  devoted  his  life  to  their 
emancipation.  He  crossed  the  Atlantic  six  times,  in  order  to 
persuade  the  government  of  Charles  V.  to  ameliorate  their  con- 
dition, and  always  with  more  or  less  success.  His  earliest  work, 
"  A  Short  Account  of  the  Rum  of  the  Indies,"  was  a  tract  in 
which  the  sufferings  and  wrongs  of  the  Indians  were  doubtless 


316       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

much  overstated  by  the  zeal  of  its  author,  but  it  awakened  all 
Europe  to  a  sense  of  the  injustice  it  set  forth.  Other  short  trea- 
tises followed,  but  none  ever  produced  so  deep  and  solemn  an 
effect  on  the  world. 

The  great  work  of  Las  Casas,  however,  still  remains  inedited, 
—  "A  General  History  of  the  Indies  from  1492  to  1525."  Like 
his  other  works,  it  shows  marks  of  haste  and  carelessness,  but 
its  value  is  great,  notwithstanding  his  too  fervent  zeal  for  the 
Indians.  It  is  a  repository  to  which  Herrera,  and,  through  him, 
all  subsequent  historians  of  the  Indies  resorted  for  materials, 
and  without  which  the  history  of  the  earliest  period  of  the  Span- 
ish settlements  in  America  cannot  even  now  be  written. 

There  are  numerous  other  works  on  the  discovery  and  con- 
quest of  America,  but  they  are  of  less  consequence  than  those 
already  mentioned.  As  a  class,  they  resemble  the  old  chronicles, 
though  they  announce  the  approach  of  the  more  regular  form  of 
history. 

4.  THE  DRAMA.  —  Before  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
the  Mysteries  were  the  only  dramatic  exhibitions  of  Spain.  They 
were  upheld  by  ecclesiastical  power,  and  the  people,  as  such, 
had  no  share  in  them.  The  first  attempt  to  create  a  popular 
drama  was  made  by  Lope  de  Rueda,  a  goldbeater  of  Seville, 
who  flourished  between  1544  and  1567,  and  who  became  both 
a  dramatic  writer  and  an  actor.  His  works  consist  of  comedies, 
pastoral  colloquies,  and  dialogues  in  prose  and  verse.  They 
were  written  for  representation,  and  were  acted  before  popular 
audiences  by  a  strolling  company  led  about  by  Lope  de  Rueda 
himself.  Naturalness  of  thought,  the  most  easy,  idiomatic  Cas- 
tilian  terms  of  expression,  a  good-humored  gayety,  a  strong  sense 
of  the  ridiculous,  and  a  happy  imitation  of  the  tone  and  man- 
ners of  common  life,  are  the  prominent  characteristics  of  these 
plays,  and  their  author  was  justly  reckoned  by  Cervantes  and 
Lope  de  Vega  as  the  true  founder  of  the  popular  national 
theatre.  The  ancient  simplicity  and  severity  of  the  Spanish 
people  had  now  been  superseded  by  the  luxury  and  extrava- 
gance which  the  treasures  of  America  had  introduced  ;  the 
ecclesiastical  fetters  imposed  on  opinion  and  conscience  had  so 
connected  all  ideas  of  morality  and  religion  with  inquisitorial 
severity,  that  the  mind  longed  for  an  escape,  and  gladly  took 
refuge  in  amusements  where  these  unwelcome  topics  had  no 
place.  So  far,  the  number  of  dramas  was  small,  and  these  had 
been  written  in  forms  so  different  and  so  often  opposed  to  each 
other  as  to  have  little  consistency  or  authority,  and  to  offer  no 
sufficient  indication  of  the  channel  in  which  the  dramatic  litera- 
ture of  the  country  was  at  last  to  flow.  It  was  reserved  for 
Lope  de  Vega  to  seize,  with  the  instinct  of  genius,  the  crude 


SPANISH  LITERATURE.  317 

and  unsettled  elements  of  the  existing  drama,  and  to  form  from 
them,  and  from  the  abundant  and  rich  inventions  of  his  own 
overflowing  fancy,  a  drama  which,  as  a  whole,  was  unlike  any- 
thing that  had  preceded  it,  and  yet  was  so  truly  national  and 
rested  so  faithfully  on  tradition,  that  it  was  never  afterwards 
disturbed,  till  the  whole  literature  of  which  it  was  so  brilliant  a 
part  was  swept  away  with  it. 

Lope  de  Vega  (1562—1635)  early  manifested  extraordinary 
powers  and  a  marvelous  poetic  genius.  After  completing  his 
education,  he  became  secretary  to  the  Duke  of  Alba.  Engaging 
in  an  affair  of  honor,  in  which  he  dangerously  wounded  his  ad- 
versary, he  was  obliged  to  fly  and  to  remain  several  years  in 
exile.  On  his  return  to  Madrid,  religious  and  patriotic  zeal 
induced  him  to  join  the  expedition  of  the  Invincible  Armada  for 
the  invasion  of  England,  and  he  was  one  of  the  few  who  returned 
in  safety  to  his  native  country.  Domestic  afflictions  soon  after 
determined  him  to  renounce  the  world  and  to  enter  holy  orders. 
Notwithstanding  this  change,  he  continued  to  cultivate  poetry 
to  the  close  of  his  long  life,  with  so  wonderful  a  facility  that  a 
drama  of  more  than  two  thousand  lines,  intermingled  with  son- 
nets and  enlivened  with  all  kinds  of  unexpected  incidents  and 
intrigues,  frequently  cost  him  no  more  than  the  labor  of  a  single 
day.  He  composed  more  rapidly  than  his  amanuensis  could 
transcribe,  and  the  managers  of  the  theatres  left  him  no  time  to 
copy  or  correct  his  compositions ;  so  that  his  plays  were  fre- 
quently represented  within  twenty-four  hours  after  their  first 
conception.  His  fertility  of  invention  and  his  talent  for  versi- 
fication are  unparalleled  in  the  history  of  literature.  He  pro- 
duced two  thousand  two  hundred  dramas,  of  which  only  about 
five  hundred  were  printed.  His  other  poems  were  published  at 
Madrid  in  1776,  in  twenty-one  volumes  quarto.  His  prodigious 
literary  labors  produced  him  nearly  as  much  money  as  glory;  but 
his  liberality  to  the  poor  and  his  taste  for  pomp  soon  dissipated 
his  wealth,  and  after  living  in  splendor,  he  died  almost  in  pov- 
erty. 

No  poet  has  ever  in  his  lifetime  enjoyed  such  honors.  Eager 
crowds  surrounded  him  whenever  he  showed  himself  abroad,  and 
saluted  him  with  the  appellation  of  Prodigy  of  Nature.  Every 
eye  was  fixed  on  him,  and  children  followed  him  with  cries  of 
pleasure.  He  was  chosen  President  of  the  Spiritual  College  at 
Madrid,  and  the  pope  conferred  upon  him  high  marks  of  dis- 
tinction, not  only  for  his  poetical  talents,  but  for  his  enthusiastic 
zeal  for  the  interests  of  religion.  He  was  also  appointed  one  of 
the  familiars  of  the  Inquisition,  an  office  to  which  the  highest 
honor  was  at  that  time  attached. 

The  fame  of  Lope  de  Vega  rests  upon  his  dramas  alone,  and 


318       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

in  these  there  is  no  end  to  their  diversity,  the  subjects  varying 
from  the  deepest  tragedy  to  the  broadest  farce,  from  the  solemn 
mysteries  of  religion  to  the  loosest  frolics  of  common  life,  and 
the  style  embracing  every  variety  of  tone  and  measure  known  to 
the  language  of  the  country.  In  these  dramas,  too,  the  sacred 
and  secular,  the  tragic  and  comic,  the  heroic  and  vulgar,  all  run 
into  each  other,  until  it  seems  that  there  is  neither  separate  form 
nor  distinction  attributed  to  any  of  them. 

The  first  class  of  plays  that  Lope  seems  to  have  invented,  and 
the  one  which  still  remains  most  popular  in  Spain,  are  dramas  of 
the  cloak  and  sword,  so  called  from  the  picturesque  national 
dress  of  the  fashionable  class  of  society  from  which  the  principal 
characters  were  selected.  Their  main  principle  is  gallantry. 
The  story  is  almost  always  involved  and  intriguing,  accompanied 
with  an  under-plot  and  parody  on  the  principal  parties,  formed 
by  the  servants  and  other  inferior  persons.  The  action  is  chiefly 
carried  on  by  lovers  full  of  romance,  or  by  low  characters,  whose 
wit  is  mixed  with  buffoonery. 

To  the  second  class  belong  the  historical  or  heroic  dramas. 
Their  characters  are  usually  kings,  princes,  and  personages  in 
the  highest  rank  of  life,  and  their  prevailing  tone  is  imposing 
and  tragical.  A  love  story,  filled  as  usual  with  hair-breadth 
escapes,  jealous  quarrels,  and  questions  of  honor,  runs  through 
nearly  every  one  of  them  ;  but  truth,  in  regard  to  facts,  man- 
ners, and  customs,  is  entirely  disregarded. 

The  third  class  contains  the  dramas  founded  on  the  manners 
of  common  life ;  of  these  there  are  but  few.  Lope  de  Vega  would 
doubtless  have  confined  himself  to  these  three  forms,  but  that 
the  interference  of  the  church  for  a  time  forbade  the  representa- 
tions of  the  secular  drama,  and  he  therefore  turned  his  attention 
to  the  composition  of  religious  plays.  The  subjects  of  these  are 
taken  from  the  Scriptures,  or  lives  of  the  saints,  and  they  ap- 
proach so  near  to  the  comedies  of  intrigue,  that  but  for  the  re- 
ligious passages  they  would  seem  to  belong  to  them.  His  "  Sac- 
ramental Acts  "  was  another  form  of  the  religious  drama  which 
was  still  more  grotesque  than  the  last.  They  were  performed 
in  the  streets  during  the  religious  ceremonies  of  the  Corpus 
Christi.  The  spiritual  dramas  of  Lope  de  Vega  are  a  hetero- 
geneous mixture  of  bright  examples  of  piety,  according  to  the 
views  of  the  age  and  country,  and  the  wildest  flights  of  imagi- 
nation, combined  into  a  whole  by  a  fine  poetic  spirit. 

The  variety  and  inexhaustible  fertility  of  the  genius  of  this 
writer  constituted  the  corner-stone  of  his  success,  and  did  much 
to  make  him  the  monarch  of  the  stage  while  he  lived,  and  the 
great  master  of  the  national  theatre  ever  since.  But  there 
were  other  circumstances  that  aided  in  producing  these  surpris- 


SPANISH  LITERATURE.  319 

ing  results,  the  first  of  which  is  the  principle,  that  runs  through 
all  his  plays,  of  making  all  other  interests  subordinate  to  the  in- 
terest of  the  story.  For  this  purpose  he  used  dialogue  rather 
to  bring  out  the  plot  than  the  characters,  and  to  this  end  also 
he  sacrificed  dramatic  probabilities  and  possibilities,  geography, 
history,  and  a  decent  morality. 

Another  element  which  he  established  in  the  Spanish  drama, 
was  the  comic  under-plot,  and  the  witty  gracioso  or  droll,  the 
parody  of  the  heroic  character  of  the  play.  Much  of  his  power 
over  the  people  of  his  time  is  also  to  be  found  in  the  charm  of 
his  versification,  which  was  always  fresh,  flowing,  and  effective. 
The  success  of  Lope  de  Vega  was  in  proportion  to  his  rare 
powers.  For  the  forty  or  fifty  years  that  he  wrote,  nobody  else 
was  willingly  heard  upon  the  stage,  and  his  dramas  were  per- 
formed in  France,  Italy,  and  even  in  Constantinople.  His  extra- 
ordinary talent  was  nearly  allied  to  improvisation,  and  it  required 
but  a  little  more  indulgence  of  his  feeling  and  fancy  to  have 
made  him  not  only  an  improvisator,  but  the  most  remarkable 
one  that  ever  lived. 

Nearly  thirty  dramatic  writers  followed  Lope  de  Vega,  but 
the  school  was  not  received  with  universal  applause.  In  its 
gross  extravagances  and  irregularities,  severe  critics  found  just 
cause  for  complaint.  The  opposition  of  the  church  to  the  theatre, 
however,  which  had  been  for  a  time  so  formidable,  had  at  last 
given  way,  and  from  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
the  popular  drama  was  too  strong  to  be  subjected  either  to  clas- 
sical criticism  or  ecclesiastical  rule. 

Calderon  de  la  Barca  (1600-1681)  was  the  great  successor 
and  rival  of  Lope  de  Vega.  At  the  age  of  thirty-two,  his  repu- 
tation as  a  poet  was  an  enviable  one.  Soon  after,  when  the 
death  of  Lope  de  Vega  left  the  theatre  without  a  master,  he  was 
formally  attached  to  the  court  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing 
dramas  to  be  represented  in  the  royal  theatres.  In  1651,  he 
followed  the  example  of  Lope  de  Vega  and  other  men  of  letters 
of  his  time,  by  entering  a  religious  brotherhood.  Many  eccle- 
siastical dignities  were  conferred  upon  him,  but  he  did  not, 
however,  on  this  account  intermit  his  dramatic  labors,  but  con- 
tinued through  his  long  life  to  write  for  the  theatres,  for  the 
court,  and  for  the  churches.  Many  dramas  of  Calderon  were 
printed  without  his  consent,  and  many  were  attributed  to  him 
which  he  never  wrote.  His  reputation  as  a  dramatic  poet  rests 
on  the  seventy-three  sacramental  autos,  and  one  hundred  and 
eight  dramas,  which  are  known  to  be  his.  The  autos,  from  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  were  among  the  favorite  amuse- 
ments of  the  people ;  but  in  the  age  of  Calderon  they  were  much 
increased  in  number  and  importance  ;  they  had  become  attrac- 


320       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

tive  to  all  classes  of  society,  and  were  represented  with  great 
luxury  and  at  great  expense  in  the  streets  of  all  the  larger  cities. 
A  procession,  in  which  the  king  and  court  appeared,  preceded  by 
the  fantastic  figures  of  giants,  with  music,  banners,  and  religious 
shows,  followed  the  sacrament  through  the  street,  and  then, 
before  the  houses  of  the  great  officers  of  state,  the  autos  were 
performed  ;  the  giants  made  sport  for  the  multitude,  and  the 
entertainment  concluded  with  music  and  dancing.  Sometimes 
the  procession  was  headed  by  the  figure  of  a  monster  called  the 
Tarasca,  half  serpent  in  form,  borne  by  men  concealed  in  its 
cumbrous  bulk,  and  surmounted  by  another  figure  representing 
the  woman  of  Babylon,  —  all  so  managed  as  to  fill  with  wonder 
and  terror  the  country  people  who  crowded  round  it,  and  whose 
hats  and  caps  were  generally  snatched  away  by  the  grinning 
beast,  and  became  the  lawful  prize  of  his  conductors.  This 
exhibition  was  at  first  rude  and  simple,  but  under  the  influence 
of  Lope  de  Vega  it  became  a  well-defined,  popular  entertainment, 
divided  into  three  parts,  each  distinct  from  the  other.  First 
came  the  loa,  a  kind  of  prologue  ;  then  the  entremes,  a  kind  of 
interlude  or  farce  ;  and  last,  the  autos  sacramentales,  or  sacred 
acts  themselves,  which  were  more  grave  in  their  tone,  though 
often  whimsical  and  extravagant. 

The  seventy-three  autos  written  by  Calderon  are  all  allegorical, 
and  by  the  music  and  show  with  which  they  abound,  they  closely 
approach  to  the  opera.  They  are  upon  a  great  variety  of  sub- 
jects, and  indicate  by  their  structure  that  elaborate  and  costly 
machinery  must  have  been  used  in  their  representation.  They 
are  crowded  with  such  personages  as  Sin,  Death,  Judaism,  Mercy, 
and  Charity,  and  the  purpose  of  all  is  to  set  forth  the  Real  Pres- 
ence in  the  Eucharist.  The  great  enemy  of  mankind  of  course 
fills  a  large  place  in  them.  Almost  all  of  them  contain  passages 
of  striking  lyrical  poetry. 

The  secular  plays  of  Calderon  can  scarcely  be  classified,  for  in 
many  of  them  even  more  than  two  forms  of  the  drama  are 
mingled.  To  the  principle  of  making  a  story  that  should  sustain 
the  interest  throughout,  Calderon  sacrificed  almost  as  much  as 
Lope  de  Vega  did.  To  him  facts  are  never  obstacles.  Corio- 
lanus  is  a  general  under  Romulus  ;  the  Danube  is  placed  between 
Sweden  and  Russia  ;  and  Herodotus  is  made  to  describe  Amer- 
ica. But  in  these  dramas  we  rarely  miss  the  interest  and  charm 
of  a  dramatic  story,  which  provokes  the  curiosity  and  enchains 
the  attention. 

In  the  dramas  of  the  Cloak  and  Sword  the  plots  of  Calderon 
are  intricate.  He  excelled  in  the  accumulation  of  surprises,  in 
plunging  his  characters  into  one  difficulty  after  another,  main- 
taining the  interest  to  the  last.  In  style  and  versification  Cal- 


SPANISH  LITERATURE.  321 

deron  has  high  merits,  though  they  are  occasionally  mingled 
with  the  defects  of  his  age.  He  added  no  new  forms  to  dra- 
matic composition,  nor  did  he  much  modify  those  which  had 
been  already  settled  by  Lope  de  Vega ;  but  he  showed  greater 
skill  in  the  arrangement  of  his  incidents,  and  more  poetry  in  the 
structure  and  tendency  of  his  dramas.  To  his  elevated  tone  we 
owe  much  of  what  distinguishes  Calderon  from  his  predecessors, 
and  nearly  all  that  is  most  individual  in  his  merits  and  defects. 
In  carrying  out  his  theory  of  the  national  drama,  he  often  suc- 
ceeds and  often  fails ;  and  when  he  succeeds,  he  sets  before  us 
an  idealized  drama,  resting  on  the  noblest  elements  of  the  Span- 
ish national  character,  and  one  which,  with  all  its  unquestionable 
defects,  is  to  be  placed  among  the  extraordinary  phenomena  of 
modern  poetry. 

The  most  brilliant  period  of  the  Spanish  drama  falls  within 
the  reign  of  Philip  II.,  which  extended  from  1620  to  1665,  and 
embraced  the  last  years  of  the  life  of  Lope  de  Vega,  and  the 
thirty  most  fortunate  years  of  the  life  of  Calderon.  After  this 
period  a  change  begins  to  be  apparent ;  for  the  school  of  Lope 
was  that  of  a  drama  in  the  freshness  and  buoyancy  of  youth, 
while  that  of  Calderon  belongs  to  the  season  of  its  maturity  and 
gradual  decay.  The  many  writers  who  were  either  contempo- 
rary with  Lope  de  Vega  and  Calderon,  or  who  succeeded  them, 
had  little  influence  on  the  character  of  the  theatre.  This,  in  its 
proper  outlines,  always  remained  as  it  was  left  by  these  great 
masters,  who  maintained  an  almost  unquestioned  control  over  it 
while  they  lived,  and  at  their  death  left  a  character  impressed 
upon  it,  which  it  never  lost  till  it  ceased  to  exist  altogether. 

When  Lope  de  Vega  first  appeared  as  a  dramatic  writer  at 
Madrid,  the  only  theatres  he  found  were  two  unsheltered  court- 
yards, which  depended  on  such  companies  of  strolling  players  as 
occasionally  visited  the  capital.  Before  he  died,  there  were,  be- 
sides the  court-yards  in  Madrid,  several  theatres  of  great  mag- 
nificence in  the  royal  palaces,  and  many  thousand  actors ;  and 
half  a  century  later,  the  passion  for  dramatic  representations 
had  spread  into  every  part  of  the  kingdom,  and  there  was  hardly 
a  village  that  did  not  possess  a  theatre. 

During  the  whole  of  the  successful  period  of  the  drama,  the 
representations  took  place  in  the  daytime.  Dancing  was  early 
an  important  part  of  the  theatrical  exhibitions  in  Spain,  even  of 
the  religious,  and  its  importance  has  continued  down  to  the  pres- 
ent day.  From  the  earliest  antiquity  it  was  the  favorite  amuse- 
ment of  the  rude  inhabitants  of  the  country,  and  in  modern  times 
dancing  has  been  to  Spain  what  music  has  been  to  Italy,  a  pas- 
sion with  the  whole  population. 

In  all  its  forms  and  subsidiary  attractions,  the  Spanish  drama 


322       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

was  essentially  a  popular  entertainment,  governed  by  the  popu- 
lar will.  Its  purpose  was  to  please  all  equally,  and  it  was  not 
only  necessary  that  the  play  should  be  interesting;  it  was,  above 
all,  required  that  it  should  be  Spanish,  and,  therefore,  whatever 
the  subject  might  be,  whether  actual  or  mythological,  Greek  or 
Roman,  the  characters  were  always  represented  as  Castilian,  and 
Castilian  of  the  seventeenth  century.  It  was  the  same  with  their 
costumes.  Coriolanus  appeared  in  the  costume  of  Don  Juan  of 
Austria,  and  Aristotle  came  on  the  stage  dressed  like  a  Spanish 
Abbe",  with  curled  periwig  and  buckles  on  his  shoes. 

The  Spanish  theatre,  therefore,  in  many  of  its  characteristics 
and  attributes,  stands  by  itself.  It  is  entirely  national,  it  takes 
no  cognizance  of  ancient  example,  and  it  borrowed  nothing  from 
the  drama  of  France,  Italy,  or  England.  Founded  on  traits  of 
national  character,  with  all  its  faults,  it  maintained  itself  as  long 
as  that  character  existed  in  its  original  attributes,  and  even  now 
it  remains  one  of  the  most  striking  and  interesting  portions  of 
modern  literature. 

5.  ROMANCES  AND  TALES.  —  Hitherto  the  writers  of  Spain 
had  been  little  known,  except  in  their  own  country ;  but  we  are 
now  introduced  to  an  author  whose  fame  is  bounded  by  no  lan- 
guage and  no  country,  and  whose  name  is  not  alone  familiar  to 
men  of  taste  and  learning,  but  to  almost  every  class  of  society. 

Cervantes  (1547—1616),  though  of  noble  family,  was  born  in 
poverty  and  obscurity,  not  far  from  Madrid.  When  he  was 
about  twenty-one  years  of  age,  he  attached  himself  to  the  person 
of  Cardinal  Aquaviva,  with  whom  he  visited  Rome.  He  soon 
after  enlisted  as  a  common  soldier  in  the  war  against  the  Turks, 
and,  in  the  great  battle  of  Lepanto,  1572,  he  received  a  wound 
which  deprived  him  of  the  use  of  his  left  hand  and  arm,  and 
obliged  him  to  quit  the  military  profession.  On  his  way  home 
he  was  captured  by  pirates,  carried  to  Algiers,  and  sold  for  a 
slave.  Here  he  passed  five  years  full  of  adventure  and  suffering. 
At  length  his  ransom  was  effected,  and  he  returned  home  to  find 
his  father  dead,  his  family  reduced  to  a  still  more  bitter  poverty 
by  his  ransom,  and  himself  friendless  and  unknown.  He  with- 
drew from  the  world  to  devote  himself  to  literature,  and  to  gain 
a  subsistence  by  his  pen. 

One  of  the  first  productions  of  Cervantes  was  the  pastoral  ro- 
mance of  "Galatea."  This  was  followed  by  several  dramas, the 
principal  of  which  is  founded  on  the  tragical  fate  of  Numantia. 
Notwithstanding  its  want  of  dramatic  skill,  it  may  be  cited  as  a 
proof  of  the  author's  poetical  talent,  and  as  a  bold  effort  to  raise 
the  condition  of  the  stage. 

After  many  years  of  poverty  and  embarrassment,  in  1605, 
when  Cervantes  had  reached  his  fiftieth  year,  he  published  the 


SPANISH  LITERATURE.  323 

first  part  of  "  Don  Quixote."  The  success  of  this  effort  was  in- 
credible. Many  thousand  copies  are  said  to  have  been  printed 
during  the  author's  lifetime.  It  was  translated  into  various  lan- 
guages, and  eulogized  by  every  class  of  readers,  yet  it  occasioned 
little  improvement  in  the  pecuniary  circumstances  of  the  author. 
In  1615,  he  published  the  second  part  of  the  same  work,  and, 
in  the  year  following,  his  eventful  and  troubled  life  drew  to  its 
close. 

"  Don  Quixote,"  of  all  the  works  of  all  modern  times,  bears 
most  deeply  the  impression  of  the  national  character  it  repre- 
sents, and  it  has  in  return  enjoyed  a  degree  of  national  favor 
never  granted  to  any  other.  The  object  of  Cervantes  in  writing 
it  was,  as  he  himself  declares,  "  to  render  abhorred  of  men  the 
false  and  absurd  stories  contained  in  books  of  chivalry."  The 
fanaticism  for  these  romances  was  so  great  in  Spain  during  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  they  were  deemed  so  noxious,  that  the 
burning  of  all  copies  extant  in  the  country  was  earnestly  asked 
for  by  the  Cortes.  To  destroy  a  passion  that  had  struck  its  roots 
so  deeply  in  the  character  of  all  classes  of  men,  to  break  up  the 
only  reading  which,  at  that  time,  was  fashionable  and  popular, 
was  a  bold  undertaking,  yet  one  in  which  Cervantes  succeeded. 
No  book  of  chivalry  was  written  after  the  appearance  of  "  Don 
Quixote  ;  "  and  from  that  time  to  the  present*  they  have  been 
constantly  disappearing,  until  they  are  now  among  the  rarest  of 
literary  curiosities,  —  a  solitary  instance  of  the  power  of  genius 
to  destroy,  by  a  well-timed  blow,  an  entire  department  of  litera- 
ture. 

In  accomplishing  this  object,  Cervantes  represents  "  Don 
Quixote  "  as  a  country  gentleman  of  La  Mancha,  full  of  Castil- 
ian  honor  and  enthusiasm,  but  so  completely  crazed  by  reading 
the  most  famous  books  of  chivalry,  that  he  not  only  believes 
them  to  be  true,  but  feels  himself  called  upon  to  become  the  im- 
possible knight-errant  they  describe,  and  actually  goes  forth  into 
the  world,  like  them,  to  defend  the  oppressed  and  avenge  the  in- 
jured. To  complete  his  chivalrous  equipment,  which  he  had  be- 
gun by  fitting  up  for  himself  a  suit  of  armor  strange  to  his  cen- 
tury, he  took  an  esquire  out  of  his  neighborhood,  a  middle-aged 
peasant,  ignorant,  credulous,  and  good-natured,  but  shrewd 
enough  occasionally  to  see  the  folly  of  their  position.  The  two 
sally  forth  from  their  native  village  in  search  of  adventures,  of 
which  the  excited  imagination  of  the  knight  —  turning  windmills 
into  giants,  solitary  turrets  into  castles,  and  galley  slaves  into 
oppressed  gentlemen  —  finds  abundance  wherever  he  goes,  while 
the  esquire  translates  them  all  into  the  plain  prose  of  truth,  with 
a  simplicity  strikingly  contrasted  with  the  lofty  dignity  and  the 
magnificent  illusions  of  the  knight.  After  a  series  of  ridiculous 


324      HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

discomfitures,  the  two  are  at  last  brought  home  like  madmen  to 
their  native  village. 

Ten  years  later,  Cervantes  published  the  second  part  of  Don 
Quixote,  which  is  even  better  than  the  first.  It  shows  more 
vigor  and  freedom,  the  invention  and  the  style  of  thought  are 
richer,  and  the  finish  more  exact.  Both  Don  Quixote  and  San- 
cho  are  brought  before  us  like  such  living  realities,  that  at  this 
moment  the  figures  of  the  crazed,  gaunt,  and  dignified  knight, 
and  of  his  round,  selfish,  and  most  amusing  esquire,  dwell  bodied 
forth  in  the  imagination  of  more,  among  all  conditions  of  men 
throughout  Christendom,  than  any  other  of  the  creations  of  hu- 
man talent.  In  this  work  Cervantes  has  shown  himself  of  kin- 
dred to  all  times  and  all  lands,  to  the  humblest  as  well  as  to 
the  highest  degrees  of  cultivation,  and  he  has  received  in  return, 
beyond  all  other  writers,  a  tribute  of  sympathy  and  admiration 
from  the  universal  spirit  of  humanity. 

This  romance,  which  Cervantes  threw  so  carelessly  from  him, 
and  which  he  regarded  only  as  a  bold  effort  to  break  up  the  ab- 
surd taste  for  the  fancies  of  chivalry,  has  been  established  by  an 
uninterrupted  and  an  unquestioned  success  ever  since,  as  the  old- 
est classical  specimen  of  romantic  fiction,  and  as  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  monuments  of  modern  genius.  But  Cervantes  is 
entitled  to  a  higher  glory :  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  this 
delightful  romance  was  not  the  result  of  a  youthful  exuberance  of 
feeling,  and  a  happy  external  condition ;  with  all  its  unquench- 
able and  irresistible  humor,  its  bright  views,  and  its  cheerful  trust 
in  goodness  and  virtue,  it  was  written  in  his  old  age,  at  the  con- 
clusion of  a  life  which  had  been  marked  at  nearly  every  step 
with  struggle,  disappointment,  and  calamity  ;  it  was  begun  in 
prison,  and  finished  when  he  felt  the  hand  of  death  pressing  cold 
and  heavy  upon  his  heart.  If  this  be  remembered  as  we  read, 
we  may  feel  what  admiration  and  reverence  are  due,  not  only  to 
the  living  power  of  Don  Quixote,  but  to  the  character  and  genius 
of  Cervantes ;  if  it  be  forgotten  or  underrated,  we  shall  fail  in 
regard  to  both. 

The  first  form  of  romantic  fiction  which  succeeded  the  ro- 
mances of  chivalry  was  that  of  prose  pastorals,  which  was  intro- 
duced into  Spain  by  Montemayor,  a  Portuguese,  who  lived, 
probably,  between  1520  and  1561.  To  divert  his  mind  from 
the  sorrow  of  an  unrequited  attachment,  he  composed  a  romance 
entitled  "  Diana,"  which,  with  numerous  faults,  possesses  a  high 
degree  of  merit.  It  was  succeeded  by  many  similar  tales. 

The  next  form  of  Spanish  prose  fiction,  and  the  one  which 
has  enjoyed  a  more  permanent  regard,  is  that  known  as  tales  in 
the  gusto  picaresco,  or  style  of  the  rogues.  As  a  class,  they 
constitute  a  singular  exhibition  of  character,  and  are  as  separate 


SPANISH  LITERATURE.  325 

and  national  as  anything  in  modern  literature.  The  first  fiction 
of  this  class  was  the  "  Lazarillo  de  Tormes "  of  Mendoza,  al- 
ready spoken  of,  published  in  1554,  —  a  bold,  unfinished  sketch 
of  the  life  of  a  rogue  from  the  very  lowest  condition  of  society. 
Forty-five  years  afterwards  this  was  followed  by  the  "  Guzman 
de  Alfarache  "  of  Aleman,  the  most  ample  portraiture  of  its 
class  to  be  found  in  Spanish  literature.  It  is  chiefly  curious  and 
interesting  because  it  shows  us,  in  the  costume  of  the  times,  the 
life  of  an  ingenious  Machiavelian  rogue,  who  is  never  at  a  loss 
for  an  expedient,  and  who  speaks  of  himself  always  as  an  hon- 
est man.  The  work  was  received  with  great  favor,  and  trans- 
lated into  all  the  languages  of  Europe. 

But  the  work  which  most  plainly  shows  the  condition  of  social 
life  which  produced  this  class  of  tales,  is  the  "  Life  of  Esteva- 
nillo  Gonzalez,"  first  printed  in  1646.  It  is  the  autobiography 
of  a  buffoon  who  was  long  in  the  service  of  Piccolomini,  the 
great  general  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  The  brilliant  success 
of  these  works  at  home  and  abroad  subsequently  produced  the 
Gil  Bias  of  Le  Sage,  an  imitation  more  brilliant  than  any  of  the 
originals  that  it  followed. 

The  serious  and  historical  fictions  produced  in  Spain  were 
limited  in  number,  and  with  few  exceptions  deserved  little  favor. 
Short  stories  or  tales  were  more  successful  than  any  other  form 
of  prose-fiction  during  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth,  and  the 
whole  of  the  seventeenth  century.  They  belonged  to  the  spirit 
of  their  own  times  and  to  the  state  of  society  in  which  they  ap- 
peared. Taken  together,  the  number  of  fictions  in  Spanish  lit- 
erature is  enormous  ;  but  what  is  more  remarkable  than  their 
multitude,  is  the  fact  that  they  were  produced  when  the  rest  of 
Europe,  with  a  partial  exception  in  favor  of  Italy,  was  not  yet 
awakened  to  corresponding  efforts  of  the  imagination.  The  cre- 
ative spirit,  however,  soon  ceased,  and  a  spirit  of  French  imita- 
tion took  its  place. 

6.  HISTORICAL  NARRATIVE  POEMS.  —  Epic  poetry,  from  its 
dignity  and  pretensions,  is  almost  uniformly  placed  at  the  head 
of  the  different  divisions  of  a  nation's  literature.  But  in  Spain 
little  has  been  achieved  in  this  department  that  is  worthy  of 
memory.  The  old  half-epic  poem  of  the  Cid  —  the  first  attempt 
at  narration  in  the  languages  of  modern  Europe  that  deserves 
the  name  —  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  outbreaks  of  poetical 
and  national  enthusiasm  on  record.  The  few  similar  attempts 
that  followed  during  the  next  three  centuries,  while  they  serve 
to  mark  the  progress  of  Spanish  culture,  show  little  of  the  power 
manifested  in  the  Cid. 

In  the  reign  of  Charles  V.,  the  poets  of  the  time  evidently 
imagined  that  to  them  was  assigned  the  task  of  celebrating  the 


326       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

achievements  in  the  Old  World  and  in  the  New,  which  had 
raised  their  country  to  the  first  place  among  the  powers  of  Eu- 
rope. There  were  written,  therefore,  during  this  and  the  suc- 
ceeding reigns,  an  extraordinary  number  of  epic  and  narrative 
poems  on  subjects  connected  with  ancient  and  modern  Spanish 
glory,  but  they  all  belong  to  patriotism  rather  than  to  poetry ; 
the  best  of  these  come  with  equal  pretension  into  the  province 
of  history.  There  is  but  one  long  poem  of  this  class  which 
obtained  much  regard  when  it  appeared,  and  which  has  been 
remembered  ever  since,  the  "  Araucana."  The  author  of  this 
work,  Ercilla  (1533—1595),  was  a  page  of  Philip  the  Second, 
and  accompanied  him  to  England  on  the  occasion  of  his  mar- 
riage with  Mary.  News  having  arrived  that  the  Araucans,  a 
tribe  of  Indians  in  Chili,  had  revolted  against  the  Spanish  au- 
thority, Ercilla  joined  the  adventurous  expedition  that  was  sent 
out  to  subdue  them.  In  the  midst  of  his  exploits  he  conceived 
the  plan  of  writing  a  narrative  of  the  war  in  the  form  of  an  epic 
poem.  After  the  tumult  of  a  battle,  or  the  fatigues  of  a  march, 
he  devoted  the  hours  of  the  night  to  his  literary  labors,  wielding 
the  pen  and  sword  by  turns,  and  often  obliged  to  write  on  pieces 
of  skin  or  scraps  of  paper  so  small  as  to  contain  only  a  few  lines. 
In  this  poem  the  descriptive  powers  of  Ercilla  are  remarkable, 
and  his  characters,  especially  those  of  the  American  chiefs,  are 
drawn  with  force  and  distinctness.  The  whole  poem  is  per- 
vaded by  that  deep  sense  of  loyalty,  always  a  chief  ingredient 
in  Spanish  honor  and  heroism,  and  which,  in  Ercilla,  seems 
never  to  have  been  chilled  by  the  ingratitude  of  the  master  to 
whom  he  devoted  his  life,  and  to  whose  glory  he  consecrated  this 
poem. 

These  narrative  and  heroic  poems  continued  long  in  favor  in 
Spain,  and  they  retained  to  the  last  those  ambitious  feelings  of 
national  greatness  which  had  given  them  birth.  Devoted  to  the 
glory  of  their  country,  they  were  produced  when  the  national 
character  was  on  the  decline  ;  and  as  they  sprang  more  directly 
from  that  character,  and  depended  more  on  its  spirit  than  did 
the  similar  poetry  of  any  other  people  in  modern  times,  so  they 
now  visibly  declined  with  them. 

7.  LYRIC  POETRY.  —  The  number  of  authors  in  the  various 
classes  of  Spanish  lyric  poetry,  whose  works  have  been  preserved 
between  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Charles  V.  and  the  end 
of  that  of  the  last  of  his  race,  is  not  less  than  a  hundred  and 
twenty ;  but  the  number  of  those  who  were  successful  is  small. 
A  little  of  what  was  written  by  the  Argensolas,  more  of  Her- 
rera,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Bachiller  de  la  Torre  and  Luis 
de  Leon,  with  occasional  efforts  of  Lope  de  Vega  and  Quevedo, 
and  single  odes  of  other  writers,  make  up  what  gives  its  char- 


SPANISH  LITERATURE.  327 

acter  to  the  graver  and  less  popular  portion  of  Spanish  lyric 
poetry.  Their  writings  form  a  body  of  poetry,  not  large,  but 
one  that  from  its  living,  national  feeling  on  the  one  side,  and  its 
dignity  on  the  other,  may  be  placed  without  question  among 
the  most  successful  efforts  of  modern  literature. 

The  Argensolas  were  two  brothers  who  flourished  in  Spain  at 
the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  ;  both  occupy  a  high 
place  in  this  department  of  poetry.  The  original  poems  of  Luis 
de  Leon  (1528-1591)  fill  no  more  than  a  hundred  pages,  but 
there  is  hardly  a  line  of  them  which  has  not  its  value,  and  the 
whole  taken  together  are  to  be  placed  at  the  head  of  Spanish 
lyric  poetry.  They  are  chiefly  religious,  and  the  source  of 
their  inspiration  is  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  Herrera  (1534— 
1597)  is  the  earliest  classic  ode  writer  in  modern  literature,  and 
his  poems  are  characterized  by  dignity  of  language,  harmony  of 
versification,  and  elevation  of  ideas.  Luis  de  Leon  and  Herrera 
are  considered  the  two  great  masters  of  Spanish  lyric  poetry. 

Quevedo  (1580-1645)  was  successful  in  many  departments  of 
letters.  The  most  prominent  characteristics  of  his  verse  are  a 
broad,  grotesque  humor,  and  a  satire  often  imitated  from  the 
ancients.  His  amatory  and  religious  poems  are  occasionally 
marked  by  extreme  beauty  and  tenderness.  The  works  upon 
which  his  reputation  principally  rests,  however,  are  in  prose,  and 
belong  to  theology  and  metaphysics  rather  than  to  elegant  lit- 
erature. They  were  produced  during  the  weary  years  of  an 
unjust  imprisonment.  His  prose  satires  are  the  most  celebrated 
of  his  compositions,  and  by  these  he  will  always  be  remembered 
throughout  the  world. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  there  arose  a  sect 
who  attempted  to  create  a  new  epoch  in  Spanish  poetry,  by  af- 
fecting an  exquisite  refinement,  and  who  ran  into  the  most  ridic- 
ulous extravagance  and  pedantry.  The  founder  of  this  "  culti- 
vated style,"  as  it  was  called,  was  Luis  Gongora  (1561-1627), 
and  his  name,  like  that  of  Marini  in  Italy,  has  become  a  byword 
in  literature.  The  style  he  introduced  became  at  once  fashion- 
able at  court,  and  it  struck  so  deep  root  in  the  soil  of  the  whole 
country,  that  it  has  not  yet  been  completely  eradicated.  The 
most  odious  feature  of  this  style  is,  that  it  consists  entirely  of 
metaphors,  so  heaped  upon  one  another  that  it  is  as  difficult  to 
find  out  the  meaning  hidden  under  their  grotesque  mass,  as  if 
it  were  a  series  of  confused  riddles.  The  success  of  this  style 
was  very  great,  and  inferior  poets  bowed  to  it  throughout  the 
country. 

8.  SATIRICAL  AND  OTHER  POETRY.  —  Satirical  poetry  never 
enjoyed  a  wide  success  in  Spain.  The  nation  has  always  been 
too  grave  and  dignified  to  endure  the  censure  it  implied.  It 


328       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

was  looked  upon  with  distrust,  and  thought  contrary  to  the  con- 
ventions of  good  society  to  indulge  in  its  composition.  Neither 
was  elegiac  poetry  extensively  cultivated.  The  Spanish  temper- 
ament was  little  fitted  to  the  subdued,  simple,  and  gentle  tone 
of  the  proper  elegy.  The  echoes  of  pastoral  poetry  in  Spain 
are  heard  far  back  among  the  old  ballads  ;  but  the  Italian  forms 
were  early  introduced  and  naturalized.  Two  Portuguese  writ- 
ers, Montemayor  and  Miranda,  were  most  successful  in  this  de- 
partment of  poetry.  Equally  characteristic  of  the  Spanish  gen- 
ius, with  its  pastorals,  were  the  short  epigrammatic  poems  which 
appeared  through  the  best  age  of  its  literature.  They  are  gen- 
erally in  the  truest  tone  of  popular  verse.  Of  didactic  poetry, 
there  were  many  irregular  varieties  ;  but  the  popular  character 
of  Spanish  poetry,  and  the  severe  nature  of  the  ecclesiastical 
and  political  constitutions  of  Spain,  were  unfavorable  to  the 
development  of  this  form  of  verse,  and  unlikely  to  tolerate  it 
on  any  important  subject.  It  remained,  therefore,  one  of  the 
feeblest  and  least  successful  departments  of  the  national  litera- 
ture. 

In  the  seventeenth  century,  ballads  had  become  the  delight  of 
the  whole  Spanish  people.  The  soldier  solaced  himself  with 
them  in  his  tent,  the  maiden  danced  to  them  on  the  green,  the 
lover  sang  them  for  his  serenade,  the  street  beggar  chanted 
them  for  alms  ;  they  entered  into  the  sumptuous  entertainments 
of  the  nobility,  the  holiday  services  of  the  church,  and  into  the 
orgies  of  thieves  and  vagabonds.  No  poetry  of  modern  times 
has  been  so  widely  spread  through  all  classes  of  society,  and 
none  has  so  entered  into  the  national  character.  They  were 
often  written  by  authors  otherwise  little  known,  and  they  were 
always  found  in  the  works  of  those  poets  of  note  who  desired  to 
stand  well  with  the  mass  of  their  countrymen. 

9.  HISTORY  AND  OTHEB  PROSE  WRITINGS.  —  The  fathers  of 
Spanish  history  are  Zurita  and  Morales.  Zurita  (1512-1580) 
was  the  author  of  the  "Annals  of  Aragon,"  a  work  more  im- 
portant to  Spanish  history  than  any  that  had  preceded  it.  Mo- 
rales (1513—1591)  was  historiographer  to  the  crown  of  Castile, 
and  his  unfinished  history  of  that  country  is  marked  by  much 
general  ability.  Contemporary  with  these  writers  was  Mendoza, 
already  mentioned.  The  honor  of  being  the  first  historian  of  the 
country,  however,  belongs  to  Mariana  (1536-1623),  a  foundling 
who  was  educated  a  Jesuit.  His  main  occupation  for  the  last 
thirty  or  forty  years  of  his  life  was  his  great  "History  of  Spain." 
There  is  an  air  of  good  faith  in  his  accounts  and  a  vividness  in 
his  details  which  are  singularly  attractive.  If  not  in  all  respects 
the  most  trustworthy  of  annals,  it  is  at  least  the  most  remark- 
able union  of  picturesque  chronicling  with  sober  history  that  the 


SPANISH  LITERATURE.  329 

world  has  ever  seen.  Sandoval  (d.  1621)  took  up  the  history 
of  Spain  where  Mariana  left  it ;  but  while  his  is  a  work  of  au- 
thority, it  is  unattractive  in  style.  "  The  General  History  of 
the  Indies,"  by  Herrera,  is  a  work  of  great  value,  and  the  one 
on  which  the  reputation  of  the  author  as  a  historian  chiefly  rests. 

One  of  the  most  pleasing  of  the  minor  Spanish  histories  is 
Argensola's  account  of  the  Moluccas.  It  is  full  of  the  traditions 
found  among  the  natives  by  the  Portuguese  when  they  first 
landed  there,  and  of  the  wild  adventures  that  followed  when 
they  had  taken  possession  of  the  island.  Garcilasso  de  la  Vega, 
the  son  of  one  of  the  unscrupulous  conquerors  of  Peru,  descended 
on  his  mother's  side  from  the  Incas,  wrote  the  "  History  of 
Florida,"  of  which  the  adventures  of  De  Soto  constitute  the  most 
brilliant  portion.  His  "  Commentaries  on  Peru  "  is  a  striking 
and  interesting  work. 

The  last  of  the  historians  of  eminence  in  the  elder  school  of 
Spanish  history  was  Solis,  whose  "  Conquest  of  Mexico "  is 
beautifully  written,  and  as  it  was  flattering  to  the  national  his- 
tory, it  was  at  once  successful,  and  has  enjoyed  an  unimpaired 
popularity  down  to  our  times. 

The  spirit  of  political  tyranny  in  the  government,  and  of  relig- 
ious tyranny  in  the  Inquisition,  now  more  than  ever  united, 
were  more  hostile  to  bold  and  faithful  inquiry  in  the  department 
of  history  than  in  almost  any  other.  Still,  the  historians  of  this 
period  were  not  unworthy  of  the  national  character.  Their 
works  abound  in  feeling  rather  than  philosophy,  and  are  written 
in  a  style  that  marks,  not  so  much  the  peculiar  genius  of  their 
authors,  perhaps,  as  that  of  the  country  that  gave  them  birth. 
Although  they  may  not  be  entirely  classical,  they  are  entirely 
Spanish  ;  and  what  they  want  in  finish  and  grace  they  make  up 
in  picturesqueness  and  originality. 

In  one  form  of  didactic  composition,  Spain  stands  in  advance 
of  other  countries  :  that  of  proverbs,  which  Cervantes  has  hap- 
pily called  "  short  sentences  drawn  from  long  experience." 
Spanish  proverbs  can  be  traced  back  to  the  earliest  times.  Al- 
though twenty-four  thousand  have  been  collected,  many  thou- 
sands still  remain  known  only  among  the  traditions  of  the  hum- 
bler classes  of  society  that  have  given  birth  to  them  all. 

From  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  Spanish  prose 
became  infected  with  that  pedantry  and  affectation  already 
spoken  of  as  Gongorism,  or  "the  cultivated  style;"  and  from  this 
time,  everything  in  prose  as  well  as  in  poetry  announced  that 
corrupted  taste  which  both  precedes  and  hastens  the  decay  of  a 
literature,  and  which  in  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury was  in  Spain  but  the  concomitant  of  a  general  decline  in 
the  arts  and  the  gradual  degradation  of  the  monarchy.  No 


330       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

country  in  Christendom  had  fallen  from  such  a  height  of  power 
as  that  which  Spain  occupied  in  the  time  of  Charles  V.  into  such 
an  abyss  of  degradation  as  she  reached  when  Charles  II.,  the 
last  of  the  house  of  Austria,  ceased  to  reign.  The  old  religion 
of  the  country,  the  most  prominent  of  all  the  national  character- 
istics, was  now  so  perverted  from  its  true  character  by  intoler- 
ance that  it  had  become  a  means  of  oppression  such  as  Europe 
never  before  witnessed.  The  principle  of  loyalty,  now  equally 
perverted  and  mischievous,  had  sunk  into  servile  submission,  and 
as  we  approach  the  conclusion  of  the  century,  the  Inquisition 
and  the  despotism  seem  to  have  cast  their  blight  over  every- 
thing. 

PERIOD   THIED. 

FROM  THE  ACCESSION  OF  THE  BOURBON  FAMILY  TO  THE  PRESENT 
TIME  (1700-1885). 

1.  FRENCH  INFLUENCE  ON  THE  LITERATURE  OF  SPAIN.  — 
The  death  of  Charles  II.,  in  1700,  was  followed  by  the  War  of 
the  Succession  between  the  houses  of  Hapsburg  and  Bourbon, 
which  lasted  thirteen  years.  It  was  terminated  by  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht  and  the  accession  of  Philip  V.,  the  grandson  of  Louis 
Xiy.  Under  his  reign  the  influence  of  France  became  appar- 
ent in  the  customs  of  the  country.  The  Academy  of  Madrid 
was  soon  established  in  imitation  of  that  of  Paris,  with  the  ob- 
ject of  establishing  and  cultivating  the  purity  of  the  Castilian 
language.  The  first  work  published  by  this  association  was  a 
Dictionary,  which  has  continued  in  successive  editions  to  be  the 
proper  standard  of  the  language.  At  this  time  French  began 
to  be  spoken  in  the  elegant  society  of  the  court  and  the  capital, 
translations  from  the  French  were  multiplied,  and  at  last,  a  poet- 
ical system,  founded  on  the  critical  doctrine  of  Boileau,  prev- 
alent in  France,  was  formally  introduced  into  the  country  by 
Luzan,  in  his  "  Art  of  Poetry,"  which  from  its  first  appearance 
(1737)  exercised  a  controlling  authority  at  the  court,  and  over 
the  few  writers  of  reputation  then  to  be  found  in  the  country. 
Though  the  works  of  Luzan  offered  a  remedy  for  the  bad  taste 
which  had  accompanied  and  in  no  small  degree  hastened  the 
decline  of  the  national  taste,  they  did  not  lay  a  foundation  for 
advancement  in  literature.  The  national  mind  had  become 
dwarfed  for  want  of  its  appropriate  nourishment ;  the  moral  and 
physical  sciences  that  had  been  advancing  for  a  hundred  years 
throughout  Europe,  were  forbidden  to  cross  the  Pyrenees.  The 
scholastic  philosophy  was  still  maintained  as  the  highest  form 
of  intellectual  culture;  the  system  of  Copernicus  was  looked 
upon  as  contrary  to  the  inspired  record  ;  while  the  philosophy  of 
Bacon  and  the  very  existence  of  mathematical  science  were  gen- 


SPANISH  LITERATURE.  331 

erally  unknown  even  to  the  graduates  of  universities.  It  seemed 
as  if  the  faculties  of  thinking  and  reasoning  were  becoming  ex- 
tinct in  Spain. 

2.  THE  DAWN  OF  SPANISH  LITERATURE  IN  THE  EIGHTEENTH 
CENTURY.  —  The  first  effort  for  intellectual  emancipation  was 
made  by  a  monk,  Benito  Feyjoo  (1676-1764),  who,  having  made 
himself  acquainted  with  the  truths  brought  to  light  by  Galileo, 
Bacon,  Newton,  Leibnitz,  and  Pascal,  devoted  his  life  to  the  labor 
of  diffusing  them  among  his  countrymen.  The  opposition  raised 
against  him  only  drew  to  his  works  the  attention  he  desired. 
Even  the  Inquisition  summoned  him  in  vain,  for  it  was  impossi- 
ble to  question  that  he  was  a  sincere  and  devout  Catholic,  and 
he  had  been  careful  not  to  interfere  with  any  of  the  abuses  sanc- 
tioned by  the  church.  Before  his  death  he  had  the  pleasure  of 
seeing  that  an  impulse  in  the  right  direction  had  been  imparted 
to  the  national  mind. 

One  of  the  striking  indications  of  advancement  was  an  attack 
upon  the  style  of  popular  preaching,  which  was  now  in  a  state  of 
scandalous  degradation.  The  assailant  was  Isia  (1703—1781),  a 
Jesuit,  whose  "  History  of  Friar  Gerund"  is  a  satirical  romance, 
slightly  resembling  Don  Quixote  in  its  plan,  describing  one  of 
those  bombastic  orators  of  the  age.  It  was  from  the  first  suc- 
cessful in  its  object  of  destroying  the  evil  at  which  it  aimed,  and 
preachers  of  the  class  of  Friar  Gerund  soon  found  themselves 
without  an  audience. 

The  policy  of  Charles  III.  (1759-1788)  was  highly  favorable 
to  the  progress  of  literature.  He  abridged  the  power  of  the 
Inquisition,  and  forbade  the  condemnation  of  any  book  till  its 
writer  or  publisher  had  been  heard  in  its  defense  ;  he  invited  the 
suggestion  of  improved  plans  of  study,  made  arrangements  for 
popular  education,  and  raised  the  tone  of  instruction  in  the  in- 
stitutions of  learning.  Finally,  perceiving  the  Jesuits  to  be  the 
most  active  opponents  of  these  reforms,  he  expelled  them  from 
every  part  of  his  dominions,  breaking  up  their  schools,  and  con- 
fiscating their  revenues.  During  his  reign,  intellectual  life  and 
health  were  infused  into  the  country,  and  its  powers,  which  had 
been  so  long  wasting  away,  were  revived  and  renewed. 

Among  the  writers  of  this  age  are  Moratin  the  elder  (1737— 
1780),  whose  poems  are  marked  by  purity  of  language  and  har- 
mony of  versification;  and  Yriarte  (1750-1791),  who  was  most 
successful  in  fables,  which  he  applied  to  the  correction  of  the 
faults  and  follies  of  literary  men.  To  this  period  may  also  be 
referred  the  school  of  Salamanca,  whose  object  was  to  combine 
in  literature  the  power  and  richness  of  the  old  writers  of  the 
time  of  the  Philips  with  the  severer  taste  then  prevailing  on  the 
continent.  Melendez  (1754-1817),  who  was  the  founder  of  this 


332       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

school,  devoted  his  muse  to  the  joys  and  sorrows  of  rustic  love, 
and  the  leisure  and  amusements  of  country  life.  Nothing  can 
surpass  some  of  his  descriptions  in  the  graceful  delineation  of 
tender  feeling,  and  his  verse  is  considered  in  sweetness  and 
native  strength,  to  be  such  a  return  to  the  tones  of  Garcilasso,  as 
had  not  been  heard  in  Spain  for  more  than  a  century.  Gonza- 
lez (d.  1794),  who,  with  happy  success,  imitated  Luis  de  Leon, 
Jovellanos  (1744-1811),  who  exerted  great  influence  on  the 
literary  and  political  condition  of  his  country,  and  Quintana 
(b.  1772),  whose  poems  are  distinguished  by  their  noble  and 
patriotic  tone,  are  considered  among  the  principal  representa- 
tives of  the  school  of  Salamanca. 

The  most  considerable  movement  of  the  eighteenth  century 
in  Spain,  is  that  relating  to  the  theatre,  which  it  was  earnestly 
attempted  to  subject  to  the  rules  then  prevailing  on  the  French 
stage.  The  Spanish  theatre,  in  fact,  was  now  at  its  lowest  ebb, 
and  wholly  in  the  hands  of  the  populace.  The  plays  acted  for 
public  amusement  were  still  represented  as  they  had  been  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  —  in  open  court-yards,  in  the  daytime, 
without  any  pretense  of  scenery  or  of  dramatic  ingenuity. 
Soon  after,  through  the  influence  of  Isabella,  the  second  wife  of 
Philip  V.,  improvements  were  made  in  the  external  arrange- 
ments and  architecture  of  the  theatres ;  yet,  owing  to  the  exclu- 
sive favor  shown  to  the  opera  by  the  Italian  queens,  the  old 
spirit  continued  to  prevail. 

In  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  a  reform  of  the  com- 
edy and  tragedy  was  undertaken  by  Montiano  and  others,  who 
introduced  the  French  style  in  dramatic  compositions,  and  from 
that  time  an  active  contest  went  on  between  the  innovators  and 
the  followers  of  the  old  drama.  The  latter  was  attacked,  in 
1762,  by  Moratin  the  elder,  who  wrote  against  it,  and  especially 
against  the  autos  sacramentales,  showing  that  such  wild,  coarse, 
and  blasphemous  exhibitions,  as  they  generally  were,  ought  not 
to  be  tolerated  in  a  civilized  and  religious  community.  So  far 
as  the  autos  were  concerned,  Moratin  was  successful ;  they  were 
prohibited  in  1768,  and  since  that  time,  in  the  larger  cities,  they 
have  not  been  heard. 

The  most  successful  writer  for  the  stage  was  Ramon  de  la 
Cruz  (1731-1799),  the  author  of  about  three  hundred  dramatic 
compositions,  founded  on  the  manners  of  the  middle  and  lower 
classes.  They  are  entirely  national  in  their  tone,  and  abound 
in  wit  and  in  faithful  delineations  of  character. 

While  a  number  of  writers  pandered  to  the  bad  taste  of  low 
and  vulgar  audiences,  a  formidable  antagonist  appeared  in  the 
person  of  Moratin  the  younger  (1760-1828),  son  of  that  poet 
who  first  produced,  on  the  Spanish  stage,  an  original  drama 


SPANISH  LITERATURE.  333 

written  according  to  the  French  doctrines.  Notwithstanding 
the  taste  of  the  public,  he  determined  to  tread  in  the  footsteps 
of  his  father.  Though  his  comedies  have  failed  to  educate  a 
school  strong  enough  to  drive  out  the  bad  imitations  of  the  old 
masters,  they  have  yet  been  able  to  keep  their  own  place. 

The  eighteenth  century  was  a  period  of  revolution  and  change 
with  the  Spanish  theatre.  While  the  old  national  drama  was 
not  restored  to  its  ancient  rights,  the  drama  founded  on  the 
doctrines  taught  by  Luzan,  and  practiced  by  the  Moratins,  had 
only  a  limited  success.  The  audiences  did  as  much  to  degrade 
it  as  was  done  by  the  poets  they  patronized  and  the  actors  they 
applauded.  On  the  one  side,  extravagant  and  absurd  dramas 
in  great  numbers,  full  of  low  buffoonery,  were  offered  ;  on  the 
other,  meagre,  sentimental  comedies,  and  stiff,  cold  translations 
from  the  French,  were  forced,  in  almost  equal  numbers,  upon 
the  actors,  by  the  voices  of  those  from  whose  authority  or  sup- 
port they  could  not  entirely  emancipate  themselves. 

3.  SPANISH  LITERATURE  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 
—  The  new  life  and  health  infused  into  literature  in  the  age  of 
Charles  III.  was  checked  by  the  French  revolutionary  wars  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  IV.,  and  afterwards  by  the  restoration  of 
civil  despotism  and  the  Inquisition,  brought  again  into  the  coun- 
try by  the  return  of  the  Bourbon  dynasty  in  1814.  Amidst  the 
violence  and  confusion  of  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  VII.  (1814— 
1833),  elegant  letters  could  hardly  hope  to  find  shelter  or  rest- 
ing-place. Nearly  every  poet  and  prose  writer,  known  as  such 
at  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Charles  IV.,  became  involved  in  the 
fierce  political  changes  of  the  time,  —  changes  so  various  and  so 
opposite,  that  those  who  escaped  from  the  consequences  of  one, 
were  often,  on  that  very  account,  sure  to  suffer  in  the  next  that 
followed.  Indeed,  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  VII.  was  an  inter- 
regnum in  all  elegant  culture,  such  as  no  modern  nation  has  yet 
seen,  —  not  even  Spain  herself  during  the  War  of  the  Succes- 
sion. This  state  of  things  continued  through  the  long  civil  war 
which  arose  soon  after  the  death  of  that  king,  and,  indeed,  it  is 
not  yet  entirely  abated.  But  in  despite  of  the  troubled  condi- 
tion of  the  country,  even  while  Ferdinand  was  living,  a  move- 
ment was  begun,  the  first  traces  of  which  are  to  be  found  among 
the  emigrated  Spaniards,  who  cheered  with  letters  their  exile  in 
England  and  France,  and  whose  subsequent  progress  from  the 
time  when  the  death  of  their  unfaithful  monarch  permitted  them 
to  return  home,  is  distinctly  perceptible  in  their  own  country. 

The  two  principal  writers  of  the  first  half  of  the  century  are 
the  satirist  Jose  de  Larra  (d.  1837),  and  the  poet  Espronceda 
(d.  1842)  ;  both  were  brilliant  writers,  and  both  died  young. 
Zorrilla  (b.  1817),  has  great  wealth  of  imagination,  and  Fernan 


334       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

Caballero  is  a  gifted  woman  whose  stories  have  heen  often  trans- 
lated. Antonio  de  Trueba  is  a  writer  of  popular  songs  and  short 
stories  not  without  merit.  Campoamor  (b.  1817)  and  Bequer 
represent  the  poetry  of  twenty  years  ago.  The  short  lyrics  of 
the  first  named  are  remarkable  for  their  delicacy  and  finesse. 
Bequer,  who  died  at  the  age  of  thirty,  left  behind  him  poems 
which  have  already  exercised  a  wide  influence  in  his  own 
country  and  in  Spanish  America ;  they  tell  a  story  of  passionate 
love,  despair,  and  death.  Perez  Galdos,  a  writer  of  fiction,  at- 
tacks the  problem  of  modern  life  and  thought,  and  represents 
with  vivid  and  often  bitter  fidelity  the  conflicting  interests  and 
passions  of  Spanish  life.  Valera,  the  present  minister  from 
Spain  to  the  United  States,  is  the  author  of  the  most  famous 
Spanish  novel  of  the  day,  "  Pepita  Jimenez,"  a  work  of  great 
artistic  perfection,  and  his  skill  and  grace  are  still  more  evident 
in  his  critical  essays.  Castelar  has  gained  a  European  celebrity 
as  an  orator  and  a  political  and  miscellaneous  writer.  The 
works  of  these  authors,  and  of  many  others  not  named,  show 
clearly  that  Spain  is  making  vigorous  efforts  to  bring  herself, 
socially  and  intellectually,  into  line  with  the  rest  of  Europe. 

Of  the  Spanish  colonies  Cuba  has  produced  some  writers  of 
enduring  renown.  The  most  distinguished  for  poetic  fame  is 
Gertrude  de  Avelleneda;  Heredia  and  Placido  may  also  be 
mentioned.  In  Venezuela,  Baralt  is  known  as  a  historian,  poet, 
and  classical  writer ;  Olmedo  as  a  poet  of  Bolivia,  and  Caro  a 
writer  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia. 


PORTUGUESE  LITERATURE. 

1.  The  Portuguese  Language. — 2.  Early  Literature  of  Portugal.  —3.  Poets  of  the 
Fifteenth  Century  ;  Macias,  Ribeyro.  —  4.  Introduction  of  the  Italian  Style ;  Saa  de 
Miranda,  Montemayor,  Ferreira.  — 5.  Epic  Poetry;  Camoens;  The  Lusiad.  —  6.  Dra- 
matic Poetry ;  Gil  Vicente.  —  7.  Prose  Writing ;  Rodriguez  Lobo,  Barros,  Brito,  Veira. 
—  8.  Portuguese  Literature  in  the  Seventeenth,  Eighteenth,  and  Nineteenth  Centuries  ; 
Antonio  Jose,  Manuel  do  Nascimento,  Manuel  de  Bocage. 

1.  THE  PORTUGUESE  LANGUAGE.  —  Portugal  was  long  con- 
sidered only  as  an  integral  part  of  Spain ;  its  inhabitants  called 
themselves  Spaniards,  and  conferred  on  their  neighbors  the  dis- 
tinctive appellation  of  Castilians.  Their  language  was  origi- 
nally the  same  as  the  Galician ;  and  had  Portugal  remained  a 
province  of  Spain,  its  peculiar  dialect  would  probably,  like  that 
of  Aragon,  have  been  driven  from  the  fields  of  literature  by 
the  Castilian.  But  at  the  close  of  the  eleventh  century,  Al- 
phonso  VI.,  celebrated  in  Spanish  history  for  his  triumphs  over 
the  Moors,  gave  Portugal  as  a  dowry  to  his  daughter  on  her 
marriage  with  Henry  of  Burgundy,  with  permission  to  call  his 
own  whatever  accessions  to  it  the  young  prince  might  be  able  to 
conquer  from  the  Moorish  territory.  Alphonso  Henriquez,  the 
son  of  this  pair,  was  saluted  King  of  Portugal  by  his  soldiers 
on  the  battle-field  of  Castro- Verd,  in  the  year  1139,  his  king- 
dom comprising  all  the  provinces  we  now  call  Portugal,  except 
the  province  of  Algarve.  Thenceforward  the  Portuguese  be- 
came a  separate  nation  from  the  Spaniards,  and  their  language 
asserted  for  itself  an  independent  existence.  Still,  however,  the 
Castilian  was  long  considered  the  proper  vehicle  for  literature  ; 
and  while  few  Portuguese  writers  wholly  disused  it,  there  were 
many  who  employed  no  other. 

Although  the  Portuguese  language,  founded  on  the  Galician 
dialect,  bears  much  similarity  to  the  Spanish  in  its  roots  and 
structure,  it  differs  widely  from  it  in  its  grammatical  combina- 
tions and  derivations,  so  that  it  constitutes  a  language  by  itself. 
It  has  far  more  French,  and  fewer  Basque  and  Arabic  elements 
than  the  Spanish ;  it  is  softer,  but  it  has,  at  the  same  time,  a 
truncated  and  incomplete  sound,  compared  with  the  sonorous 
beauty  of  the  Castilian,  and  a  predominance  of  nasal  sounds 
stronger  than  those  of  the  French.  It  is  graceful  and  easy  in 
its  construction,  but  it  is  the  least  energetic  of  all  the  Romance 
tongues. 


336       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

2.  EARLY  LITERATURE  OF  PORTUGAL.  —  The  people,  as  well 
as  the  language,  of  Portugal  possess  a  distinctive  character. 
Early  in  the  history  of  the  country  the  extensive  and  fertile 
plains  were  abandoned  to  pasturage,  and  the  number  of  shep- 
herds in  proportion  to  the  rest  of  the  population  was  so  great, 
that  the  idea  of  rural  life  among  them  was  always  associated 
with  the  care  of  flocks.  At  the  same  time,  their  long  extent  of 
coast  invited  to  the  pursuits  of  commerce  and  navigation ;  and 
the  nation,  thus  divided  into  hardy  navigators,  soldiers,  and  shep- 
herds, was  better  calculated  for  the  display  of  energy,  valor, 
and  enterprise  than  for  laborious  and  persevering  industry.  Ac- 
customed to  active  intercourse  with  society,  rather  than  to  the 
seclusion  of  castles,  they  were  far  less  haughty  and  fanatical 
than  the  Castilians  ;  and  the  greater  number  of  Mogarabians  that 
were  incorporated  among  them,  diffused  over  their  feelings  and 
manners  a  much  stronger  influence  of  orientalism.  The  passion 
of  love  seemed  to  occupy  a  larger  share  of  their  existence,  and 
their  poetry  was  more  enthusiastic  than  that  of  any  other  people 
of  Europe. 

Although  the  literature  of  Portugal,  like  the  character  of  its 
people,  is  marked  by  excessive  softness,  elegiac  sentimentality, 
and  an  undefined  melancholy,  it  affords  little  originality  in  the 
general  tone  of  its  productions.  Henry  of  Burgundy  and  his 
knights  early  introduced  Provencal  poetry,  and  the  native  genius 
was  nurtured  in  the  succeeding  age  by  Spanish  and  Italian  taste, 
and  afterwards  modified  by  the  influence  of  French  and  English 
civilization.  National  songs  were  not  wanting  in  the  early  his- 
tory of  the  country,  yet  no  relics  of  them  have  been  preserved. 
The  earliest  monuments  of  Portuguese  literature  relate  to  the 
age  of  the  French  knights  who  founded  the  political  independ- 
ence of  the  country,  and  must  be  sought  in  the  "  Cancioneros," 
containing  courtly  ballads  composed  in  the  Galician  dialect,  after 
the  Provengal  fashion,  and  sung  by  wandering  minstrels.  The 
Cancionero  of  King  Dionysius  (1279—1325)  is  the  most  ancient 
of  those  collections,  the  king  himself  being  considered  by  the 
Portuguese  as  the  earliest  poet.  In  fact,  Galician  poetry,  mod- 
eled after  the  Provencal,  was  cultivated  at  that  time  all  along 
the  western  portion  of  the  Pyrenean  peninsula.  Alfonso  the 
Wise,  King  of  Castile,  used  this  dialect  in  his  poems ;  and  as  a 
poet  and  patron  of  the  Spanish  troubadours,  he  may  be  consid- 
ered as  belonging  both  to  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  litera- 
tures. 

In  the  fourteenth  and  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century,  Por- 
tuguese poetry  preserved  its  Provencal  character.  The  poets 
rallied  around  the  court,  and  the  kings  and  princes  of  the  age 
sang  to  the  Proven9al  lyre  both  in  the  Castilian  and  the  Galician 


PORTUGUESE  LITERATURE.  337 

dialects ;  but  only  a  few  fragments  of  the  poetry  of  the  four- 
teenth century  are  extant. 

3.  POETS  OF  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.  —  Early  in  the  fif- 
teenth century,  the  same  chivalrous  spirit  which  had  achieved 
the  conquest  of  the  country  from  the  Moors,  led  the  Portuguese 
to  cross  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  plant  their  banner  on  the 
walls  of  Ceuta.  Many  other  cities  of  Africa  were  afterwards 
taken ;  and  in  1487,  Bartolomeo  Diaz  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  and  Vasco  da  Gama  pointed  out  to  Europe  the  hitherto 
unknown  track  to  India.  Within  fifteen  years  after,  a  Portu- 
guese kingdom  was  founded  in  Hindostan,  and  the  treasures  of 
the  East  flowed  into  Portugal.  The  enthusiasm  of  the  people 
was  thus  awakened,  and  high  views  of  national  importance,  and 
high  hopes  of  national  glory,  arose  in  the  public  mind.  The  time 
was  peculiarly  favorable  to  the  development  of  genius,  and  es- 
pecially to  the  spirit  of  poetry.  Indeed,  the  last  part  of  the  fif- 
teenth century,  and  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth,  the  age  of 
King  John  (1481-1495),  and  of  Emanuel  (1495-1521),  may  be 
called  the  golden  age  of  the  Portuguese  poetry. 

At  the  head  of  the  poetical  school  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
stands  Macias,  surnamed  the  Enamored  (fl.  1420).  He  was  dis- 
tinguished as  a  hero  in  the  wars  against  the  Moors  of  Granada, 
and  as  a  poet  in  the  retinue  of  the  Marquis  of  Villena.  He  be- 
came attached  to  a  lady  of  the  same  princely  household,  who 
was  forced  to  marry  another.  Macias  continuing  to  express  his 
love,  though  prohibited  by  the  marquis  from  doing  so,  was, 
thrown  into  prison ;  but  even  there,  he  still  poured  forth  his 
songs  on  his  ill-fated  love,  regarding  the  hardships  of  captivity 
as  light,  in  comparison  with  the  pangs  of  absence  from  his  mis- 
tress. The  husband  of  the  lady,  stung  with  jealousy,  recogniz- 
ing Macias  through  the  bars  of  his  prison,  took  deadly  aim  at 
him  with  his  javelin,  and  killed  him  on  the  spot.  The  weapon 
was  suspended  over  the  poet's  tomb,  in  the  Church  of  St.  Cath- 
erine, with  the  inscription,  "  Here  lies  Macias  the  Enamored." 

The  death  of  Macias  produced  such  a  sensation  as  could  only 
belong  to  an  imaginative  age.  All  those  who  desired  to  be 
thought  cultivated  mourned  his  fate.  His  few  poems  of  moder- 
ate merit  became  generally  known  and  admired,  and  his  melan- 
choly history  continued  to  be  the  theme  of  songs  and  ballads, 
until,  in  the  poetry  of  Lope  de  Vega  and  Calderon,  the  name  of 
Macias  passed  into  a  proverb,  and  became  synonymous  with  the 
highest  and  tenderest  love. 

Ribeyro  (1495—1521),  one  of  the  earliest  and  best  poets  of 

Portugal,  was  attached  to  the  court  of  King  Emanuel.     Here 

he  indulged  a  passion  for  one  of  the  ladies  of  the  court,  which 

gave  rise  to  some  of  his  most  exquisite  effusions.    It  is  supposed 

22 


338       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

tlxat  the  lady,  whose  name  he  studiously  conceals,  was  the  In- 
fanta Beatrice,  the  king's  own  daughter.  He  was  so  wholly  de- 
voted to  the  object  of  his  love,  that  he  is  said  to  have  passed 
whole  nights  wandering  in  the  woods,  or  beside  the  banks  of  a 
solitary  stream,  pouring  forth  the  tale  of  his  woes  in  strains  of 
mingled  tenderness  and  despair.  The  most  celebrated  produc- 
tions of  Ribeyro  are  eclogues.  The  scene  is  invariably  laid  in 
his  own  country ;  his  shepherds  are  all  Portuguese,  and  his  peas- 
ant girls  have  Christian  names.  But  under  the  disguise  of  fic- 
titious characters,  he  evidently  sought  to  place  before  the  eyes 
of  his  beloved  mistress  the  feelings  of  his  own  breast ;  and  the 
wretchedness  of  an  impassioned  lover  is  always  his  favorite 
theme. 

The  bucolic  poets  of  Portugal  may  be  regarded  as  the  earliest 
in  Europe,  and  their  favorite  creed,  that  pastoral  life  was  the 
poetical  model  of  human  life,  and  the  ideal  point  from  which 
every  sentiment  and  passion  ought  to  be  viewed,  was  first  repre- 
sented by  Ribeyro.  This  idea  threw  an  air  of  romantic  sweet- 
ness and  elegance  over  the  poetry  of  the  sixteenth  century,  but 
at  the  same  tune  it  gave  to  it  a  monotonous  tone  and  an  air  of 
tedious  affectation. 

4.  INTRODUCTION  OF  THE  ITALIAN  STYLE.  —  The  poet  who 
first  introduced  the  Italian  style  into  Portuguese  poetry  was  so 
successful  in  seizing  the  delicate  tone  by  which  the  blending  of 
the  two  was  to  be  effected  that  the  innovation  was  accomplished 
•without  a  struggle.  Saa  de  Miranda  (1495-1558)  was  one  of 
the  most  pleasing  and  accomplished  men  of  his  age.  He  trav- 
eled extensively,  and  on  his  return  was  attached  to  the  court  of 
Lisbon.  It  is  related  of  him  that  he  would  often  sit  silent  and 
abstracted  in  company,  and  that  tears,  of  which  no  one  knew 
the  cause,  would  flow  from  his  eyes,  while  he  seemed  uncon- 
scious of  the  circumstance,  and  indifferent  to  the  observation  he 
was  thus  attracting.  These  emotions  were  of  course  attributed 
to  poetic  thought  and  romantic  attachments.  He  insisted  on 
marrying  a  lady  who  was  neither  young  nor  handsome,  and 
whom  he  had  never  seen,  having  been  captivated  by  her  repu- 
tation for  amiability  and  discretion.  He  became  so  attached  to 
her,  that  when  she  died  he  renounced  all  his  previous  pursuits 
and  purposes  in  life,  remained  inconsolable,  and  soon  followed 
her  to  the  grave.  Miranda  is  chiefly  celebrated  for  his  lyric 
and  pastoral  poetry. 

Montemayor  was  a  contemporary  of  Miranda,  and  a  native  of 
Portugal,  but  he  declined  holding  any  literary  position  in  his 
own  country.  The  pastoral  romance  of  "  Diana,"  written  in  the 
Castilian  language,  is  his  most  celebrated  work.  It  was  received 
with  great  favor,  and  extensively  imitated.  With  many  faults, 


PORTUGUESE  LITERATURE.  339 

it  possesses  a  high  degree  of  poetic  merit,  and  is  entitled  to  the 
esteem  of  all  ages. 

Ferreira  (1528-1569)  has  been  called  the  Horace  of  Portu- 
gal. His  works  are  correct  and  elegant,  but  they  are  wanting 
in  those  higher  efforts  of  genius  which  strike  the  imagination 
and  fire  the  spirit.  The  glory,  advancement,  and  civilization  of 
his  country  were  his  darling  themes,  and  it  was  this  enthusiasm 
of  patriotism  that  made  him  great.  In  his  tragedy  of  Inez  de 
Castro,  Ferreira  raised  himself  far  above  his  Italian  contempo- 
raries. Many  similar  writers  shed  a  lustre  on  this,  the  brightest 
and  indeed  the  only  brilliant  period  of  Portuguese  literature ; 
but  they  are  all  more  remarkable  for  taste  and  elegance  than  for 
richness  of  invention. 

5.  EPIC  POETRY.  —  The  chief  and  only  boast  of  his  country, 
the  sole  poet  whose  celebrity  has  extended  beyond  the  peninsula, 
and  whose  name  appears  in  the  list  of  those  who  have  conferred 
honor  upon  Europe,  is  Luis  de  Camoens  (1524-1579).  He  was 
descended  from  a  noble,  but  by  no  means  a  wealthy  family. 
After  having  completed  his  studies  at  the  university,  he  conceived 
a  passion  for  a  lady  of  the  court,  so  violent  that  for  some  time 
he  renounced  all  literary  and  worldly  pursuits.  He  entered  the 
military  service,  and  in  an  engagement  before  Ceuta,  in  which 
he  greatly  distinguished  himself,  he  lost  an  eye.  Neglected  and 
contemned  by  his  country,  he  embarked  for  the  East  Indies. 
After  various  vicissitudes  there,  he  wrote  a  bitter  satire  on  the 
government,  which  occasioned  his  banishment  to  the  island  of 
Macao,  where  he  remained  for  five  years,  and  where  he  com- 
pleted the  great  work  which  was  to  hand  down  his  name  to  pos- 
terity. There  is  still  to  be  seen,  on  the  most  elevated  point  of 
the  isthmus  which  unites  the  town  of  Macao  to  the  Chinese  con- 
tinent, a  sort  of  natural  gallery  formed  out  of  the  rocks,  appar- 
ently almost  suspended  in  the  air,  and  commanding  a  magnifi- 
cent prospect  over  both  seas,  and  the  lofty  chain  of  mountains 
which  rises  above  their  shores.  Here  he  is  said  to  have  invoked 
the  genius  of  the  epic  muse,  and  tradition  has  conferred  on  this 
retreat  the  name  of  the  Grotto  of  Camoens. 

On  his  return  to  Goa,  Camoens  was  shipwrecked,  and  of  all 
his  little  property,  he  succeeded  only  in  saving  the  manuscript 
of  the  Lusiad,  which  he  bore  in  one  hand  above  the  water,  while 
swimming  to  the  shore.  Soon  after  reaching  Goa,  he  was  thrown 
into  prison  upon  some  unjust  accusation,  and  suffered  for  a  long 
time  to  linger  there.  At  length  released,  he  took  passage  for 
his  native  country,  which  he  reached  after  an  absence  of  sixteen 
years.  Portugal  was  at  this  time  ravaged  by  the  plague,  and 
in  the  universal  sorrow  and  alarm,  the  poet  and  his  great  work 
were  alike  neglected.  The  king  at  length  consented  to  accept 


340       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

the  dedication  of  this  poem,  and  made  to  the  author  the  wretched 
return  of  a  pension,  amounting  to  about  twenty-five  dollars. 
Camoens  was  not  unfrequently  in  actual  want  of  bread,  for  which 
he  was  in  part  indebted  to  a  black  servant  who  had  accompanied 
Mm  from  India,  and  who  was  in  the  habit  of  stealing  out  at  night 
to  beg  in  the  streets  for  what  might  support  his  master  during 
the  following  day.  But  more  aggravated  evils  were  in  store  for 
the  unfortunate  poet  The  young  king  perished  in  the  disas- 
trous expedition  against  Morocco,  and  with  him  expired  the 
royal  house  of  Portugal.  The  independence  of  the  nation  was 
lost,  her  glory  eclipsed,  and  the  future  pregnant  with  calamity 
and  disgrace.  Camoens,  who  had  so  nobly  supported  his  own 
misfortunes,  sank  under  those  of  his  country.  He  was  seized 
with  a  violent  fever,  and  expired  in  a  public  hospital  without 
having  a  shroud  to  cover  his  remains. 

The  poem  on  which  the  reputation  of  Camoens  depends,  is 
entitled  "Os  Lusiadas ; "  that  is,  the  Lusitanians  (or  Portu- 
guese), and  its  design  is  to  present  a  poetic  and  epic  grouping 
of  all  the  great  and  interesting  events  in  the  annals  of  Portugal. 
The  discovery  of  the  passage  to  India,  the  most  brilliant  point 
in  Portuguese  history,  was  selected  as  the  groundwork  of  the 
epic  unity  of  the  poem.  But  with  this,  and  the  Portuguese  con- 
quests in  India,  the  author  combined  all  the  illustrious  actions 
performed  by  his  countrymen  in  other  quarters  of  the  world,  and 
whatever  of  splendid  and  heroic  achievement  history  or  tradi- 
tion could  supply.  Vasco  da  Gama  has  been  represented  as  the 
hero  of  the  work,  and  those  portions  not  immediately  connected 
with  his  expedition,  as  episodes.  But  there  is,  in  truth,  no 
other  leading  subject  than  the  country,  and  no  episodes  except 
such  parts  as  are  not  immediately  connected  with  her  glory. 
Camoens  was  familiar  with  the  works  of  his  Italian  contempo- 
raries, but  the  circumstance  that  essentially  distinguishes  him 
from  them,  and  which  forms  the  everlasting  monument  of  his 
own  and  his  country's  glory,  is  the  national  love  and  pride 
breathing  through  the  whole  work.  His  patriotic  spirit,  devot- 
ing a  whole  life  to  raise  a  monument  worthy  of  his  country, 
seems  never  to  have  indulged  a  thought  which  was  not  true  to 
the  glory  of  an  ungrateful  nation. 

The  Greek  mythology  forms  the  epic  machinery  of  the  Lu- 
siad.  Vasco  da  Gama,  having  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
is  steering  along  the  western  coast  of  Africa,  when  the  gods 
assemble  on  Mount  Olympus  to  deliberate  on  the  fate  of  India. 
Venus  and  Bacchus  form  two  parties  ;  the  former  in  favor,  the 
latter  opposed  to  the  Portuguese.  The  poet  thus  gratified  his 
national  pride,  as  Portugal  was  eminently  the  land  of  love,  and 
moderation  in  the  use  of  wine  was  one  of  its  highest  virtues. 


PORTUGUESE  LITERATURE.  341 

Bacchus  lays  many  snares  to  entrap  and  ruin  the  adventurers, 
who  are  warned  and  protected  by  Venus.  He  visits  the  palace 
of  the  gods  of  the  sea,  who  consent  to  let  loose  the  Winds  and 
Waves  upon  the  daring  adventurers,  but  she  summons  her 
nymphs,  and  adorning  themselves  with  garlands  of  the  sweetest 
flowers,  they  subdue  the  boisterous  Winds,  who,  charmed  by  the 
blandishments  of  love,  become  calm.  Vasco  is  hospitably  re- 
ceived by  the  African  king  of  Melinda,  to  whom  he  relates  the 
most  interesting  parts  of  the  history  of  his  native  country.  On 
the  homeward  voyage,  Venus  prepares  a  magic  festival  for  the 
adventurers,  on  an  enchanted  island,  and  the  goddess  Thetis  be- 
comes the  bride  of  the  admiral.  Here  the  poet  finds  the  oppor- 
tunity to  complete  the  narrative  of  his  country's  history,  and  a 
prophetic  nymph  is  brought  forward  to  describe  the  future 
achievements  of  the  nation  from  that  period  to  the  time  of  Cam- 
oens. 

The  Lusiad  is  one  of  the  noblest  monuments  ever  raised  to 
the  national  glory  of  any  people,  and  it  is  difficult  to  conceive 
how  so  grand  and  beautiful  a  whole  could  be  formed  on  a  plan 
so  trivial  and  irregular.  The  plan  has  been  compared  to  a  scaf- 
folding surrounded  and  concealed  by  a  majestic  building,  serv- 
ing to  connect  its  parts,  but  having  no  share  in  producing  the 
unity  of  the  effect.  One  of  the  most  affecting  and  beautiful  of 
all  the  passages  of  the  Lusiad,  is  the  narrative  of  the  tragical 
fate  of  Inez  de  Castro,  who,  after  her  death,  was  proclaimed 
queen  of  Portugal,  upon  the  accession  of  her  lover  to  the  throne. 

In  the  poems  of  Camoens  we  find  examples  of  every  species 
of  composition  practiced  in  his  age  and  country.  Some  of  them 
bear  the  impress  of  his  personal  character,  and  of  his  sad  and 
agitated  career.  A  wild  tone  of  sorrow  runs  through  them, 
which  strikes  the  ear  like  wailings  heard  through  the  gloom  of 
midnight  and  darkness.  We  know  not  by  what  calamity  they 
were  called  forth,  but  it  is  the  voice  of  grief,  and  it  awakens  an 
answering  throb  within  the  breast. 

6.  DRAMATIC  POETRY.  —  The  drama  is  quite  a  barren  field 
in  Portuguese  literature.  The  stage  of  Lisbon  has  been  occupied 
almost  exclusively  by  the  Italian  opera  and  Spanish  comedy. 
Only  one  poet  of  any  name  has  written  in  the  Portuguese  spirit. 
This  was  Gil  Vicente  (1490-1556).  He  resided  constantly  at 
the  court,  and  was  employed  in  providing  occasional  pieces  for 
its  civil  and  religious  festivities.  It  is  probable  that  he  was  an 
actor,  and  it  is  certain  that  he  educated  for  the  stage  his  daugh- 
ter, Paula,  who  was  equally  celebrated  as  an  actress,  a  poetess, 
and  a  musician.  The  dramas  of  Vicente  consist  of  autos,  come- 
dies, tragi-cbmedies,  and  farces.  The  autos,  or  religious  pieces, 
were  written  chiefly  to  furnish  entertainment  for  the  court  on 


342       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

Christmas  night.  The  shepherds  had  naturally  an  important 
part  assigned  to  them,  and  the  whole  was  pervaded  hy  the  pas- 
toral feeling  which  distinguishes  them  remarkably  from  the 
Spanish  autos.  But  the  best  productions  of  this  author  are  his 
farces,  which  approach  much  nearer  to  the  style  of  true  comedy 
than  the  plays  published  under  that  name. 

Saa  de  Miranda,  desirous  of  conferring  on  his  country  a  clas- 
sical theatre,  produced  two  erudite  comedies,  but  he  was  born  a 
pastoral  poet,  and  made  himself  a  dramatist  only  by  imitation. 
Ferreira  belonged  to  the  same  school,  and  the  favor  bestowed 
by  the  court  on  the  dramas  of  these  two  poets,  was  one  obstacle 
to  the  formation  of  a  national  drama.  Another  was,  the  perti- 
nacious attachment  of  the  Portuguese  to  pastoral  poetry,  and 
nothing  could  be  more  contrary  to  dramatic  life  than  the  languor, 
sentimentality,  and  monotony  peculiar  to  the  eclogue. 

7.  PROSE  WRITING.  —  After  Camoens,  Saa  de  Miranda,  and 
Ferreira,  the  language  and  the  literature  of  Portugal  are  in- 
debted to  no  other  writer  so  much  as  to  Rodriguez  Lobo  (b. 
1558).  The  history  of  Portuguese  eloquence  may  be  said  to 
commence  with  him,  for  he  laid  so  good  a  foundation  for  the 
cultivation  of  a  pure  prose  style  that,  in  every  effort  to  obtain 
classic  perfection,  subsequent  writers  have  merely  followed  in 
his  steps.  His  verse  is  nowise  inferior  to  his  prose.  Among 
his  poetic  works  appears  a  whole  series  of  historic  romances, 
written  by  way  of  ridiculing  that  species  of  composition. 

Lobo  stood  alone,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  in  his  efforts  to 
improve  the  prose  of  his  country.  Gongorism  had,  meanwhile, 
introduced  bombast  and  metaphorical  obscurity,  and  no  writer 
of  eminence  arose  to  attempt  a  more  natural  style,  till  the  end  of 
the  seventeenth  century. 

Foremost  among  those  who  undertook  to  relate  the  history  of 
their  country,  especially  of  her  oriental  discoveries,  and  who 
communicated  to  their  records  an  ardent  patriotic  feeling,  is 
Barros  (1496-1571) ;  he  took  Livy  for  his  model,  and  his  labors 
are  worthy  of  honorable  notice.  India  was  the  favorite  topic  of 
Portuguese  historians ;  and  several  similar  works,  but  inferior  to 
that  of  Barros,  appeared  in  the  same  age.  Bernardo  de  Brito 
(d.  1617)  undertook  the  task  of  compiling  a  history  of  Portugal. 
His  narration  begins  with  the  creation  of  the  world,  and  breaks 
off  where  the  history  of  modern  Portugal  commences.  It  is  em- 
inently distinguished  for  style  and  descriptive  talent.  The  biog- 
raphy of  Juan  de  Castro,  written  by  Jacinto  de  Andrade,  is  con- 
sidered as  a  masterpiece  of  the  Portuguese  prose. 

The  conquered  Indians  found  an  eloquent  defender  in  Veira 
(1608-1697),  a  Catholic  missionary,  who  spent  a  great  part  of 
his  life  in  the  deserts  of  South  America,  and  wrote  catechisms 


PORTUGUESE  LITERATURE.  343 

in  different  languages  for  the  use  of  the  natives.  Having  re- 
turned to  the  court  of  John  IV.,  he  undertook  to  defend  the  nat- 
ural rights  of  Indians  against  the  rapacity  of  the  conquerors. 
He  undertook  also  the  defense  of  the  Jews  in  his  native  country, 
and  showed  so  much  interest  in  their  cause  that  he  was  twice 
brought  before  the  Inquisition.  His  sermons  and  letters  are 
models  of  prose  writings,  full  of  the  inspiration  which  springs 
from  the  boldness  of  his  subjects. 

8.  PORTUGUESE  LITERATURE  IN  THE  SEVENTEENTH,  EIGH- 
TEENTH, AND  NINETEENTH  CENTURIES.  —  Portuguese  literature 
during  the  seventeenth  century  would  present  an  utter  blank, 
but  for  the  few  literary  productions  to  which  we  have  alluded. 
Previous  to  that  tune,  patriotic  valor  and  romantic  enterprise 
expanded  the  national  genius  ;  but  before  it  could  mature,  the 
despotism  of  the  monarchy,  the  horrors  of  the  Inquisition,  and  the 
influence  of  wealth  and  luxury,  had  done  their  work  of  destruc- 
tion, and  the  prostrate  nation  had  in  the  seventeenth  century 
reaped  the  bitter  fruits.  The  most  brilliant  period  of  Portuguese 
poetry  had  passed  away,  and  no  new  era  commenced.  The 
flame  of  patriotism  was  extinct,  Brazil  was  the  only  colony  that 
remained,  the  spirit  of  national  enterprise  was  no  more,  and  a 
general  lethargy  overspread  the  nation.  Labor  was  reckoned  a 
disgrace,  commerce  a  degradation,  and  agriculture  too  fatiguing 
for  even  the  lowest  classes  of  the  community.  Both  Spain  and 
Portugal  felt  the  paralyzing  influence  of  their  humbled  position 
in  the  scale  of  nations,  and  civil  and  religious  despotism  had 
overthrown,  in  both  countries,  the  intellectual  power  which  had 
so  long  withstood  its  degrading  influence. 

Thousands  of  sonnets,  chiefly  of  an  amorous  nature,  filled  up 
the  seventeenth  century  in  Portugal,  while  Spain  was  exhaust- 
ing its  expiring  energies  in  dramas.  Souza,  the  most  eminent 
of  the  sonneteers,  alone  produced  six  hundred.  In  the  first,  he 
announces  that  the  collection  is  designed  to  celebrate  "  the  pen- 
etrating shafts  of  love,  which  were  shot  from  a  pair  of  heavenly 
eyes,  and  which,  after  inflicting  immortal  wounds,  issued  tri- 
umphant from  the  poet's  breast." 

In  the  eighteenth  century,  the  influence  of  French  taste  crept 
quietly  into  the  literature  as  well  as  the  manners  of  the  Portu- 
guese nation.  Royal  academies  of  history  and  language  were 
founded,  and  an  academy  of  sciences,  which,  since  1792,  has 
exercised  an  influence  over  literary  taste,  and  given  birth  to 
many  excellent  treatises  on  philosophy  and  criticism. 

About  the  year  1735,  the  nation  seemed  on  the  eve  of  pos- 
sessing a  drama  of  its  own.  Antonio  Jose,  an  obscure  Jew, 
composed  a  number  of  comic  operas,  in  the  vernacular  tongue, 
which  had  long  been  banished  from  the  theatre  of  Lisbon.  In 


344       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

spite  of  much  coarseness,  their  genuine  humor  and  familiar 
gayety  excited  the  greatest  enthusiasm,  and  for  ten  years  the 
theatre  was  crowded  with  delighted  audiences.  But  the  Jew 
was  seized  and  burnt,  by  order  of  the  Inquisition,  at  the  last 
auto  da  fe,  which  took  place  in  1745,  and  the  theatre  was 
closed. 

Although  French  literature  continued  to  exert  its  influence  in 
the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  masterpieces  of  English 
literature  at  that  time  found  their  way  into  Portugal,  and  ex- 
cited much  admiration  and  imitation.  Manuel  do  Nascimento 
(1734-1819)  is  the  representative  of  the  classic  style,  and  his 
works,  both  in  poetry  and  prose,  are  distinguished  by  purity  of 
language.  Manuel  de  Bocage  (1766—1805)  is  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  modern  poets,  and  though  his  poems  are  not  exam- 
ples of  refined  taste  or  elegance  of  style,  they  evince  enthusiasm 
and  poetical  fire.  Among  the  poets  of  the  present  day,  there 
are  some  who  have  emancipated  themselves  from  the  imitation 
of  foreign  models,  and  have  attempted  to  combine  the  earliest 
national  elements  of  their  literature  with  the  characteristic  ten- 
dencies of  the  present  age. 


FINNISH  LITERATURE. 

1.  The  Finnish  Language  and  Literature :  Poetry  ;  the  Kalevala  ;  Lonnrot ;  Korhonen. 
—  2.  The  Hungarian  Language  and  Literature:  the  Age  of  Stephen  I.  ;  Influence  of  the 
House  of  Anjou  ;  of  the  Reformation  ;  of  the  House  of  Austria ;  Kossuth  ;  Josika ;  Ecit- 
vos  :  Kuthy  ;  Szigligeti ;  Petofi. 

1.  THE  FINNISH  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE.  — On  pass- 
ing northward  from  the  Iranian  plateaux  through  Turan  to  the 
Uralian  mountains,  which  separate  Europe  and  Asia,  we  arrive 
at  the  primitive  seat  of  the  Finnish  race.  Driven  westward  by 
other  invading  tribes,  it  scattered  through  northern  Europe, 
and  established  itself  more  particularly  in  Finland,  where,  at 
the  present  time,  we  find  its  principal  stock.  From  the  earliest 
period  of  the  history  of  the  Finns,  until  the  middle  of  the  twelfth 
century,  they  lived  under  their  own  independent  kings.  They 
were  then  subjected  by  the  Swedes,  who  established  colonies 
upon  their  coasts,  and  introduced  Christianity  among  them. 
After  having  been  for  many  centuries  the  theatre  of  Russian 
and  Swedish  wars,  in  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  Fin- 
land passed  under  the  dominion  of  Russia ;  yet,  through  these 
ages  of  foreign  domination,  its  inhabitants  preserved  their 
national  character,  and  maintained  the  use  of  their  native 
tongue. 

The  Finnish  language  is  a  branch  of  the  Turanian  family  ;  it 
is  written  with  the  Roman  alphabet,  but  it  has  fewer  sounds  ;  it 
is  complicated  in  its  declension  and  conjugation,  but  it  has  great 
capacity  of  expressing  compound  ideas  in  one  word  ;  it  is  har- 
monious in  sound,  and  free,  yet  clear,  in  its  construction. 

The  Finns  at  an  early  period  had  attained  a  high  degree  of 
civilization,  and  they  have  always  been  distinguished  for  their 
love  of  poetry,  especially  for  the  melancholy  strains  of  the  elegy. 
They  possess  a  vast  number  of  popular  songs  or  ballads,  which 
are  either  lyrical  or  mythological ;  they  are  sung  by  the  song- 
men,  to  the  kantele,  a  kind  of  harp  with  five  wire  strings,  a  fa- 
vorite national  instrument.  They  have  also  legends,  tales,  and 
proverbs,  some  of  which  have  recently  been  collected  and  pub- 
lished at  Helsingfors,  the  capital  of  Finland. 

The  great  monument  of  Finnish  literature  is  the  "  Kalevala," 
a  kind  of  epic  poem,  which  was  arranged  in  a  systematic  collec- 
tion, and  given  to  the  world  in  1833,  by  Elias  Lonnrot  (d.  1884). 


346       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

He  wandered  from  place  to  place  in  the  remote  districts  of  Fin- 
land, living  with  the  peasants,  and  taking  down  from  their  lips 
the  popular  songs  as  he  he'ard  them  chanted.  The  importance 
of  this  indigenous  epic  was  at  once  recognized,  and  translations 
were  made  in  various  languages.  The  poem,  whifeh  strongly 
resembles  "Hiawatha,"  takes  its  name  from  the  heroes  of  Ka- 
leva,  the  land  of  happiness  and  plenty,  who  struggle  with 
three  others  from  the  cold  north  and  the  land  of  death.  It  be- 
gins with  the  creation,  and  ends  in  the  triumph  of  the  heroes  of 
Kaleva.  Max  Mtiller  says  of  this  poem  that  it  possesses  merits 
not  dissimilar  to  those  of  the  Iliad,  and  that  it  will  claim  its 
place  as  the  fifth  national  epic  of  the  world,  beside  that  of  the 
"  Mahabharata,"  "  Shah  Nameh,"  and  "  Nibelungen."  It  is 
doubtless  the  product  of  different  minds  at  different  periods, 
having  evidently  received  additions  from  time  to  time. 

During  the  present  century  there  has  been  considerable  liter- 
ary activity  in  Finland,  and  we  meet  with  many  names  of  poets 
and  dramatists.  The  periodical  literature  is  specially  rich  and 
voluminous,  and  valuable  works  on  Finnish  history  and  geography 
have  recently  appeared.  Of  recent  poets  the  most  popular  is 
Korrhoinen,  a  peasant,  whose  productions  are  characterized  by 
their  sharp  and  biting  sarcasm.  The  prose  of  Finland  has  a 
religious  and  moral  character,  and  is  especially  enriched  by 
translations  from  Swedish  literature. 

2.  HUNGARIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE.  —  The  language 
of  the  Magyars  belongs  to  the  Turanian  family,  and  more  par- 
ticularly to  the  Finnish  branch.  The  Hungarian  differs  from 
most  European  languages  in  its  internal  structure  and  external 
form.  It  is  distinguished  by  harmony  and  energy  of  sound, 
richness  and  vigor  of  form,  regularity  of  inflexion,  and  power  of 
expression. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  seventh  century,  the  Magyars  emi- 
grated from  Asia  into  Europe,  and  for  two  hundred  years  they 
occupied  the  country  between  the  Don  and  Dneiper.  Being  at 
length  pressed  forward  by  other  emigrant  tribes,  they  entered 
and  established  themselves  in  Hungary,  after  subjugating  its 
former  inhabitants. 

In  the  year  1000,  Stephen  I.  founded  the  kingdom  of  Hun- 
gary. He  had  introduced  Christianity  into  the  country,  and 
with  it  a  knowledge  of  the  Latin  language,  which  was  now  taught 
in  the  schools  and  made  use  of  in  public  documents,  while  the 
native  idiom  was  spoken  by  the  people,  and  in  part  in  the  as- 
semblies of  the  Diet.  On  the  accession  of  the  House  of  Anjou 
to  the  throne  of  Hungary,  in  the  fourteenth  century,  a  new  im- 
pulse was  given  to  the  Hungarian  tongue.  The  Bible  was  trans- 
lated into  it,  and  it  became  the  language  of  the  court ;  although 


HUNGARIAN  LITERATURE.  347 

the  Latin  was  still  the  organ  of  the  church  and  state,  and  from 
the  fourteenth  to  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century  remained  the 
literary  language  of  the  country.  This  Latin  literature  boasted 
of  many  distinguished  writers,  but  so  little  influence  had  they  on 
the  nation  at  large,  that  during  this  period  it  appears  that  many 
of  the  high  officers  of  the  kingdom  could  neither  read  nor  write. 

The  sixteenth  century  was  more  favorable  to  Hungarian  liter- 
ature, and  the  political  and  religious  movements  which  took 
place  in  the  reign  cf  Ferdinand  I.  and  Maximilian  II.  (1527- 
1576)  proved  to  be  most  beneficial  to  the  intellectual  devel- 
opment of  the  people.  The  Reformation,  which  was  introduced 
into  Hungary  through  Bohemia,  the  example  of  this  neighbor- 
ing country,  and  the  close  alliance  which  existed  between  the 
two  people,  exercised  great  influence  on  the  public  mind.  The 
Hungarian  language  was  introduced  into  the  church,  the  schools, 
and  the  religious  controversies,  and  became  the  vehicle  of  sacred 
and  popular  poetry.  It  was  thus  enriched  and  polished,  and 
acquired  a  degree  of  perfection  which  it  retained  until  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Translations  of  the  Bible 
were  multiplied  ;  chronicles,  histories,  grammars,  and  dictiona- 
ries were  published,  and  the  number  of  schools,  particularly 
among  the  Protestants,  was  greatly  increased. 

But  these  brilliant  prospects  were  soon  blighted  when  the 
country  came  under  the  absolute  dominion  of  Austria.  In  order 
to  crush  the  national  tendencies  of  the  Magyars,  the  govern- 
ment now  restored  the  Latin  and  German  languages ;  and  news- 
papers, calendars,  and  publications  of  all  kinds,  including  many 
valuable  works,  appeared  in  Latin.  Indeed,  the  interval  from 
1702  to  1780  was  the  golden  age  of  this  literature  in  Hungary. 
Maria  Theresa  and  Joseph  II.,  however,  by  prescribing  the  use 
of  the  German  language  in  the  schools,  official  acts,  and  public 
transactions,  produced  a  reaction  in  favor  of  the  national  tongue, 
which  was  soon  after  taught  in  the  schools,  heard  in  the  lecture- 
room,  the  theatre,  and  popular  assemblies,  and  became  the 
organ  of  the  public  press.  These  measures,  however,  the  good 
effects  of  which  were  mainly  confined  to  the  higher  classes, 
were  gradually  pursued  with  less  zeal.  It  is  only  of  late  that 
the  literature  of  Hungary  has  assumed  a  popular  character,  and 
become  a  powerful  engine  for  the  advancement  of  political  ob- 
jects. 

Kossuth  may  be  considered  as  the  founder  of  a  national  party 
which  is  at  the  head  of  the  contemporary  literature  of  the  Mag- 
yars. Through  the  action  of  this  party  and  of  its  leader,  the 
Hungarian  Diet  passed,  in  1840,  the  celebrated  "  Law  of  the 
Language."  by  which  the  supremacy  of  the  Hungarian  tongue 
was  established,  and  its  use  prescribed  in  the  administration  and 


348      HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

in  the  institutions  of  learning.  From  1841  to  1844,  Kossuth 
published  a  paper,  in  which  the  most  serious  and  important 
questions  of  politics  and  economy  were  discussed  in  a  style 
characterized  by  great  elegance  and  simplicity,  and  by  a  fervid 
eloquence,  which  awakened  in  all  classes  the  liveliest  emotions  of 
patriotism  and  independence.  His  writings  greatly  enriched 
the  national  language,  and  excited  the  emulation  even  of  those 
who  did  not  accept  his  political  views.  His  memoirs,  lately 
published,  have  been  extensively  translated. 

The  novels  of  Josika  (1865).  modeled  after  those  of  Walter 
Scott,  the  works  of  Eotvos  and  Kemeny  after  the  writers  of 
Germany,,  and  those  of  Kuthy  and  others  who  have  followed 
the  French  school,  have  greatly  contributed  to  enrich  the  litera- 
ture of  Hungary.  The  comedies  and  the  dramas  of  Eotvos  and 
Gal,  and  particularly  those  of  Szigligeti,  show  great  progress  in 
the  Hungarian  theatre,  while  in  the  poems  of  Petofi  and  others 
is  heard  the  harmonious  yet  sorrowful  voice  of  the  national  muse. 

After  1849,  the  genius  of  Hungary  seemed  for  a  while  buried 
under  the  ruins  of  the  nation.  Many  of  the  most  eminent  writers 
either  fell  in  the  national  struggle,  or,  being  driven  into  exile, 
threw  aside  their  pens  in  despair.  But  the  intellectual  condition 
of  the  people  has  of  late  been  greatly  improved.  Public  educa- 
tion has  been  promoted,  scholastic  institutions  have  been  estab- 
lished, and  at  the  present  time  there  are  eloquent  voices  heard 
which  testify  to  the  presence  of  a  vigorous  life  latent  in  the  very 
heart  of  the  country. 

Among  many  other  writers  of  the  present  day,  are  Jokai 
(b.  1825),  the  author  of  various  historical  romances  which  have 
been  extensively  translated,  Varga,  a  lyric  poet,  and  Arany, 
perhaps  the  greatest  poet  Hungary  has  produced,  some  of  whose 
works  are  worthy  of  the  literature  of  any  age. 

3.  THE  TURKISH  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE.  —  The  Turks, 
or  Osmanlis,  are  descendants  of  the  Tartars,  and  their  language, 
which  is  a  branch  of  the  Turanian  family,  is  at  the  present  day 
the  commercial  and  political  tongue  throughout  the  Levant. 
This  language  is  divided  into  two  principal  dialects,  the  eastern 
and  the  western.  The  eastern,  though  rough  and  harsh,  has 
been  the  vehicle  of  certain  literary  productions,  of  which  the 
most  important  are  the  biographies  of  more  than  three  hundred 
ancient  poets,  written  by  Mir-Ali-Schir,  who  flourished  in  the 
middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  who  was  the  Maecenas  of 
several  Persian  poets,  particularly  of  Jami ;  several  historical 
memoirs,  and  a  number  of  ballads,  founded  on  the  traditions  of 
the  ancient  Turkish  tribes,  belong  also  to  the  literature  of  this 
dialect.  The  western  idiom  constitutes  what  is  more  properly 
called  the  Turkish  language.  It  is  euphonious  in  sound  and 


TURKISH  LITERATURE.  349 

regular  in  its  grammatical  forms,  though  poor  in  its  vocabulary. 
To  supply  its  deficiencies,  the  Osmanlis  have  introduced  many 
elements  of  the  Arabic  and  Persian.  They  have  also  adopted 
the  Arabic  alphabet,  with  some  alterations ;  and,  like  the  Arabi- 
ans, they  write  from  right  to  left. 

The  literature  of  Turkey,  although  it  is  extremely  rich,  con- 
tains little  that  is  original  or  national,  but  is  a  successful  imita- 
tion of  Persian  or  Arabic.  Even  before  the  capture  of  Constan- 
tinople works  had  been  produced  which  the  nation  has  not  let 
perish.  The  most  flourishing  period  was  during  the  reign  of 
Solyman  the  Magnificent  and  his  son  Selim  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  Fasli  (d.  1563)  was  an  erotic  poet,  who  attained  a 
high  reputation ;  and  Baki  (d.  1600),  a  lyric  poet,  is  ranked  by 
the  Orientals  with  the  Persian  Hafiz.  In  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury a  new  period  of  literature  arose,  though  inferior  to  the  last. 
Nebi  was  the  most  admired  poet,  Nefi  a  distinguished  satirist, 
and  Hadji  Khalfa  a  historian  of  Arabic,  Persian,  and  Turkish  lit- 
erature, who  is  the  chief  authority  upon  this  subject  for  the  East 
and  West.  The  annals  of  Saad-El-Din  (d.  1599)  are  important 
for  the  student  of  the  history  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  The  style 
of  these  writers,  however,  is  for  the  most  part  bombastic,  con- 
sisting of  a  mixture  of  poetry  and  prose  overladen  with  figures. 
Novels  and  tales  abound  in  this  literature,  and  it  affords  many 
specimens  of  geographical  works,  many  important  collections  of 
juridical  decisions,  and  valuable  researches  on  the  Persian  and 
Arabian  languages. 

The  press  was  introduced  into  Constantinople  early  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  and  has  been  actively  engaged  in  publishing 
translations  of  the  most  important  works  in  Persian  and  Arabic, 
as  well  as  in  the  native  tongue.  Societies  are  established  for 
the  promotion  of  various  branches  of  science,  and  many  scientific 
and  literary  journals  are  published.  There  are  numerous  pri- 
mary free  schools  and  high  scholastic  institutions  in  Constanti- 
nople, and  some  public  libraries. 

4.  THE  ARMENIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE.  —  The 
language  of  Armenia  belongs  to  the  Indo-European  family,  and 
particularly  to  the  Iranian  variety ;  but  it  has  been  greatly  modi- 
fied by  contact  with  other  languages,  especially  the  Turkish.  At 
present  the  modern  dialect  is  spoken  in  southern  Russia  around 
the  sea  of  Azof,  in  Turkey,  Galicia,  and  Hungary.  The  ancient 
Armenian,  which  was  spoken  down  to  the  twelfth  century,  is 
preserved  in  its  purity  in  the  ancient  books  of  the  people,  and  is 
still  used  in  their  best  works.  This  tongue,  owing  to  an  abun- 
dance of  consonants,  is  lacking  in  euphony ;  it  is  deficient  in 
distinction  of  gender,  though  it  is  redundant  in  cases  and  inflex- 
ions. Its  alphabet  is  modeled  after  the  Greek. 


350       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

The  Armenians,  from  the  earliest  period  of  their  existence, 
through  all  the  political  disasters  which  have  signalized  their 
history,  have  exhibited  a  strong  love  for  a  national  literature, 
and  maintained  themselves  as  a  cultivated  people  amidst  all  the 
revolutions  which  barbarism,  despotism,  and  war  have  occasioned. 
During  so  many  ages  they  have  faithfully  preserved  not  only 
their  historical  traditions,  reaching  back  to  the  period  of  the 
ancient  Hebrew  histories,  but  also  their  national  character. 
Their  first  abode  —  the  vicinity  of  Mount  Ararat  —  is  even  at 
the  present  day  the  centre  of  their  religious  and  political  union. 
Commerce  has  scattered  them,  like  the  Israelites,  among  all 
nations,  but  without  debasing  their  character ;  on  the  contrary, 
they  are  distinguished  by  superior  cultivation,  manners,  and 
honesty  from  the  barbarians  under  whose  yoke  they  live.  The 
cause  is  to  be  found  in  their  creed  and  in  their  religious  union. 

Until  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  A.  D.  the  Armenians 
were  Parsees ;  the  literature  of  the  country  up  to  this  period  was 
contained  in  a  few  songs  or  ballads,  and  its  civilization  was  only 
that  which  could  be  wrought  out  by  the  philosophy  of  Zoroaster. 
In  319,  when  Christianity  was  introduced  into  Armenia,  the 
language  and  learning  of  the  Greeks  were  exciting  the  profound 
admiration  of  the  most  eminent  fathers  of  the  church,  and  this 
attention  to  Greek  literature  was  immediately  manifest  in  the 
literary  history  of  Armenia.  A  multitude  of  Grecian  works 
was  translated,  commented  upon,  and  their  philosophy  adopted, 
and  the  literature  was  thus  established  upon  a  Grecian  basis. 

About  the  same  period,  the  alphabet  at  present  in  use  in  the 
Armenian  language  was  invented,  or  the  old  alphabet  perfected 
by  Mesrob,  in  connection  with  which  the  language  underwent 
many  modifications.  Mesrob,  with  his  three  sons,  especially 
educated  for  the  task,  commenced  the  translation  of  the  Bible 
411  A.  D.,  and  its  completion  nearly  half  a  century  later  gave  a 
powerful  impulse  to  Armenian  learning,  and  at  the  same  time 
stamped  upon  it  a  religious  character  which  it  has  never  lost. 
The  period  from  the  sixth  to  the  tenth  century  is  the  golden  age 
of  this  literature.  Its  temporary  decline  after  this  period  was 
owing  to  the  invasion  of  the  Arabians,  when  many  of  the  inhab- 
itants were  converted  to  the  Mohammedan  faith  and  many  more 
compelled  to  suffer  persecution  for  their  refusal  to  abjure  Chris- 
tianity. After  the  subjection  of  Armenia  to  the  Greek  empire, 
literature  again  revived,  and  until  the  fourteenth  century  was  in 
a  flourishing  condition.  In  1375,  when  the  Turks  took  posses- 
sion of  the  country,  the  inhabitants  were  again  driven  from  their 
homes,  and  from  that  time  their  literature  has  steadily  declined. 
After  their  emigration,  the  Armenians  established  themselves 
in  various  countries  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  amidst  all  th&dia* 


ARMENIAN  LITERATURE.  351 

advantages  of  their  position  they  still  preserve  not  only  the 
unity  of  their  religious  faith,  but  the  same  unwearied  desire  to 
sustain  a  national  literature.  Wherever  they  have  settled,  in 
Amsterdam,  Leghorn,  Venice,  Constantinople,  and  Calcutta, 
they  have  established  printing  presses  and  published  valuable 
books.  Of  their  colonies  or  monasteries,  the  most  interesting 
and  fruitful  in  literary  works  is  that  of  Venice,  which  was 
founded  in  the  eighteenth  century  by  Mechitar,  an  Armenian, 
and  from  him  its  monks  are  called  Mechitarists.  From  the 
time  of  their  establishment  they  have  constantly  issued  transla- 
tions of  important  religious  works.  They  now  publish  a  semi- 
monthly paper  in  the  Armenian  language,  which  is  circulated 
and  read  among  the  scattered  families  of  the  Armenian  faith 
over  the  world.  They  also  translate  and  publish  standard  works 
of  modern  literature. 

About  the  year  1840,  through  the  influence  of  American  mis- 
sionaries, the  Bible  was  translated  into  Armenian,  freed  as  far 
as  possible  from  foreign  elements  ;  school-books  were  also  trans- 
lated, newspapers  established,  and  the  language  awoke  to  new 
life.  Within  the  last  twenty  years  the  intellectual  progress  in 
Armenia  has  been  very  great.  In  1863  Christopher  Robert,  an 
American  gentleman,  established  and  endowed  a  college  at  Con- 
stantinople for  the  education  of  pupils  of  all  races,  religions,  and 
languages  found  in  the  empire.  This  institution,  not  sectarian, 
though  Christian,  has  met  with  great  success.  It  has  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  students  from  fifteen  nationalities,  though  chiefly 
Armenian,  Bulgarian,  and  Greek. 


SLAVIC   LITERATURES. 

The  Slavic  Race  and  Languages ;  the  Eastern  and  Western  Stems ;  the  Alphabets ; 
the  Old  or  Church  Slavic  Language  ;  St.  Cyril's  Bible  ;  the  Pravda  Russkaya  ;  the  Annals 
of  Nestor. 

THE  SLAVIC  RACE  AND  LANGUAGES.  —  The  Slavic  race, 
which  belongs  to  the  great  Indo-European  family  of  nations, 
probably  first  entered  Europe  from  Asia,  seven  or  eight  centu- 
ries B.  c.  About  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  A.  D.  we  find 
Slavic  tribes  crossing  the  Danube  in  great  multitudes,  and  set- 
tling on  both  the  banks  of  that  river ;  from  that  time  they  fre- 
quently appear  in  the  accounts  of  the  Byzantine  historians,  under 
different  appellations,  mostly  as  involved  in  the  wars  of  the  two 
Roman  empires  ;  sometimes  as  allies,  sometimes  as  conquerors, 
often  as  vassals,  and  oftener  as  emigrants  and  colonists,  thrust 
out  of  their  own  countries  by  the  pressing  forward  of  the  more 
warlike  Teutonic  tribes.  In  the  latter  half  of  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury the  Slavic  nations  were  already  in  possession  of  the  whole 
extent  of  territory  which  they  still  occupy,  from  the  Arctic  Ocean 
on  the  north  to  the  Black  and  Adriatic  seas  on  the  south,  and 
from  Kamtschatka  and  the  Russian  islands  of  the  Pacific  to  the 
Baltic,  and  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers  Elbe,  Muhr,  and  Ruab, 
again  to  the  Adriatic.  They  are  represented  by  early  historians 
as  having  been  a  peaceful,  industrious,  hospitable  people,  obe- 
dient to  their  chiefs,  and  religious  in  their  habits.  Wherever 
they  established  themselves,  they  began  to  cultivate  the  earth, 
and  to  trade  in  the  productions  of  the  country.  There  are  also 
early  traces  of  their  fondness  for  music  and  poetry. 

The  analogy  between  the  Slavic  and  the  Sanskrit  languages 
indicates  the  Oriental  origin  of  the  Slavonians,  which  appears 
also  from  their  mythology.  The  antithesis  of  a  good  and  evil 
principle  is  met  with  among  most  of  the  Slavic  tribes  ;  and  even 
at  the  present  time,  in  some  of  their  dialects,  everything  good 
and  beautiful  is  to  them  synonymous  with  the  purity  of  the  white 
color ;  they  call  the  good  spirit  the  White  God,  and  the  evil  spirit 
the  Black  God.  We  find  also  traces  of  their  Oriental  origin  in 
the  Slavic  trinity,  which  is  nearly  allied  to  that  of  the  Hindus. 
Other  features  of  their  mythology  remind  us  of  the  sprightly 
and  poetical  imagination  of  the  Greeks.  Such  is  the  life  at- 
tributed to  the  inanimate  objects  of  nature,  rocks,  brooks,  and 


RUSSIAN  LITERATURE.  353 

trees  ;  such  are  also  the  supernatural  beings  dwelling  in  the 
woods  and  mountains,  nymphs,  naiads,  and  satyrs.  Indeed,  the 
Slavic  languages,  in  their  construction,  richness,  and  precision, 
appear  nearly  related  to  the  Greek  and  Latin,  with  which  they 
have  a  common  origin. 

Following  the  division  of  the  Slavic  nations  into  the  eastern 
and  western  stems,  their  languages  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  the  first  containing  the  Russian  and  the  Servian  idioms, 
the  second  embracing  the  Bohemian  and  the  Polish  varieties. 
The  Slavi  of  the  Greek  faith  use  the  Cyrillic  alphabet,  so  called 
from  St.  Cyril,  its  inventor,  a  Greek  monk,  who  went  from  Con- 
stantinople (862  A.  D.)  to  preach  to  them  the  gospel.  It  is 
founded  on  the  Greek,  with  modifications  and  additions  from 
Oriental  sources.  The  Hieronymic  alphabet,  particularly  used 
by  the  priests  of  Dalmatia  and  Croatia,  is  so  called  from  the  tra- 
dition which  attributes  it  to  St.  Hieronymus.  The  Bohemians 
and  Poles  use  the  Roman  alphabet,  with  a  few  alterations. 

St.  Cyril  translated  the  Bible  into  the  language  called  the  Old 
or  Church  Slavic,  and  from  the  fact  that  this  translation,  made  in 
the  middle  of  the  ninth  century,  is  distinguished  by  great  copious- 
ness, and  bears  the  stamp  of  uncommon  perfection  in  its  forms, 
it  is  evident  that  this  language  must  have  been  flourishing  long 
before  that  time.  The  celebrated  "  Pravda  Russkaya,"  a  collec- 
tion of  the  laws  of  Jaroslav  (1035  A.  D.),  and  the  "  Annals  of 
Nestor,"  of  the  thirteenth  century,  are  the  most  remarkable 
monuments  of  the  old  Slavic  language.  This,  however,  has  for 
centuries  ceased  to  be  a  living  tongue. 


EUSSIAN  LITERATURE. 

1.  The  Language. — 2.  Literature  in  the  Reign  of  Peter  the  Great ;  of  Alexander;  of 
Nicholas;  Danilof,  Lomonosof,  Kheraskof,  Derzhavin,  Karamzin. — 3.  History,  Poetry, 
the  Drama:  Kostrof,  Dmitrief,  Zhukoffski,  Krylof,  Pushkin,  Lermontoff,  Gogol. — 
4.  Literature  in  Russia  since  the  Crimean  War  :  School  of  Nature ;  Turguenieff ;  Ultra- 
realistic  School ;  Science :  Mendelee'ff. 

1.  THE  LANGUAGE.  —  In  the  Russian  language  three  prin- 
cipal dialects  are  to  be  distinguished  ;  but  the  Russian  proper, 
as  it  is  spoken  in  Moscow  and  all  the  central  and  northern  parts 
of  European  Russia,  is  the  literary  language  of  the  nation.  It 
is  distinguished  by  its  immense  copiousness,  the  consequence  of 
its  great  flexibility  in  adopting  foreign  words,  merely  as  roots, 
from  which,  by  means  of  its  own  resources,  stems  and  branches 
seem  naturally  to  spring.  Another  excellence  is  the  great  free- 
dom of  construction  which  it  allows,  without  any  danger  of  be- 
coming ambiguous.  It  is  clear,  euphonious,  and  admirably 
adapted  to  poetry. 

The  germs  of  Russian  civilization  arose  with  the  foundation  of 
23 


354       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

the  empire  by  the  Varegians  of  Scandinavia  (862  A.  D.),  but 
more  particularly  with  the  introduction  of  Christianity  by  Vladi- 
mir the  Great,  who,  towards  the  close  of  the  tenth  century,  estab- 
lished the  first  schools,  introduced  the  Bible  of  St.  Cyril,  called 
Greek  artists  from  Constantinople,  and  became  the  patron,  and 
at  the  same  time  the  hero  of  poetry.  Indeed,  he  and  his  knights 
are  the  Russian  Charlemagne  and  his  peers,  and  their  deeds 
have  proved  a  rich  source  for  the  popular  tales  and  songs  of  suc- 
ceeding times.  Jaroslav,  the  son  of  Vladimir,  was  not  less  active 
than  his  father  in  advancing  the  cause  of  Christianity ;  he  sent 
friars  through  the  country  to  instruct  the  people,  founded  theo- 
logical schools,  and  continued  the  translation  of  the  church  books. 
To  this  age  is  referred  the  epic,  "  Igor's  Expedition  against  the 
Polovtzi,"  discovered  in  the  eighteenth  century,  a  work  charac- 
terized by  uncommon  grace,  beauty,  and  power. 

From  1238  to  1462  A.  D.  the  Russian  princes  were  vassals  of 
the  Mongols,  and  during  this  time  nearly  every  trace  of  culti- 
vation perished.  The  invaders  burned  the  cities,  destroyed  all 
written  documents,  and  demolished  the  monuments  of  national 
culture  ;  but  at  length  Ivan  I.  (1462-1505)  delivered  his  coun- 
try from  the  Mongols,  and  prepared  a  new  era  in  the  history  of 
Russian  civilization. 

At  this  early  period  the  first  germs  of  dramatic  art  were  car- 
ried from  Poland  to  Russia.  In  Kief  the  theological  students 
performed  ecclesiastical  dramas,  and  traveled  about,  during  the 
holidays,  to  exhibit  their  skill  in  other  cities.  The  tragedies  of 
Simeon  of  Polotzk  (1628—1680),  in  the  old  Slavic  language, 
penetrated  from  the  convents  to  the  court,  where  they  were  per- 
formed in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  At  this  time 
the  first  secular  drama,  a  translation  from  Moliere,  was  also 
represented. 

2.  THE  LITERATURE.  —  Peter  the  Great  (1689-1725)  raised 
the  Russian  dialect  to  the  dignity  of  a  written  language,  introduced 
it  into  the  administration  and  courts  of  justice,  and  caused  many 
books  to  be  translated  from  foreign  languages.  He  rendered  the 
Slavic  characters  more  conformable  to  the  Latin,  and  these  let- 
ters, then  generally  adopted,  continue  in  use  at  the  present  time. 
Among  the  writers  of  the  age  of  Peter  the  Great  may  be  men- 
tioned Kirsha  Danilof,  who  versified  the  popular  traditions  of 
Vladimir  and  his  heroes  ;  and  Kantemir,  a  satirist,  who  trans- 
lated many  epistles  of  Horace,  and  the  work  of  Fontenelle  on 
the  plurality  of  worlds. 

Peter  the  Great  laid  the  corner-stone  of  a  national  literature, 
but  the  temple  was  not  reared  above  the  ground  until  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth  and  of  Catharine  II.  Lomonosof  (1711-1765),  a 
peasant,  born  in  the  dreary  regions  of  Archangel,  has  the  honor 


RUSSIAN  LITERATURE.  355 

of  being  the  true  founder  of  the  Russian  literature.  In  his 
Russian  grammar  he  first  laid  down  the  principles  and  fixed  the 
rules  of  the  language  ;  he  first  ventured  to  draw  the  boundary 
line  between  the  old  Slavic  and  the  Russian,  and  endeavored  to 
fix  the  rules  of  poetry  according  to  the  Latin  standard.  Among 
his  contemporaries  may  be  mentioned  Sumarokof  (1718—1777) 
and  Kheraskof  (1733—1807),  both  very  productive  writers  in 
prose  and  verse,  and  highly  admired  by  their  contemporaries. 

In  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  dramatic  talent  of 
the  Russians  was  awakened,  through  the  establishment  of  thea- 
tres at  Jaroslav,  St.  Petersburg,  and  Moscow  ;  and  several 
gifted  literary  men  employed  themselves  in  dramatic  compo- 
sitions ;  but  of  all  the  productions  of  this  tune,  those  of  Von 
Wisin  (1745-1792)  only  have  continued  to  hold  possession  of 
the  stage. 

Among  the  poets  of  the  eighteenth  century,  Derzhavin  (1743— 
1816)  sang  the  glory  of  Catharine  II.,  and  of  the  Russian  arms. 
His  "  Ode  to  God  "  has  obtained  the  distinction  of  being  trans- 
lated into  several  European  languages,  and  also  into  Chinese, 
and  hung  up  in  the  Emperor's  palace,  printed  on  white  satin  in 
golden  letters. 

The  reign  of  Alexander  I.  (1801-1825)  opened  a  new  era  in 
the  literature.  He  manifested  great  zeal  for  the  mental  eleva- 
tion of  his  subjects  ;  he  increased  the  number  of  universities, 
established  theological  seminaries  and  institutions  for  the  study 
of  oriental  languages,  and  founded  gymnasia  and  numerous  com- 
mon schools  for  the  people  ;  he  richly  endowed  the  Asiatic  mu- 
seum of  St.  Petersburg,  and  for  a  time  patronized  the  Russian 
Bible  Society,  and  promoted  the  printing  of  books  on  almost  all 
subjects.  But  toward  the  close  of  his  reign,  in  consequence  of 
certain  political  measures,  literature  sank  with  great  rapidity. 

Karamzin  (1765-1826),  the  representative  of  this  age,  under- 
took to  shake  off  the  yoke  of  the  classical  rules  established  by 
Lomonosof,  and  introduced  more  simplicity  and  naturalness. 
His  reputation  rests  chiefly  upon  his  "  History  of  the  Russian 
Empire,"  which,  with  many  faults,  is  a  standard  work  in  Slavic 
literature.  The  reign  of  the  Emperor  Nicholas  opened  with  a 
bloody  tragedy,  which  exhibited  in  a  striking  manner  the  dissat- 
isfied and  unhealthy  spirit  of  the  literary  youth  of  Russia.  Sev- 
eral poets  and  men  of  literary  fame  were  among  the  conspirators  ; 
and  to  awaken  patriotism  and  to  counteract  the  tendencies  of  the 
age,  the  government  promoted  historical  and  archaeological  re- 
searches, but  at  the  same  time  abolished  professorships  of  phi- 
losophy, increased  the  vigilance  of  its  censorship  of  the  press, 
lengthened  the  catalogue  of  forbidden  books,  and  reduced  the 
term  of  lawful  absence  for  its  subjects.  It  took  the  most  ener- 


356       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

getic  measures  to  promote  national  education,  and  to  cultivate 
those  fields  of  science  where  no  political  tares  could  be  sown. 

The  leading  idea  of  the  time  was  Panslavism,  the  object  of 
which  was  the  union  of  the  Slavic  race,  an  opposition  to  all  for- 
eign domination,  and  the  attainment  of  a  higher  intellectual  and 
political  condition  in  the  general  march  of  mankind.  Panslavism 
rose  to  a  special  branch  of  literature,  and  its  principal  writers 
were  Kollar,  Grabowski,  and  Gurowski. 

3.  HISTOBY,  POETRY,  THE  DRAMA.  —  History  is  a  depart- 
ment of  letters  which  has  been  treated  very  successfully  in  Rus- 
sia ;  critical  researches  have  been  extended  to  all  branches  of 
archaeology,  philology,  mythology,  and  kindred  subjects,  and  val- 
uable works  have  been  produced. 

Dmitrief  (1760—1827)  combined  in  his  poems  imagination, 
taste,  correctness,  and  purity  of  language.  Zhukoffski  (b.  1785) 
a  poet  of  deep  feeling,  took  his  models  from  the  Germans. 

The  fables  of  Krylof  (b.  1768)  are  equally  celebrated  among 
all  classes  and  ages,  and  are  among  the  first  books  read  by  Rus- 
sian children. 

Above  all  the  others,  Pushkin  (1799-1835)  must  be  consid- 
ered as  the  representative  of  Russian  poetry  in  the  nineteenth 
century.  He  was  in  the  service  of  the  government,  when  an  ode 
"  to  Liberty,"  written  in  too  bold  a  spirit,  induced  Alexander  I. 
to  banish  him  from  St.  Petersburg.  The  Emperor  Nicholas  re- 
called him,  and  became  his  patron.  Though  by  no  means  a 
mere  imitator,  his  poetry  bears  strong  marks  of  the  influence  of 
Byron. 

Lermontoff  (d.  1841)  was  a  poet  and  novelist  whose  writings, 
like  those  of  Pushkin,  were  strongly  influenced  by  Byron.  Kolt- 
soff  (d.  1842)  is  the  first  song  writer  of  Russia,  and  his  favorite 
theme  is  the  joys  and  sorrows  of  the  people.  Through  the  influ- 
ence of  Pushkin  and  Gogol  (d.  1852),  Russian  literature  became 
emancipated  from  the  classic  rule  and  began  to  develop  original 
tendencies.  Gogol  in  his  writings  manifests  a  deep  sentiment 
of  patriotism,  a  strong  love  of  nature,  and  a  fine  sense  of 
humor. 

The  Russians  have  few  ballads  of  great  antiquity,  and  these 
rarely  have  any  reference  to  the  subjects  of  the  heroic  prose 
tales  which  are  the  delight  of  Russian  nurseries,  the  favorite 
subjects  of  which  are  the  traditions  of  Vladimir  and  his  giant 
heroes,  which  doubtless  once  existed  in  the  form  of  ballads.  The 
Russians  have  ever  been  a  singing  race.  Every  festival  day  and 
every  extraordinary  event  has  its  accompanying  song.  Though 
these  songs  have  been  modernized  in  language  and  form,  that 
they  date  from  the  age  of  paganism  is  evident  from  their  fre- 
quent invocations  of  heathen  deities  and  allusions  to  heathen 


RUSSIAN  LITERATURE.  357 

customs.  Allied  to  these  songs  are  the  various  ditties  which  the 
peasant  girls  and  lads  sing  on  certain  occasions,  consisting  of 
endless  repetitions  of  words  or  syllables ;  yet  through  this  melo- 
dious tissue,  apparently  without  meaning,  sparks  of  real  poetry 
often  shine. 

The  Russian  songs,  like  the  language,  have  a  peculiar  tender- 
ness, and  are  full  of  caressing  epithets,  which  are  often  applied 
even  to  inanimate  objects.  Russian  lovers  are  quite  inexhaust- 
ible in  their  endearing  expressions,  and  the  abundance  of  dimin- 
utives which  the  language  possesses  is  especially  favorable  to 
their  affectionate  mode  of  address.  With  this  exquisite  tender- 
ness of  the  love-song  is  united  a  pensive  feeling,  which,  indeed, 
pervades  the  whole  popular  poetry  of  Russia,  and  which  may  be 
characterized  as  melancholy  musical,  and  in  harmony  with  the 
Russian  national  music,  the  expressive  sweetness  of  which  has 
been  the  admiration  of  all  foreign  composers  to  whom  it  has 
been  known. 

In  the  rich  and  fertile  steppes  of  the  Ukraine,  where  every 
forest  tree  seems  to  harbor  a  singer,  and  every  blade  of  grass  on 
the  boundless  plains  seems  to  whisper  the  echo  of  a  song,  this 
pensive  character  of  Russian  poetry  deepens  into  a  melancholy 
that  finds  expression  in  a  variety  of  sweet  elegiac  melodies.  A 
German  writer  says  of  them,  "  they  are  the  sorrows  of  whole 
centuries  blended  in  one  everlasting  sigh."  The  spirit  of  the 
past  indeed  breathes  through  their  mournful  strains.  The  cradle 
of  the  Kozak  was  rocked  to  the  music  of  clashing  swords,  and 
for  centuries  the  country,  on  both  banks  of  the  Dnieper  to  the 
northwestern  branch  of  the  Carpathian  Mountains,  the  seat  of 
this  race,  was  the  theatre  of  constant  warfare.  Their  narrative 
ballads,  therefore,  have  few  other  subjects  than  the  feuds  with 
the  Poles  and  Tartars,  the  Kozak's  parting  with  his  beloved 
one,  liis  lonely  death  on  the  border  or  on  the  bloody  field  of 
battle. 

These  ballads  have  sometimes  a  spirit  and  boldness  which  pre- 
sents noble  relief  to  the  habitual  melancholy  of  this  poetry  in 
general.  Professional  singers,  with  a  kind  of  guitar  in  their 
hand,  wander  through  the  country,  sure  to  find  a  willing  audi- 
ence in  whatever  village  they  may  stop.  Their  ballads  are  not 
confined  to  the  scenes  of  their  early  history,  but  find  subjects  in 
the  later  wars  with  the  Turks  and  Tartars,  and  in  the  campaigns 
of  more  modern  times  ;  they  illustrate  the  warlike  spirit,  as  well 
as  the  domestic  relations  of  the  Kozaks,  and  their  skill  in  narra- 
tive, as  well  as  their  power  of  expressing  in  lyric  strains  the  un- 
sophisticated emotions  of  a  tender  heart. 

The  poets  of  the  present  age  exercise  little  or  no  influence  on 
a  society  distracted  and  absorbed  by  the  political  questions  of 
the  day. 


358       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

Although  the  history  of  Russia  is  rich  in  dramatic  episodes, 
it  has  failed  to  inspire  any  native  dramatist.  Count  Tolstoi  has 
been  one  of  the  most  successful  writers  in  this  line,  but,  with 
great  merits,  he  has  the  fault  common  to  the  Russian  drama  in 
general,  that  of  great  attention  to  the  study  of  the  chief  charac- 
ter, to  the  neglect  of  other  points  which  contribute  to  secure  in- 
terest. 

4.  LITERATURE  IN  RUSSIA  SINCE  THE  CRIMEAN  WAR.  — 
After  the  Crimean  War,  in  1854,  the  Russian  government  took 
the  initiative  in  an  onward  movement,  and  by  the  abolition  of 
serfdom  the  country  awoke  to  new  life.  In  literature  this  showed 
itself  in  the  rise  of  a  new  school,  that  of  Nature,  in  which  Turgen- 
ieff  (1818-1883)  is  the  most  prominent  figure,  a  place  which 
he  still  holds  in  contemporary  Russian  literature.  The  publica- 
tion of  his  "  Diary  of  a  Sportsman  "  first  made  the  nobility  of 
Russia  aware  that  the  serf  was  a  man  capable  of  feeling  and  suf- 
fering, and  not  a  brute  to  be  bought  and  sold  with  the  soil,  and 
this  work  was  not  without  its  effect  in  causing  the  emancipation. 
No  writer  has  studied  so  faithfully  and  profoundly  the  Russian 
peasant  and  better  understood  the  moral  needs  of  the  time  and 
the  great  questions  which  agitate  it. 

Within  the  last  twenty  years  the  new  theory  of  Nihilism  has 
begun  to  find  expression  in  literature,  particularly  in  fiction. 
Rejecting  all  authority  in  religion,  politics,  science,  and  art,  this 
school  is  the  reaction  from  long  ages  of  oppression.  The  school 
of  nature  lent  itself  to  this  new  movement  until  at  last  it  reached 
the  pessimistic  standpoint  of  Schopenhauer. 

Of  late,  the  ultra-realistic  school  has  appeared  in  Russia,  the 
writers  of  which  devote  themselves  to  the  study  of  a  low  realism 
in  its  most  repulsive  aspects.  While  it  boasts  of  not  idealizing 
the  peasant,  like  Turgenieff  and  others,  it  presents  him  in  an  as- 
pect to  excite  only  aversion.  Art  being  thus  excluded,  and  the 
school  having  neither  authority,  principle,  nor  object,  whatever 
influence  it  may  have  cannot  but  be  pernicious. 

SCIENCE.  —  In  mathematics  and  in  all  the  natural  sciences 
Russia  keeps  pace  with  the  most  advanced  European  nations. 
In  chemistry  Mendeleeff  formulated  the  theory  relating  to  atoms 
and  their  chemical  properties  and  relations,  not  then  discovered 
to  be  the  law  by  which  they  were  governed,  as  later  experiments 
proved. 

THE   SERVIAN  LANGUAGE   AND  LITERATURE. 

THE  Servian  alphabet  was  first  fixed  and  the  language  reduced 
to  certain  general  rules  only  within  the  present  century.  The 
language  extends,  with  some  slight  variations  of  dialect,  and  vari- 


SERVIAN  LITERATURE.  359 

ous  systems  of  writing,  over  the  Turkish  and  Austrian  provinces 
of  Servia,  Bosnia,  Herzegovina,  Montenegro,  and  Dalmatia,  and 
the  eastern  part  of  Croatia.  The  southern  sky,  and  the  beauties 
of  natural  scenery  that  abound  in  all  these  regions,  so  favorable 
to  the  development  of  poetical  genius,  appear  also  to  have  ex- 
erted a  happy  influence  on  the  language.  While  it  yields  to  none 
of  the  other  Slavic  dialects  in  richness,  clearness,  and  precision, 
it  far  surpasses  them  all  in  euphony. 

The  most  interesting  feature  of  the  literature  of  these  coun- 
tries is  their  popular  poetry.  This  branch  of  literature  still  sur- 
vives among  the  Slavic  race,  particularly  the  Servians  and  Dal- 
matians, in  its  beauty  and  luxuriance,  while  it  is  almost  extinct 
in  other  nations.  Much  of  this  poetry  is  of  unknown  antiquity, 
and  has  been  handed  down  by  tradition  from  generation  to  gen- 
eration. From  the  gray  ages  of  paganism  it  reaches  us  like  the 
chimes  of  distant  bells,  unconnected,  and  half  lost  in  the  air.  It 
often  manifests  the  strong,  deep-rooted  superstitions  of  the  Slavic 
race,  and  is  full  of  dreams,  omens,  and  forebodings  ;  witchcraft, 
and  a  certain  Oriental  fatalism,  seeming  to  direct  will  and  des- 
tiny. Love  and  heroism  form  the  subject  of  all  Slavic  poetry, 
which  is  distinguished  for  the  purity  of  manners  it  evinces. 
Wild  passions  or  complicated  actions  are  seldom  represented, 
but  rather  the  quiet  scenes  of  domestic  grief  and  joy.  The  pe- 
culiar relation  of  brother  and  sister,  particularly  among  the  Ser- 
vians, often  forms  an  interesting  feature  of  the  popular  songs. 
To  have  no  brother  is  a  misfortune,  almost  a  disgrace,  and  the 
cuckoo,  the  constant  image  of  a  mourning  woman  in  Servian 
poetry,  was,  according  to  the  legend,  a  sister  who  had  lost  her 
brother. 

This  poetry  was  first  collected  by  Vuk  Stephanovitch  Karad- 
shitch  (b.  1786),  a  Turkish  Servian,  the  author  of  the  first 
Oriental  Servian  grammar  and  dictionary,  who  gathered  the 
songs  from  the  lips  of  the  peasantry.  His  work,  published  at 
Vienna  in  1815,  has  been  made  known  to  the  world  through  a 
translation  into  German  by  the  distinguished  authoress  of  the 
"  Languages  and  Literature  of  the  Slavic  Nations,"  from  which 
this  brief  sketch  has  been  made.  Nearly  one  third  of  these 
songs  consist  of  epic  tales  several  hundred  verses  in  length.  The 
lyric  songs  compare  favorably  with  those  of  other  nations,  but 
the  long  epic  extemporized  compositions,  by  which  the  peasant 
bard,  in  the  circle  of  other  peasants,  in  unpremeditated  but  reg- 
ular and  harmonious  verse,  celebrates  the  heroic  deeds  of  their 
ancestors  or  contemporaries,  have  no  parallel  in  the  whole  his- 
tory of  literature  since  the  days  of  .Homer. 

The  poetry  of  the  Servians  is  intimately  interwoven  with  their 
daily  life.  The  hall  where  the  women  sit  spinning  around  the 


360       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

fireside,  the  mountain  on  which  the  boys  pasture  their  flocks,  the 
square  where  the  village  youth  assemble  to  dance,  the  plains 
where  the  harvest  is  reaped,  and  the  forests  through  which  the 
lonely  traveler  journeys,  all  resound  with  song.  Short  composi- 
tions, sung  without  accompaniment,  are  mostly  composed  by 
women,  and  are  called  female  songs ;  they  relate  to  domestic 
life,  and  are  distinguished  by  cheerfulness,  and  often  by  a  spirit 
of  graceful  roguery.  The  feeling  expressed  in  the  Servian  love- 
songs  is  gentle,  often  playful,  indicating  more  of  tenderness  than 
of  passion.  In  their  heroic  poems  the  Servians  stand  quite 
isolated ;  no  modern  nation  can  be  compared  to  them  in  epic 
productiveness,  and  the  recent  publication  of  these  poems  throws 
new  light  on  the  grand  compositions  of  the  ancients.  The  gen- 
eral character  of  these  Servian  tales  is  objective  and  plastic  ;  the 
poet  is,  in  most  cases,  in  a  remarkable  degree  above  his  subject ; 
he  paints  his  pictures,  not  in  glowing  colors,  but  in  prominent 
features,  and  no  explanation  is  necessary  to  interpret  what  the 
reader  thinks  he  sees  with  his  own  eyes.  The  number  and  vari- 
ety of  the  Servian  heroic  poems  is  immense,  and  many  of  them, 
until  recently  preserved  only  by  tradition,  cannot  be  supposed  to 
have  retained  their  original  form  ;  they  are  frequently  inter- 
woven with  a  belief  in  certain  fanciful  creatures  of  pagan  super- 
stition, which  exercise  a  constant  influence  on  human  affairs. 
The  poems  are  often  recited,  but  most  frequently  sung  to  the 
music  of  a  rude  kind  of  guitar.  The  bard  chants  two  lines,  then 
he  pauses  and  gives  a  few  plaintive  strokes  on  his  instrument ; 
then  he  chants  again,  and  so  on.  While  in  Slavic  poetry  gener- 
ally the  musical  element  is  prominent,  in  the  Servian  it  is  com- 
pletely subordinate.  Even  the  lyric  poetry  is  in  a  high  degree 
monotonous,  and  is  chanted  rather  than  sung. 

Goethe,  Grimm,  and  "  Talvi  "  drew  attention  to  these  songs, 
many  translations  of  which  were  published  in  Germany,  and 
Bowring,  Lytton,  and  others  have  made  them  known  in  Eng- 
land. 

At  present  there  is  much  intellectual  activity  among  the  Ser- 
vians in  various  departments  of  literature,  tragedy,  comedy, 
satire,  and  fiction,  but  the  names  of  the  writers  are  new  to  Eu- 
ropeans, and  not  easily  remembered. 


THE   BOHEMIAN  LANGUAGE   AND   LITERATURE. 
John  Huss,  Jerome  of  Prague,  Tycho  Brahe,  Kepler,  Comenius,  and  others. 

THE  Bohemian  is  one  of  the  principal  Slavic  languages.  It 
is  spoken  in  Bohemia  and  in  Moravia,  and  is  used  by  the  Slovaks 
of  Hungary  in  their  literary  productions.  Of  all  the  modern 


BOHEMIAN  LITERATURE.  361 

Slavic  dialects,  the  Bohemian  was  the  first  cultivated  ;  it  early 
adopted  the  Latin  characters,  and  was  developed  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  German  language.  In  its  free  construction,  the 
Bohemian  approaches  the  Latin,  and  is  capable  of  imitating  the 
Greek  in  all  its  lighter  shades. 

The  first  written  documents  of  the  Bohemians  are  not  older 
than  the  introduction  of  Christianity  into  their  country ;  but 
there  exists  a  collection  of  national  songs  celebrating  battles  and 
victories,  which  probably  belongs  to  the  eighth  or  ninth  century. 
During  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  the  influence  of  Ger- 
man customs  and  habits  is  apparent  in  Bohemian  literature  ;  and 
in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  this  influence  increased,  and 
was  manifest  in  the  lyric  poetry,  which  echoed  the  lays  of  the 
German  Minnesingers.  Of  these  popular  songs,  however,  very 
few  are  left. 

In  1348  the  first  Slavic  university  was  founded  in  Prague,  on 
the  plan  of  those  of  Paris  and  Bologna,  by  the  Emperor  Charles 
IV.,  who  united  the  crowns  of  Germany  and  Bohemia.  The 
influence  of  this  institution  was  felt,  not  merely  in  the  two  coun- 
tries, but  throughout  Europe. 

The  name  of  John  Huss  (1373—1415)  stands  at  the  head  of  a 
new  period  in  Bohemian  literature.  He  was  professor  at  the 
university  of  Prague,  and  early  became  acquainted  with  the 
writings  of  Wickliff e,  whose  doctrines  he  defended  in  his  lectures 
and  sermons.  The  care  and  attention  he  bestowed  on  his  com- 
positions exerted  a  'decided  and  lasting  influence  on  the  lan- 
guage. The  old  Bohemian  alphabet  he  arranged  anew,  and  first 
settled  the  Bohemian  orthography  according  to  fixed  principles. 
Summoned  to  appear  before  the  council  of  Constance  to  answer 
to  the  charges  of  heresy,  he  obeyed  the  call  under  a  safe-conduct 
from  the  Emperor  Sigismund.  But  he  was  soon  arrested  by  or- 
der of  the  council,  condemned,  and  burned  alive. 

Among  the  coadjutors  of  Huss  was  Jerome  of  Prague,  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  same  university,  who  in  his  erudition  and  eloquence 
surpassed  his  friend,  whose  doctrinal  views  he  adopted,  but  he 
had  not  the  mildness  of  disposition  nor  the  moderation  of  con- 
duct which  distinguished  Huss.  He  wrote  several  works  for  the 
instruction  of  the  people,  and  translated  some  of  the  writings  of 
Wickliffe  into  the  Bohemian  language.  On  hearing  of  the 
dangerous  situation  of  his  friend  he  hastened  to  Constance  to 
assist  and  support  him.  He,  too,  was  arrested,  and  even  terri- 
fied into  temporary  submission ;  but  at  the  next  audience  of  the 
council  he  reaffirmed  his  faith,  and  declared  that  of  all  his  sins 
he  repented  of  none  more  than  his  apostasy  from  the  doctrines 
he  had  maintained.  In  consequence  of  this  avowal  he  was  con- 
demned to  the  same  fate  as  his  friend. 


362       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

These  illustrious  martyrs  were,  with  the  exception  of  Wick- 
liffe,  the  first  advocates  of  truth  a  century  before  the  Reforma- 
tion. Since  then,  in  no  language  has  the  Bible  been  studied 
with  more  zeal  and  devotion  than  in  the  Bohemian.  The  long 
contest  for  freedom  of  conscience  which  desolated  the  country 
until  the  extinction  of  the  nation  is  one  of  the  great  tragedies  of 
human  history. 

The  period  from  1520  to  1620  is  considered  the  golden  age  of 
Bohemian  literature.  Nearly  two  hundred  writers  distinguished 
the  reign  of  Rudolph  I.  (1526-1611),  and  among  them  were 
many  ladies  and  gentlemen  of  the  court,  of  which  Tycho  Brahe, 
Kepler,  and  other  scientific  men,  from  foreign  countries,  were 
the  chief  ornaments.  Numerous  historical  works  were  published, 
theology  was  cultivated  with  talent  and  zeal,  the  eloquence  of 
the  pulpit  and  the  bar  acquired  a  high  degree  of  cidtivation,  and 
in  religious  hymns  all  sects  were  equally  productive. 

The  triumph  of  the  Catholic  party,  which  followed  the  battle 
of  the  White  Mountain,  near  Prague  (1620),  gave  a  fatal  blow 
to  Bohemia.  The  leading  men  of  the  country  were  executed, 
exiled,  or  imprisoned  ;  the  Protestant  religion  was  abolished,  and 
the  country  was  declared  a  hereditary  Catholic  monarchy.  The 
Bohemian  language  ceased  to  be  used  in  public  transactions  ; 
and  every  book  written  in  it  was  condemned  to  the  flames  as 
necessarily  heretical.  Great  numbers  of  monks  came  from 
southern  Europe,  and  seized  whatever  native  books  they  could 
find  ;  and  this  destruction  continued  to  go  on  until  the  close  of 
the  last  century. 

Among  the  Bohemian  emigrants  who  continued  to  write  in 
their  foreign  homes,  Comenius  (1592-1691)  surpassed  all  oth- 
ers. When  the  great  persecution  of  the  Protestants  broke  out 
he  fled  to  Poland,  and  in  his  exile  he  published  several  works  in 
Latin  and  in  Bohemian,  distinguished  for  the  classical  perfection 
of  their  style. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  efforts  to  in- 
troduce into  Bohemia  the  German  as  the  official  language  of  the 
country  awoke  the  national  feeling  of  the  people,  and  produced 
a  strong  reaction  in  favor  of  their  native  tongue.  When  the 
tolerant  views  of  Joseph  II.  were  known,  more  than  a  hundred 
thousand  Protestants  returned  to  their  country  ;  books  long  hid- 
den were  brought  to  light,  and  many  works  were  reprinted. 
During  the  reign  of  his  two  successors,  the  Bohemians  received 
still  more  encouragement ;  the  use  of  the  language  was  ordained 
in  all  the  schools,  and  a  knowledge  of  it  was  made  a  necessary 
qualification  for  office.  Among  the  writers  who  exerted  a  favor- 
able influence  in  this  movement  may  be  mentioned  Kramerius 
(1753-1808),  the  editor  of  the  first  Bohemian  newspaper,  and 


POLISH  LITERATURE.  363 

the  author  of  many  original  works;  Dobrovsky  (1753-1829), 
the  patriarch  of  modern  Slavic  literature,  and  one  of  the  pro- 
foimdest  scholars  of  the  age ;  and  Kollar  (b.  1763),  the  leading 
poet  of  modern  times  in  the  Bohemian  language.  Schaffarik 
(b.  1795),  a  Slovak,  is  the  author  of  a  "History  of  the  Slavic 
Language  and  Literature,"  in  German,  which  has,  perhaps,  con- 
tributed more  than  any  other  work  to  a  knowledge  of  Slavic  lit- 
erature. Palacky,  a  Moravian  by  birth,  was  the  faithful  fellow- 
laborer  of  Schaffarik ;  his  most  important  work  is  a  "  History 
of  Bohemia." 

Since  1848  there  has  arisen  a  school  of  poets  whose  writings  are 
more  in  accordance  with  those  of  the  western  nations.  Among 
them  are  Halek  (d.  1874)  and  Cech,  the  most  celebrated  of  liv- 
ing Bohemian  poets.  Caroline  Soetla  (b.  1830)  is  the  originator 
of  the  modern  Bohemian  novel.  Since  1879  many  poems  have 
appeared,  epic  in  their  character,  taking  their  materials  both 
from  the  past  and  the  present.  In  various  branches  of  litera- 
ture able  writers  are  found,  too  numerous  even  to  name. 


THE  POLISH  LANGUAGE   AND  LITERATURE. 

Rey,  Bielski,  Copernicus,  Czartoryski,  Niemcewicz,  Mickiewicz,  and  others. 

THE  Polish  language  is  the  only  existing  representative  of 
that  variety  of  idioms  originally  spoken  by  the  Slavic  tribes, 
which,  under  the  name  of  Lekhes,  in  the  sixth  or  seventh  cen- 
tury, settled  on  the  banks  of  the  Vistula  and  Varta.  Although 
very  little  is  known  of  the  progress  of  the  language  into  its 
present  state,  it  is  sufficiently  obvious  that  it  has  developed  from 
the  conflict  of  its  natural  elements  with  the  Latin  and  German 
idioms.  Of  the  other  Slavic  dialects,  the  Bohemian  is  the  only 
one  which  has  exerted  any  influence  upon  this  tongue.  The 
Polish  language  is  refined  and  artificial  in  its  grammatical  struc- 
ture, rich  in  its  words  and  phrases,  and,  like  the  Bohemian,  ca- 
pable of  faithfully  imitating  the  refinements  of  the  classical  lan- 
guages. It  has  a  great  variety  and  nicety  of  shades  in  the 
pronunciation  of  the  vowels,  and  such  combinations  of  conso- 
nants as  can  only  be  conquered  by  a  Slavic  tongue. 

The  literary  histoiy  of  Poland  begins,  like  that  of  Bohemia,  at 
the  epoch  of  the  introduction  of  Christianity.  In  the  year  965, 
Miecislav,  Duke  of  Poland,  married  the  Bohemian  princess  Dom- 
brovka,  who  consented  to  the  marriage  on  the  condition  of  the 
duke  becoming  a  convert  to  Christianity  ;  and  from  that  tune  the 
Polish  princes,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  nation,  adopted  the 
new  faith.  The  clergy  in  those  early  ages  in  Poland,  as  well  as 
elsewhere,  were  the  depositaries  of  mental  light ;  and  the  Bene- 


364       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

dictine  monks  who,  with  others,  had  been  invited  to  the  con- 
verted country,  founded  convents,  to  which  they  early  attached 
schools.  Their  example  was  followed,  at  a  later  period,  by 
other  orders,  and  for  several  centuries  the  natives  were  excluded 
from  all  clerical  dignities  and  privileges,  and  the  education  of 
the  country  was  directed  by  foreign  monks.  They  burned  the 
few  writings  which  they  found  in  the  vernacular  tongue,  and 
excited  unnatural  prejudices  against  it.  From  the  ninth  to  the 
sixteenth  century  Polish  literature  was  almost  entirely  confined 
to  the  translation  of  a  part  of  the  Bible  and  a  few  chronicles 
written  in  Lathi.  Among  these  must  be  noticed  the  chronicle 
of  Martin  Gallus  (d.  1132),  an  emigrant  Frenchman,  who  is 
considered  as  the  oldest  historian  of  Poland. 

Casimir  (1333-1370)  was  one  of  the  few  princes  who  ac- 
quired the  name  of  the  Great,  not  by  conquests,  but  by  the 
substantial  benefits  of  laws,  courts  of  justice,  and  means  of  ed- 
ucation, which  he  procured  for  his  subjects.  In  his  reign 
was  formed  the  first  code  of  laws,  known  by  the  name  of  "  Stat- 
ute of  Wislica,"  a  part  of  which  is  written  in  the  Polish  lan- 
guage ;  and  he  laid  the  foundation  of  the  university  of  Cracow 
(1347),  which,  however,  was  only  organized  half  a  century  later. 
Hedevig,  the  granddaughter  of  Casimir,  married  Jagello  of 
Lithuania,  and  under  their  descendants,  who  reigned  nearly  two 
centuries,  Poland  rose  to  the  summit  of  power  and  glory.  With 
Sigismund  I.  (1505-1542),  and  Sigismund  Augustus  (1542- 
1613),  a  new  period  of  Polish  literature  begins.  The  university 
of  Cracow  had  been  organized  in  1400,  on  the  model  of  that  of 
Prague,  and  this  opened  a  door  for  the  doctrines,  first  of  the 
Bohemian,  then  of  the  German  reformers.  The  wild  flame  of 
superstition  which  kindled  the  fagots  for  the  disciples  of  the 
new  doctrines  in  Poland  was  extinguished  by  Sigismund  I.  and 
Sigismund  II.,  in  whom  the  Reformation  found  a  decided  sup- 
port. Under  their  administration  Poland  was  the  seat  of  a  tol- 
eration then  unequaled  in  the  world  ;  the  Polish  language  be- 
came more  used  in  literary  productions,  and  was  fixed  as  the 
medium  through  which  laws  and  decrees  were  promulgated. 

Key  of  Naglowic  (1515-1569),  who  lived  at  the  courts  of  the 
Sigismunds,  is  called  the  father  of  Polish  poetry.  Most  of  his 
productions  are  of  a  religious  nature,  and  bear  the  stamp  of 
a  truly  poetical  talent.  John  Kochanowski  (1530—1584)  pub- 
lished a  translation  of  the  Psalms,  which  is  still  considered  as  a 
classical  work.  His  other  poems,  in  which  Pindar,  Anacreon, 
and  Horace  were  alternately  his  models,  are  distinguished  for 
their  conciseness  and  terseness  of  style.  Rybimki  (fl.  1581) 
and  Simon  Szymonowicz  (d.  1629),  the  former  as  a  lyric  poet, 
the  latter  as  a  writer  of  idyls,  maintain  a  high  rank. 


POLISH  LITERATURE.  365 

The  Poles  possess  all  the  necessary  qualities  for  oratory,  and 
the  sixteenth  century  was  eminent  for  forensic  and  pulpit  elo- 
quence. History  was  cultivated  with  much  zeal,  but  mostly  in 
the  Latin  language.  Martin  Bielski  (1500-1576)  was  the  au- 
thor of  the  "  Clironicle  of  Poland,"  the  first  historical  work  in 
Polish.  Scientific  works  were  mostly  written  in  Latin,  the  cul- 
tivation of  which,  in  Poland,  has  ever  kept  pace  with  the  study 
of  the  vernacular  tongue.  Indeed,  the  most  eminent  writers 
and  orators  of  the  sixteenth  century,  who  made  use  of  the 
Polish  language,  managed  the  Latin  with  equal  skill  and  dex- 
terity, and  in  common  conversation  both  Latin  and  Polish  were 
used. 

Among  the  scientific  writers  of  Latin  is  the  astronomer 
Copernicus  (1473-1543).  He  early  went  to  Italy,  and  was 
appointed  professor  of  mathematics  at  Rome.  He  at  length 
returned  to  Poland,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  astron- 
omy. Having  spent  twenty  years  in  observations  and  calcula- 
tions, he  brought  his  scheme  to  perfection,  and  established  the 
theory  of  the  universe  which  is  now  everywhere  received. 

The  interval  between  1622  and  1760  marks  a  period  of  a 
general  decadence  in  Polish  literature.  The  perversion  of  taste 
which,  at  the  beginning  of  that  age,  reigned  in  Italy,  and  thence 
spread  over  Europe,  reached  Poland  ;  and  for  nearly  a  hundred 
and  fifty  years  the  country,  under  the  influence  of  the  Jesuits, 
was  the  victim  of  a  stifling  intolerance,  and  of  a  general  mental 
paralysis.  But  in  the  reign  of  Stanislaus  Augustus  (1762- 
1795),  Poland  began  to  revive,  and  the  national  literature 
received  a  new  impulse.  Though  the  French  language  and 
manners  prevailed,  and  the  bombastic  school  of  Marini  was  only 
supplanted  by  that  of  the  cold  and  formal  poets  of  France,  the 
cultivation  of  the  Polish  language  was  not  neglected  ;  a  peri- 
odical work,  to  which  the  ablest  men  of  the  country  contributed, 
was  published,  public  instruction  was  made  one  of  the  great  con- 
cerns of  the  government,  and  the  power  of  the  Jesuits  was  de- 
stroyed. 

The  dissolution  of  the  kingdom  which  soon  followed,  its  par- 
tition and  amalgamation  with  foreign  nations,  kindled  anew  the 
patriotic  spirit  of  the  Poles,  who  devoted  themselves  with  more 
zeal  than  ever  to  the  cultivation  of  their  native  language,  the 
sole  tie  which  still  binds  them  together.  The  following  are  the 
principal  representatives  of  this  period :  Stephen  Konarski 
(1700-1773),  a  writer  on  politics  and  education,  who  devoted 
himself  entirely  to  the  literary  and  mental  reform  of  his  coun- 
try ;  Zaluski  (1724—1786),  known  more  especially  as  the  founder 
of  a  large  library,  which,  at  the  dismemberment  of  Poland,  was 
transferred  to  St.  Petersburg ;  and,  above  all,  Adam  Czartoryski 


366       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

(1731-1823),  and  the  two  brothers  Potocki,  distinguished  as 
statesmen,  orators,  writers,  and  patrons  of  literature  and  art. 
At  the  head  of  the  historical  writers  of  the  eighteenth  century 
stands  Naruszewicz  (1753-1796),  whose  history  of  Poland  is 
considered  as  a  standard  work.  In  repect  to  erudition,  philo- 
sophical conception,  and  purity  of  style,  it  is  a  masterpiece  of 
Polish  literature.  Krasicki  (1739-1802),  the  most  distinguished 
poet  under  Stanislaus  Augustus,  was  called  the  Polish  Voltaire. 
His  poems  and  prose  writings  are  replete  with  wit  and  spirit, 
though  bearing  evident  marks  of  French  influence,  which  was 
felt  in  almost  all  the  poetical  productions  of  that  age. 

Niemcewicz  (1767-1846)  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest 
poets  of  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries.  Having  fought 
by  the  side  of  Kosciusko,  and  shared  his  fate  as  a  prisoner,  he 
accompanied  him  to  America,  where  he  became  the  friend  and 
associate  of  Washington,  whose  life  he  afterwards  described. 
His  other  works  consist  of  historical  songs,  dramas,  and  a  his- 
tory of  the  reign  of  Sigismund. 

There  is  no  branch  of  literature  in  which  the  Poles  have  man- 
ifested greater  want  of  original  power  than  in  the  drama,  where 
the  influence  of  the  French  school  is  decided,  and,  indeed,  ex- 
clusive. Novels  and  tales,  founded  on  domestic  life,  are  not 
abundant  in  Polish  literature  ;  philosophy  has  had  few  votaries, 
and  the  other  sciences,  with  the  exception  of  the  mathematical 
and  physical  branches,  have  been,  till  recently,  neglected. 

The  failure  of  the  revolution  of  1830  forms  a  melancholy 
epoch  in  Polish  history,  and  especially  in  Polish  literature.  The 
universities  of  Warsaw  and  Wilna  were  broken  up,  and  their 
rich  libraries  removed  to  St.  Petersburg.  Even  the  lower 
schools  were  mostly  deprived  of  their  funds,  and  changed  to 
Russian  government  schools.  The  press  was  placed  under  the 
strictest  control,  the  language  and  the  national  peculiarities  of 
the  country  were  everywhere  persecuted,  the  Russian  tongue 
and  customs  substituted,  and  the  poets  and  learned  men  either 
silenced  or  banished.  Yet  since  that  time  the  national  history 
has  become  more  than  ever  a  chosen  study  with  the  people ;  and 
as  the  results  of  these  researches,  since  1830,  cannot  be  written 
in  Poland,  Paris  has  become  the  principal  seat  of  Polish  learn- 
ing. One  of  the  first  works  of  importance  published  there  was 
the  "  History  of  the  Polish  Insurrection,"  by  Mochnachi  (1804- 
1835),  known  before  as  the  author  of  a  work  on  the  Polish 
literature  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  as  the  able  editor  of 
several  periodicals.  Lelewel,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  revolu- 
tion, wrote  a  work  on  the  civil  rights  of  the  Polish  peasantry, 
which  has  exercised  a  more  decided  influence  in  Poland  than  that 
of  any  modern  author.  Mickiewicz  (1798-1843),  a  leader  of 


ROUMANIAN  LITERATURE.  367 

the  same  revolution,  is  the  most  distinguished  of  the  modern 
poets  of  Poland.  His  magnificent  poem  of  "  The  Feast  of  the 
Dead  "  is  a  powerful  expression  of  genius.  His  "  Sonnets  on  the 
Crimea  "  are  among  his  happiest  productions,  and  his  "  Sir  Thad- 
deus  "  is  a  graphic  description  of  the  civil  and  domestic  life  of 
Lithuania.  Mickiewicz  is  the  founder  of  the  modern  romantic 
school  in  Poland,  to  which  belong  the  most  popular  productions 
of  Polish  literature.  Zalesski,  Grabowski,  and  others  of  this 
school  have  chosen  the  Ukraine  as  the  favorite  theatre  of  their 
poems,  and  give  us  pictures  of  that  country,  alternately  sweet, 
wild,  and  romantic. 

Of  all  the  Slavic  nations,  the  Poles  have  most  neglected  their 
popular  poetry,  a  fact  which  may  be  easily  explained  in  a  nation 
among  whom  whatever  refers  to  mere  boors  and  serfs  has  always 
been  regarded  with  the  utmost  contempt.  Their  beautiful  na- 
tional dances,  however,  the  graceful  Polonaise,  the  bold  Masur, 
the  ingenious  Cracovienne,  are  equally  the  property  of  the  nobil- 
ity and  peasantry,  and  were  formerly  always  accompanied  by 
singing  instead  of  instrumental  music.  These  songs  were  extem- 
porized, and  were  probably  never  committed  to  writing. 

The  centre  of  literary  activity  in  Poland  is  Warsaw,  which,  in 
spite  of  the  severe  restrictions  on  the  press,  has  always  main- 
tained its  preeminence. 


ROUMANIAN  LITERATURE. 

Carmen  Sylva. 

THE  kingdom  of  Roumania,  composed  of  the  principalities  of 
Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  united  in  1859,  has  few  literary  mon- 
uments. The  language  is  Wallachian,  in  which  the  Latin  pre- 
dominates, with  a  mixture  of  Slavic,  Turkish,  and  Tartar,  and 
has  only  of  late  been  classed  with  the  Romance  languages,  by 
the  side  of  Italian,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese.  There  are  some 
historical  fragments  of  the  fifteenth  century  remaining ;  the  lit- 
erature that  followed  was  mostly  theological.  In  recent  times  a 
great  number  of  learned  and  poetical  works  have  been  produced, 
and  political  movements  have  led  to  many  political  writings  and 
to  the  establishment  of  many  newspapers. 

The  most  distinguished  name  in  Roumanian  literature  is  that 
of  "  Carmen  Sylva,"  the  nom  de  plume  of  the  beautiful  and 
gifted  queen  of  that  country,  whose  writings  in  prose  and  verse 
are  remarkable  for  passionate  feeling,  grace,  and  finished  execu- 
tion. 


DUTCH  LITERATURE. 


Stok   ,  _  . 
Dutch  Rep 


jjuu.'ii  ivepuuiic. — o.  iiie  UMW   writers:    r^rasiuus ;    <jrruuus  ;  ATIUUUUB;  lapniu;  uie 

Scaligers,  and  others ;  Salmasius  ;  Spiuoza  ;  Boerhaave  ;  Johannes  Secundus.  —  4.  Dutch 
Writers  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  :  Anna  Byns ;  Coornliert ;  Marnix  de  St.  Aldegonde  ; 
Bor,  Visscher,  and  Spieghel.  —  5.  Writers  of  the  Seventeeth  Century :  Hooft ;  Vondel ; 
Cats ;  Antonides  ;  Brandt,  and  others  ;  Decline  in  Dutch  Literature.  —  6.  The  Eighteenth 


rdyk  ,    

Hoevill,  and  others. 

1.  THE  LANGUAGE.  —  The  Dutch,  Flemish,  and  Frisic  lan- 
guages, spoken  in  the  kingdoms  of  Holland  and  Belgium,  are 
branches  of  the  Gothic  -family.    Toward  the  close  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  the  Dutch  gained  the  ascendency  over  the  others,  which 
it  has  never  since  lost.     This  language  is  energetic  and  flexible, 
rich  in  synonyms  and  delicate  shades,  and  from  its  fullness  and 
strength,  better  adapted  to  history,  tragedy,  and  odes,  than  to 
comedy  and  the  lighter  kinds  of  poetry.     The  Flemish,  which 
still  remains  the  literary  language  of  the  southern  provinces,  is 
inferior  to  the  Dutch,  and  has  been  greatly  corrupted  by  the  ad- 
inixture  of  foreign  words.     The  Frisic,  spoken  in  Friesland,  is 
an  idiom  less  cultivated  than  the  others,  and  is  gradually  disap- 
pearing.   In  the  seventeenth  century  it  boasted  of  several  writers, 
of  whom  the  poet  Japix  was  the  most  eminent.     The  first  gram- 
mar of  the  Frisic  language  was  published  by  Professor  Rask,  of 
Copenhagen,  in  1825.     In  some  parts  of  Belgium  the  Walloon, 
an  old  dialect  of  the  French,  is  still  spoken,  but  the  Flemish 
continues  to  be  the  common  language  of  the  people,  although 
since  the  establishment  of  Belgium  as  an  independent  kingdom 
the  use  of  the  French  language  has  prevailed  among  the  higher 
classes. 

2.  DUTCH  LITERATURE    TO   THE   SIXTEENTH  CENTURY.  — 
When  the  obscurity  of  the  dark  ages  began  to  disappear  with 
the  revival  of  letters,  the  Netherlands  were  not  last  among  the 
countries  of  Europe  in  coming  forth  from  the  darkness.     The 
cities  of  Flanders  were  early  distinguished  for  the  commercial 
activity  and  industrial  skill  of  their  inhabitants.    Bruges  reached 
the  height  of  its  splendor  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, and  was  for  some  time  one  of  the  great  commercial  empo- 
riums of  the  world,  to  which  Constantinople,  Genoa,  and  Venice 


DUTCH  LITERATURE.  369 

sent  their  precious  argosies  laden  with  the  products  of  the  East. 
At  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century  Ghent,  in  wealth  and  power, 
eclipsed  the  French  metropolis ;  and  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century  there  was,  according  to  Erasmus,  no  town  in  all  Christen- 
dom to  compare  with  it  for  magnitude,  power,  political  institu- 
tions, or  the  culture  of  its  citizens.  The  lays  of  the  minstrels 
and  the  romances  of  chivalry  were  early  translated,  and  a  Dutch 
version  of  "  Reynard  the  Fox  "  was  made  in  the  middle  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  Jakob  Maerlant  (1235-1300),  the  first  au- 
thor of  note,  translated  the  Bible  into  Flemish  rhyme,  and  made 
many  versions  of  the  classics ;  and  Melis  Stoke,  his  contemporary, 
wrote  a  rhymed  "  Chronicle  of  Holland." 

The  most  important  work  of  the  fourteenth  century  is  the 
"  New  Doctrine,"  by  De  Weert,  which,  for  the  freedom  of  its 
expression  on  religious  subjects,  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the 
precursors  of  the  Reformation. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century  there  arose  a  class 
of  wandering  poets  called  Sprekers,  who,  at  the  courts  of  princes 
and  elsewhere,  rehearsed  their  maxims  in  prose  or  verse.  In 
the  fifteenth  century  they  formed  themselves  into  literary  socie- 
ties, known  as  "  Chambers  of  Rhetoric  "  (poetry  being  at  that 
time  called  the  "Art  of  Rhetoric"),  which  were  similar  to  the 
Guilds  of  the  Meistersingers.  These  institutions  were  soon  mul- 
tiplied throughout  the  country,  and  the  members  exercised  them- 
selves in  rhyming,  or  composed  and  performed  mysteries  and 
plays,  which,  at  length,  gave  rise  to  the  theatre.  They  engaged 
in  poetical  contests,  distributed  prizes,  and  were  prominent  in  all 
national  fetes.  The  number  of  the  rhetoricians  was  so  immense, 
that  during  the  reign  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain  more  than  thirty 
chambers,  composed  of  fifteen  hundred  members,  often  entered 
Antwerp  in  triumphal  procession.  But  the  effect  of  these  asso- 
ciations, composed  for  the  most  part  of  illiterate  men,  was  to 
destroy  the  purity  of  the  language  and  to  produce  degeneracy  in 
the  literature.  The  Chamber  of  Amsterdam,  however,  was  an 
honorable  exception,  and  towards  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury it  counted  among  its  members  distinguished  scholars,  such 
as  Spieghel,  Coornhert,  Marnix,  and  Visscher,  and  it  may  be 
considered  as  the  school  which  formed  Hooft  and  Vondel. 

During  the  reign  of  the  House  of  Burgundy  (1383-1477), 
which  was  essentially  French  in  tastes  and  manners,  the  native 
tongue  became  corrupted  by  the  admixture  of  foreign  elements. 
The  poets  and  chroniclers  of  the  time  were  chiefly  of  Flemish 
origin  ;  the  most  widely  known  among  the  latter  are  Henricourt 
(d.  1403),  Monstrelet  (d.  1453).  and  Chastelain  (d.  1475).  A 
translation  of  the  Bible  and  a  few  more  works  close  the  literary 
record  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
24 


870       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

The  invention  of  printing,  the  great  event  of  the  age,  is 
claimed  by  the  cities  of  Mayence,  Strasbourg,  and  Harlem ;  but 
if  the  art  which  preserves  literature  originated  in  the  Nether- 
lands, it  did  not  at  once  create  a  native  literature,  the  growth  of 
which  was  greatly  retarded  by  the  use  of  the  Latin  tongue, 
which  long  continued  to  be  the  organ  of  expression  with  the 
principal  writers  of  the  country,  nearly  all  of  whom,  even  to  the 
present  day,  are  distinguished  for  the  purity  and  elegance  with 
which  they  compose  in  this  language. 

The  Reformation  and  the  great  political  agitations  of  the  six- 
teenth century  ended  in  the  independence  of  the  northern  prov- 
inces and  the  establishment  of  the  Dutch  Republic  (1581)  under 
the  name  of  the  United  Provinces,  commonly  called  Holland, 
from  the  province  of  that  name,  which  was  superior  to  the  others 
in  extent,  population,  and  influence.  The  new  republic  rose 
rapidly  in  power ;  and  while  intolerance  and  religious  disputes 
distracted  other  European  states,  it  offered  a  safe  asylum  to  the 
persecuted  of  all  sects.  The  expanding  energies  of  the  people 
soon  sought  a  field  beyond  the  narrow  boundaries  of  the  coun- 
try ;  their  ships  visited  every  sea,  and  they  monopolized  the  rich- 
est commerce  of  the  world.  They  alone  supplied  Europe  with 
the  productions  of  the  Spice  Islands,  and  the  gold,  pearls,  and 
jewels  of  the  East  all  passed  through  their  hands  ;  and  in  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  United  Provinces  were  the 
first  commercial  and  the  first  maritime  power  in  the  world.  A 
rapid  development  of  the  literature  was  the  natural  consequence 
of  this  increasing  national  development,  which  was  still  more 
powerfully  promoted  by  the  great  and  wise  William  I.,  Prince 
of  Orange,  who  in  1575  founded  the  university  of  Leyden  as  a 
reward  to  that  city  for  its  valiant  defense  against  the  Spaniards. 
Similar  institutions  were  soon  established  at  Groningen,  Utrecht, 
and  elsewhere ;  these  various  seats  of  learning  produced  a  rivalry 
highly  advantageous  to  the  diffusion  of  knowledge,  and  great 
men  arose  in  all  branches  of  science  and  literature.  Among  the 
distinguished  names  of  the  sixteenth  century  those  of  the  Latin 
writers  occupy  the  first  place. 

3.  LATIN  WRITERS.  —  One  of  the  great  restorers  of  letters  in 
Europe,  and  one  of  the  most  elegant  of  modern  Latin  authors, 
was  Gerard  Didier,  a  native  of  Rotterdam,  who  took  the  name 
of  Erasmus  (1467-1536).  To  profound  learning  he  joined  a 
refined  taste  and  a  delicate  wit,  and  few  men  have  been  so 
greatly  admired  as  he  was  during  his  lifetime.  The  principal 
sovereigns  of  Europe  endeavored  to  draw  him  into  their  king- 
doms. He  several  times  visited  England,  where  he  was  received 
with  great  deference  by  Henry  VIII.,  and  where  he  gave  lec- 
tures on  Greek  literature  at  Cambridge.  He  made  many  trans- 


DUTCH  LITERATURE.  371 

/ations  from  Greek  authors,  and  a  very  valuable  translation  of 
the  New  Testament  into  Latin.  His  writings  introduced  the 
spirit  of  free  inquiry  on  all  subjects,  and  to  his  influence  may  be 
attributed  the  first  dawning  of  the  Reformation.  But  his  cau- 
tion offended  some  of  the  best  men  of  the  times.  His  treatise 
on  "Free  Will"  made  an  open  breach  between  him  and  Luther, 
whose  opinions  favored  predestination ;  his  "  Colloquies  "  gave 
great  offense  to  the  Catholics ;  and  as  he  had  not  declared  for 
the  Protestants,  he  had  but  lukewarm  friends  in  either  party.  It 
has  been  said  of  Erasmus,  that  he  would  have  purified  and  re- 
paired the  venerable  fabric  of  the  church,  with  a  light  and  cau- 
tious touch,  fearful  lest  learning,  virtue,  and  religion  should  be 
buried  in  its  fall,  while  Luther  struck  at  the  tottering  ruin  with 
a  bold  and  reckless  hand,  confident  that  a  new  and  more  beauti- 
ful temple  would  rise  from  its  ruins. 

Hugo  de  Groot,  who,  according  to  the  fashion  of  the  time, 
took  the  Latin  name  of  Grotius  (1583-1645),  was  a  scholar  and 
statesman  of  the  most  diversified  talents,  and  one  of  the  master 
minds  of  the  age.  He  was  involved  in  the  religious  controversy 
which  at  that  time  disturbed  Holland,  and  he  advocated  the  doc- 
trines of  Arminius,  in  common  with  the  great  statesman,  Barne- 
veldt,  whom  he  supported  and  defended  by  his  pen  and  influ- 
ence. On  the  execution  of  Barneveldt,  Grotius  was  condemned 
to  imprisonment  for  life  in  the  castle  of  Louvestein ;  but  after 
nearly  two  years  spent  in  the  prison,  his  faithful  wife  planned 
and  effected  his  escape.  She  had  procured  the  privilege  of  send- 
ing him  a  chest  of  books,  which  occasionally  passed  and  repassed, 
closely  scrutinized.  On  one  occasion  the  statesman  took  the 
place  of  the  books,  and  was  borne  forth  from  the  prison  in  the 
chest,  which  is  still  in  the  possession  of  the  descendants  of  Gro- 
tius, in  his  native  city  of  Delft.  The  States-General  perpetuated 
the  memory  of  the  devoted  wife  by  continuing  to  give  her  name 
to  a  frigate  in  the  Dutch  navy.  After  his  escape  from  prison, 
Grotius  found  an  asylum  in  Sweden,  from  whence  he  was  sent 
ambassador  to  France.  His  countrymen  at  length  repented  of 
having  banished  the  man  who  was  the  honor  of  his  native  land, 
and  he  was  recalled ;  but  on  his  way  to  Holland  he  was  taken  ill 
and  died  before  he  could  profit  by  this  tardy  act  of  justice.  The 
writings  of  Grotius  greatly  tended  to  diffuse  an  enlightened  anoi 
liberal  manner  of  thinking  in  all  matters  of  science.  He  was  a 
profound  theologian,  a  distinguished  scholar,  an  acute  philoso- 
pher and  jurist,  and  among  the  modern  Latin  poets  he  holds  a 
high  place.  The  philosophy  of  jurisprudence  has  been  especially 
promoted  by  his  great  work  on  natural  and  national  law,  which 
laid  the  foundation  of  a  new  science. 

Arminius  (1560-1609),  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Armmiana 


372       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

or  Remonstrants,  was  distinguished  as  a  preacher  and  for  his 
zeal  in  the  Reformed  Religion.  He  attempted  to  soften  the  Cal- 
vinistic  doctrines  of  predestination,  in  which  he  was  violently 
opposed  by  Gomarus.  He  counted  among  his  adherents  Gro- 
tius,  Barneveldt,  and  many  of  the  eminent  men  of  Holland. 
Other  eminent  theologians  of  this  period  were  Brusius  and  Coc- 
ceius. 

Lipsius  (1547-1606)  is  known  as  a  philologist  and  for  his 
treatises  on  the  military  art  of  the  Romans,  on  the  Latin  classics, 
and  on  the  philosophy  of  the  Stoics.  Another  scholar  of  exten- 
sive learning,  whose  editions  of  the  principal  Greek  and  Latin 
classics  have  rendered  him  famous  all  over  Europe,  was  Daniel 
Heinsius  (1580-1655).  Gronovius  and  several  of  the  members 
of  the  Spanheim  family  became  also  eminent  for  their  scholar- 
ship in  various  branches  of  ancient  learning. 

The  two  Scaligers,  father  and  son  (1483-1554)  (1540-1609), 
Italians,  resident  in  Holland,  are  eminent  for  their  researches  in 
chronology  and  archaeology,  and  for  their  valuable  works  on  the 
classics.  Prominent  among  those  who  followed  in  the  new  path 
of  philological  study  opened  by  the  elder  Scaliger  was  Vossius, 
or  Voss  (1577-1649),  who  excelled  in  many  bi-anches  of  learn- 
ing, and  particularly  in  Latin  philology,  which  owes  much  to 
him.  He  left  five  sons,  all  scholars  of  note,  especially  the  young- 
est, Isaac  Vossius  (1618-1689). 

Peter  Burmann  (1668-1741)  was  a  scholar  of  great  erudition 
and  industry. 

Christian  Huyghens  (1629-1695)  was  a  celebrated  astronomer 
and  mathematician,  and  many  great  men  in  those  branches  of 
science  flourished  in  Holland  in  the  seventeenth  century.  Among 
the  great  philologists  and  scholars  must  also  be  mentioned  Hem- 
sterhuis,  Ruhnkenius,  and  Valckenaer. 

Menno  van  Coehorn  (1641-1704)  was  a  general  and  engineer 
distinguished  for  his  genius  in  military  science  ;  his  great  work 
on  fortifications  has  been  translated  into  many  foreign  languages. 
Helmont  and  Boerhaave  have  acquired  world-wide  fame  by 
their  labors  in  chemistry ;  Linnseus  collected  the  materials  for 
his  principal  botanical  work  from  the  remarkable  botanical  treas- 
ures of  Holland ;  and  zoology  and  the  natural  sciences  gener- 
ally counted  many  devoted  and  eminent  champions  in  that  coun- 
try. 

Salmasius  (1588-1653),  though  born  in  France,  is  ranked 
among  the  writers  of  Holland.  He  was  professor  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Leyden,  and  was  celebrated  for  the  extent  and  depth 
of  his  erudition.  He  wrote  a  defense  of  Charles  I.  of  England, 
which  was  answered  by  Milton,  in  a  work  entitled  "  A  Defense 
of  the  English  People  against  Salmasius'  Defense  of  the  King." 


DUTCH  LITERATURE.  373 

Salmasius  died  soon  after,  and  some  did  not  scruple  to  say  that 
Milton  killed  him  by  the  acuteness  of  his  reply. 

Boerhaave  (1668-1738)  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  writers 
on  medical  science  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  from  the  time 
of  Hippocrates  no  physician  had  excited  so  much  admiration. 
Spinoza  (1632-1677)  holds  a  commanding  position  as  a  philo- 
sophical writer.  His  metaphysical  system,  as  expounded  in  his 
principal  work,  "Ethica,"  merges  everything  individual  and  par- 
ticular in  the  Divine  substance,  and  is  thus  essentially  pantheis- 
tic. The  philosophy  of  Spinoza  exercised  a  powerful  influence 
upon  the  mind  of  Kant,  and  the  master-minds  and  great  poets  of 
modern  times,  particularly  of  Germany,  have  drawn  copiously 
from  the  deep  wells  of  his  suggestive  thought. 

Among  the  many  Latin  poets  of  Holland,  John  Everard 
(1511-1536)  (called  Jan  Second  or  Johannes  Secundus,  because 
he  had  an  uncle  of  the  same  name)  is  most  celebrated.  His 
poem  entitled  "  The  Basia  or  Kisses  "  has  been  translated  into 
the  principal  European  languages.  Nicholas  Heinsius  (1620- 
1681),  son  of  the  great  philologist  and  poet  Heinsius,  wrote  va- 
rious Latin  poems,  the  melody  of  which  is  so  sweet  that  he  was 
called  by  his  contemporaries  the  "  Swan  of  Holland." 

4.  DUTCH  WRITERS  OF  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY.  —  The 
first  writer  of  this  century  in  the  native  language  was  Anna 
Byns,  who  has  been  called  the  Flemish  Sappho.  She  was  bit- 
terly opposed  to  the  Reformation,  and  such  of  her  writings  as 
were  free  from  religious  intolerance  evince  more  poetic  fire  than 
is  found  in  those  of  her  contemporaries.  Coornhert  (1522-1605) 
was  a  poet  and  philosopher,  distinguished  not  less  by  his  literary 
works  than  by  his  participation  in  the  revolution  of  the  Prov- 
inces. In  purity  of  style  and  vigor  of  thought  he  far  surpassed 
his  predecessors.  Marnix  de  St.  Aldegonde  (d.  1598)  was  a 
soldier,  a  statesman,  a  theologian,  and  a  poet.  He  was  the  au- 
thor of  the  celebrated  "  Compromise  of  the  Nobles,"  and  his  sat- 
ire on  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  was  one  of  the  most  effective 
productions  of  the  time.  He  translated  the  Psalms  from  the 
original  Hebrew,  and  was  the  author  of  a  lyric  which,  after  two 
centuries  and  a  half,  is  still  the  rallying  song  of  the  nation  on  all 
occasions  of  peril  or  triumph. 

Bor  (1559-1635)  was  commissioned  by  the  States  to  write 
a  history  of  their  struggles  with  Spain,  and  his  work  is  still  read 
and  valued  for  its  truthfulness  and  impartiality.  Meteren,  the 
contemporary  of  Bor,  wrote  the  history  of  the  country  from  the 
accession  of  the  House  of  Burgundy  to  the  year  1612  —  a  work 
which,  with  some  faults,  has  a  high  place  in  the  literature. 

Visscher  (d.  1612)  and  Spieghel  (d.  1613)  form  the  connecting 
link  between  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  Visscher, 


374       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

the  Maecenas  of  the  day,  was  distinguished  for  his  epigrammatic 
and  fugitive  poems,  and  rendered  immense  service  to  letters  by 
his  influence  on  the  literary  men  of  his  time.  His  charming 
daughters  were  both  distinguished  in  literature.  Spieghel  is 
best  remembered  by  his  poem,  the  '•  Mirror  of  the  Heart,"  which 
abounds  in  lofty  ideas,  and  in  sentiments  of  enlightened  patriot- 
ism. 

5.  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY.  —  At  the  close  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  although  the  language  was  established,  it  still  re- 
mained hard  and  inflexible,  and  the  literature  was  still  destitute 
of  dramatic,  erotic,  and  the  lighter  kinds  of  poetry  ;  but  an  ear- 
nest, patriotic,  religious,  and  national  character  was  impressed 
upon  it,  and  its  golden  age  was  near  at  hand. 

The  commencement  of  the  seventeenth  century  saw  the  people 
of  the  United  Provinces  animated  by  the  same  spirit  and  energy, 
preferring  death  to  the  abandonment  of  their  principles,  strug- 
gling with  a  handful  of  men  against  the  most  powerful  monarchy 
of  the  time ;  conquering  their  political  and  religious  independ- 
ence, after  more  than  half  a  century  of  conflict,  and  giving  to 
the  world  a  great  example  of  freedom  and  toleration ;  covering 
the  ocean  with  their  fleets,  and  securing  possessions  beyond  the 
sea  a  hundred  times  more  vast  than  the  mother  country  ;  becom- 
ing the  centre  of  universal  commerce,  and  cultivating  letters,  the 
sciences,  and  the  arts,  with  equal  success.  Poetry  was  national, 
for  patriotism  predominated  over  all  other  sentiments  ;  and  it 
was  original,  because  it  recognized  no  models  of  imitation  but 
the  classics. 

The  spirit  of  the  age  naturally  communicated  itself  to  the 
men  of  letters,  who  soon  raised  the  literature  of  the  country  to 
a  classic  height ;  first  among  these  were  Hooft,  Vondel,  and  Ja- 
cob Cats. 

Hooft  (1581-1647),  a  tragic  and  lyric  poet  as  well  as  a  his- 
torian, greatly  developed  and  perfected  the  language,  and  by  a 
careful  study  of  the  Italian  poets  imparted  to  his  native  tongue 
that  sonorous  sweetness  which  has  since  characterized  the  poetry 
of  Holland.  He  was  the  creator  of  native  tragedy,  as  well  as 
of  erotic  verse,  in  which  his  style  is  marked  by  great  sweetness, 
tenderness,  and  grace.  He  rendered  still  greater  service  to  the 
native  prose.  His  histories  of  "  Henry  IV.,"  of  the  ''  House  of 
Medici,"  and  above  all  the  history  of  the  "  War  of  Independence 
in  the  Low  Countries,"  without  sacrificing  truth,  often  border  on 
poetry,  in  their  brilliant  descriptions  and  paintings  of  character, 
and  in  their  nervous  and  energetic  style.  Hooft  was  a  man  of 
noble  heart ;  he  dared  to  protect  Grotius  in  the  days  of  his  per- 
secution ;  he  defended  Descartes  and  offered  an  asylum  to  Gal- 
ileo. 


DUTCH  LITERATURE.  375 

Vondel  (1587-1660),  as  a  lyric,  epic,  and  tragic  poet,  far  sur- 
passed all  his  contemporaries,  and  his  name  is  honored  in  Hol- 
land as  that  of  Shakspeare  is  in  England.  His  tragedies,  which 
are  numerous,  are  his  most  celebrated  productions,  and  among 
them  "  Palamedes  Unjustly  Sacrificed  "  is  particularly  interesting 
as  representing  the  heroic  firmness  of  Barneveldt,  who  repeated 
one  of  the  odes  of  Horace  when  undergoing  the  torture.  Von- 
del excelled  as  a  lyric  and  epigrammatic  poet,  and  the  faults  of 
his  style  belonged  rather  to  his  age  than  to  himself. 

No  writer  of  the  time  acquired  a  greater  or  more  lasting  repu- 
tation than  Jacob  Cats  (1577-1660),  no  less  celebrated  for  the 
purity  of  his  life  than  for  the  sound  sense  and  morality  of  his 
writings,  and  the  statesmanlike  abilities  which  he  displayed  as 
ambassador  in  England,  and  as  grand  pensioner  of  Holland. 
His  style  is  simple  and  touching,  his  versification  easy  and  har- 
monious, and  his  descriptive  talent  extraordinary.  His  works 
consist  chiefly  of  apologues  and  didactic  and  descriptive  poems. 
No  writer  of  Holland  has  been  more  read  than  Father  Cats,  as 
the  people  affectionately  call  him  ;  and  up  to  the  present  hour, 
in  all  families  his  works  have  their  place  beside  the  Bible,  and 
his  verses  are  known  by  heart  all  over  the  country.  An  illus- 
trated edition  of  his  poems  in  English  has  been  recently  published 
in  London. 

Hooft  and  Vondel  left  many  disciples  and  imitators,  among 
whom  are  Antonides  (1647-1684),  surnamed  Van  der  Goes, 
whose  charming  poem  on  the  River  Y,  the  model  of  several  sim- 
ilar compositions,  is  still  read  and  admired.  Among  numerous 
other  writers  were  Huygens  (b.  1596),  a  poet  who  wrote  in 
many  languages  besides  his  own ;  Heinsius  (b.  1580),  a  pupil 
of  Scaliger,  the  author  of  many  valuable  works  in  prose  and 
poetry  ;  Vallenhoven,  contemporary  with  Antonides,  a  religious 
poet ;  Rotgans,  the  author  of  an  epic  poem  on  William  of  Eng- 
land ;  Elizabeth  Hoofman  (b.  1664),  a  poetess  of  rare  elegance 
and  taste,  and  Wellekens  (b.  1658),  whose  eclogues  and  idyls 
occupy  the  first  place  among  that  class  of  poems.  As  a  histo- 
rian Hooft  found  a  worthy  successor  in  Brandt  (1626-1683), 
also  a  poet,  but  best  known  by  his  "  History  of  the  Reforma- 
tion in  the  Netherlands,"  which  has  been  translated  into  French 
and  English,  and  which  is  a  model  in  point  of  style.  At  this 
period  the  Bible  was  translated  and  commented  upon,  and  biog- 
raphies, criticisms,  and  many  other  prose  works  appeared.  The 
voyages  and  discoveries  of  the  Dutch  merchants  and  navigators 
were  illustrated  by  numerous  narratives,  which,  for  their  interest 
both  in  style  and  detail,  deserve  honorable  mention. 

From  the  commencement  of  the  last  quarter  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  however,  many  causes  combined  to  produce  a  decline 


376       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

in  the  literature  of  the  Netherlands.  The  honors  which  were 
accorded  not  only  by  the  Dutch  universities,  but  by  all  Europe 
to  their  Latin  writers  and  learned  professors,  were  rarely  be- 
stowed on  writers  in  the  native  tongue,  and  thus  the  minds  of 
men  of  genius  were  turned  to  the  study  of  the  classics  and  the 
sciences.  The  Dutch  merchants,  while  they  cultivated  all  other 
languages  for  the  facilities  they  thus  gained  in  their  commercial 
transactions,  restricted  by  so  much  the  diffusion  of  their  own; 
Other  causes  of  this  decline  are  to  be  found  in  the  indifference 
of  the  republican  government  to  the  interests  of  literature,  and 
in  the  increasing  number  of  alliances  with  foreigners,  who  were 
attracted  to  Holland  by  the  mildness  of  its  laws,  in  the  grow- 
ing commercial  spirit  and  taste  for  luxury,  and  especially  in  the 
influence  of  French  literature,  which,  towards  the  close  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  became  predominant  in  Holland  as  else- 
where. 

6.  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY.  —  For  the  first  three  quarters 
of  the  eighteenth  century  the  literature  of  Holland,  like  that  of 
other  countries  of  Europe,  with  the  exception  of  France,  re- 
mained stationary,  or  slowly  declined.  But  in  the  midst  of  uni- 
versal mediocrity,  a  few  names  shine  with  distinguished  lustre. 
Among  them  that  of  Foot  (1689-1732)  is  commonly  cited  with 
those  of  Hooft  and  Vondel.  He  was  a  young  peasant,  whose 
rare  genius  found  expression  in  a  sweet  and  unaffected  style. 
He  excelled  in  idyllic  and  erotic  poetry,  and  while  he  has  no 
rival  in  Holland,  he  may  perhaps  be  compared  to  Burns  in  Scot- 
land, and  Beranger  in  France.  The  theatre  of  Amsterdam,  the 
only  one  of  the  country,  continued  to  confine  itself  to  transla- 
tions or  imitations  from  the  French.  There  appeared,  however, 
at  the  commencement  of  this  period,  an  original  comic  author, 
Langendijk  (1662-1735),  whose  works  still  hold  their  place 
upon  the  stage,  partly  for  their  merit,  and  partly  to  do  honor  to 
the  only  comic  poet  Holland  has  produced. 

Hoogvliet  (1689-1763)  was  distinguished  as  the  author  of  a 
poem  entitled  "  Abraham,"  which  had  great  and  merited  suc- 
cess, and  which  still  ranks  among  the  classics  ;  for  some  years 
after  it  appeared,  it  produced  a  flood  of  imitations. 

De  Marre  (b.  1696),  among  numerous  writers  of  tragedy,  oc- 
cupies the  first  place.  From  his  twelfth  year  he  was  engaged 
in  the  merchant  marine  service,  and  besides  his  tragedies  his 
voyages  inspired  many  other  works,  the  chief  of  which,  a  poem 
entitled  "  Batavia,"  celebrates  the  Dutch  domination  in  the 
Asiatic  archipelago.  Feitama  (1694-1758),  with  less  poetic 
merit  than  De  Marre,  had  great  excellence.  He  was  the  first 
translator  of  the  classics  who  succeeded  in  imparting  to  his  verse 
the  true  spirit  of  his  originals. 


DUTCH  LITERATURE.  877 

Huydecoper  (d.  1778)  was  the  first  grammarian  of  merit,  and 
he  united  great  erudition  with  true  poetic  power.  His  tragedies 
are  still  represented. 

Onno  Zwier  Van  Haren  (1713—1789)  was  also  a  writer  of 
tragedy,  and  the  author  of  a  long  poem  in  the  epic  style,  called 
the  Gueux  (beggars),  a  name  given  in  derision  to  the  allied  no- 
blemen of  the  Netherlands  in  the  time  of  Philip,  and  adopted 
by  them.  This  poem  represents  the  great  struggle  of  the  coun- 
try with  Spain,  which  ended  in  the  establishment  of  the  Dutch 
republic,  and  is  distinguished  for  its  fine  episodes,  its  brilliant 
pictures,  and  its  powerful  development  of  character. 

The  only  strictly  epic  poem  that  Holland  has  produced  is  the 
"  Friso  "  of  William  Van  Haren  (1710-1758),  the  brother  of 
the  one  already  named.  Friso,  the  mythical  founder  of  the 
Frisons,  is  driven  from  his  home  on  the  shores  of  the  Ganges, 
and,  after  many  adventures,  finds  an  asylum  and  establishes  his 
government  in  the  country  to  which  he  gives  his  name.  This 
work  with  many  faults  is  full  of  beauties.  The  brothers  Van 
Haren  were  free  from  all  foreign  influence,  and  may  justly  be 
regarded  as  the  two  great  poets  of  their  time.  The  poems  of 
Smits  (1702-1750)  are  full  of  grace  and  sentiment,  but,  like 
those  of  almost  all  the  Dutch  poets,  they  are  characterized  by  a 
seriousness  of  tone  nearly  afiied  to  melancholy.  Ten  Kate 
(1676-1723)  stands  first  among  the  grammarians  and  etymolo- 
gists, and  his  works  are  classical  authorities  on  the  subject  of 
the  language. 

Preeminent  among  the  crowd  of  historians  is  Wagenaar 
(1709—1773),  the  worthy  successor  of  Hooft  and  Brandt,  whose 
"  History  of  the  United  Provinces  "  is  particularly  valuable  for 
its  simplicity  of  style  and  truthfulness  of  detail. 

Of  the  lighter  literature,  Van  Effen,  who  had  visited  England, 
produced  in  French  the  "  Spectator,"  in  imitation  of  the  English 
periodical,  and,  like  that,  it  is  still  read  and  considered  classical. 

Towards  the  conclusion  of  the  century,  other  periodicals  were 
established,  which,  in  connection  with  literary  societies  and 
academies,  exercised  great  influence  on  literature.  The  con- 
temporary writers  of  Germany  were  also  read  and  translated, 
and  henceforth  in  some  degree  they  counterbalanced  French 
influence. 

First  among  the  writers  who  mark  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century  are  Van  Winter  (d.  1795),  and  his  distinguished  wife, 
Madame  Van  Merken  (d.  1789).  They  published  conjointly  a 
volume  of  tragedies  in  which  the  chief  merit  of  those  of  Van 
Winter  consists  in  their  originality  and  in  the  expression  of  those 
sentiments  of  justice,  humanity,  and  equality  before  the  law, 
which  were  just  then  beginning  to  find  a  voice  in  Europe. 


378       HANDBOOK   OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

Madame  Van  Merken,  who,  late  in  life,  married  Van  Winter, 
has  been  called  the  Racine  of  Holland.  To  masculine  energy 
and  power  she  united  all  the  virtues  and  sweetness  of  her  own 
sex.  Besides  many  long  poems,  she  was  the  author  of  several 
tragedies,  many  of  which  have  remarkable  merit.  Madame 
Van  Merken  gave  a  new  impulse  to  the  literature  of  her  coun- 
try, of  which  she  is  one  of  the  classic  ornaments,  and  prepared 
the  way  for  Feith  and  Bilderdyk. 

The  Baroness  De  Lannoy,  the  contemporary  of  Madame  Van 
Merken,  was,  like  her,  eminent  in  tragedy  and  other  forms  of 
poetry,  though  less  a  favorite,  for  in  that  free  country  an  illus- 
trious birth  has  been  ever  a  serious  obstacle  to  distinction  in  the 
republic  of  letters. 

Nomz  (d.  1803)  furnished  the  theatre  of  Amsterdam  with 
many  pieces,  original  and  translated,  and  merited  a  better  fate 
from  his  native  city  than  to  die  in  the  public  hospital. 

The  poets  who  mark  the  age  from  Madame  Van  Merken  to 
Bilderdyk,  are  Van  Alphen,  Bellamy,  and  Nieuwland.  Van 
Alphen  (d.  1803)  is  distinguished  for  his  patriotism,  originality, 
and  deeply  religious  spirit.  His  poems  for  children  are  known 
by  heart  by  all  the  children  of  Holland,  and  he  is  their  national 
poet,  as  Cats  is  the  poet  of  mature  life  and  old  age.  Bellamy, 
who  died  at  the  early  age  of  twenty-eight  years  (1786),  left 
many  poems  characterized  by  originality,  force,  and  patriotic 
fervor,  no  less  than  by  beauty  and  harmony  of  style.  Nieuw- 
land (d.  1794),  like  Bellamy,  rose  from  the  lower  order  of 
society  by  the  force  of  his  genius  ;  at  the  age  of  twenty-three  he 
was  called  to  the  chair  of  philosophy,  mathematics,  and  astron- 
omy at  Utrecht,  and  later  to  the  university  of  Leyden.  He  was 
equally  great  as  a  mathematician  and  as  a  poet  in  the  Latin  lan- 
guage as  well  as  his  own.  All  his  productions  are  marked  by 
elegance  and  power. 

Styl  (d.  1804)  was  a  poet  as  well  as  a  historian ;  one  of  the 
most  valuable  works  on  the  history  of  the  country  is  his 
"  Growth  and  Prospects  of  the  United  Provinces."  Te  Water, 
Bondam,  and  Van  de  Spiegel  contributed  to  the  same  depart- 
ment. 

Romance  writing  has,  with  few  exceptions,  been  surrendered 
to  women.  Among  the  romances  of  character  and  manners, 
those  of  Elizabeth  Bekker  Wolff  (d.  1804)  are  distinguished 
for  their  brilliant  and  caustic  style,  and  those  of  Agatha  Deken 
for  their  earnest  and  enlightened  piety.  The  works  of  both 
present  lively  pictures  of  national  character  and  manners. 

7.  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.  —  The  political  convulsions 
of  the  last  years  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  the  early  part  of 
the  nineteenth,  which  overthrew  the  Dutch  Republic,  revolu- 


DUTCH  LITERATURE.  379 

tionized  the  literature  not  less  than  the  state,  —  and  the  new  era 
was  illustrated  by  its  poets,  historians,  and  orators.  But  in  the 
elevation  of  inferior  men  by  the  popular  party,  the  more  emi- 
nent men  of  letters  for  a  time  withdrew  from  the  field,  and  the 
noblest  productions  of  native  genius  were  forgotten  in  the  flood 
of  poor  translations  which  inundated  the  country  and  corrupted 
the  taste  and  the  language  by  their  Germanisms  and  Galli- 
cisms. 

Among  the  crowd  of  poets,  a  few  only  rose  superior  to  the 
influences  of  the  time.  Feith  (d.  1824)  united  a  lofty  patriot- 
ism to  a  brilliant  poetical  genius  ;  his  odes  and  other  poems 
possess  rare  merit,  and  his  prose  is  original,  forcible,  and  ele- 
gant. 

Helmers  (d.  1813)  is  most  honored  for  his  poem,  "  The  Dutch 
Nation,"  which,  with  some  faults,  abounds  in  beautiful  episodes 
and  magnificent  passages. 

Bilderdyk  (1756-1831)  is  not  only  the  greatest  poet  Holland 
has  produced,  but  he  is  equally  eminent  as  a  universal  scholar. 
He  was  a  lawyer,  a  physician,  a  theologian,  a  historian,  astron- 
omer, draftsman,  engineer,  and  antiquarian,  and  he  was  ac- 
quainted with  nearly  all  the  ancient  and  modern  languages.  In 
1820  he  published  five  cantos  of  a  poem  on  "  The  Destruction 
of  the  Primitive  World,"  which,  though  it  remains  unfinished, 
is  a  superb  monument  of  genius  and  one  of  the  literary  glories 
of  Holland.  Bilderdyk  excelled  in  every  species  of  poetry, 
tragedy  only  excepted,  and  his  published  works  fill  more  than 
one  hundred  octavo  volumes. 

Van  der  Palm  (b.  1763)  occupies  the  same  place  among  the 
prose  writers  of  the  nineteenth  century  that  Bilderdyk  does 
among  the  poets.  He  held  the  highest  position  as  a  pulpit  ora- 
tor and  member  of  the  Council  of  State,  and  his  discourses,  ora- 
tions, and  other  prose  works  are  models  of  style,  and  are  counted 
among  the  classics  of  the  country.  His  great  work,  however, 
was  the  translation  of  the  Bible. 

Since  the  time  of  Bilderdyk  and  Van  der  Palm  no  remark- 
able genius  has  appeared  in  Holland. 

Loosjes  (d.  1806)  added  to  his  reputation  as  a  poet  by  his 
historical  romances,  and  Fokke  (d.  1812)  was  a  satirist  of  the 
follies  and  errors  of  his  age.  Among  the  historians  who  have 
devoted  themselves  to  the  history  of  foreign  countries  are  Stu- 
art, Van  Hamelsveld,  and  Muntinghe,  who,  in  a  short  space  of 
time,  enriched  their  native  literature  with  more  than  sixty 
volumes  of  history,  of  a  profoundly  religious  and  philosophical 
character,  which  bear  the  stamp  of  originality  and  nationality. 

The  department  of  oratory  in  Dutch  literature,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  that  of  the  pulpit,  is  poor,  and  this  is  to  be  explained 


380       HANDBOOK   OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE, 

in  part  by  the  fact  that  the  deliberations  of  the  States-General 
were  always  held  with  closed  doors.  Holland  was  an  aristo- 
cratic republic,  and  the  few  families  who  monopolized  the  power 
had  no  disposition  to  share  it  with  the  people,  who,  on  the  other 
hand,  were  too  much  occupied  with  their  own  affairs  and  too 
confident  of  the  wisdom  and  moderation  of  their  rulers,  to  wish 
to  mingle  in  the  business  of  state.  The  National  Assembly, 
however,  from  1775  to  1800,  had  its  orators,  chiefly  men  carried 
into  public  life  by  the  events  of  the  age,  but  they  were  far  infe- 
rior to  those  of  other  countries. 

The  impulse  given  to  literature  by  Bilderdyk  and  Van  der 
Palm  is  not  arrested.  Among  the  numerous  authors  who  have 
since  distinguished  themselves,  are  Loots,  a  patriotic  poet  of  the 
school  of  Vondel ;  Tollens,  who  ranks  with  the  best  native  au- 
thors in  descriptive  poetry  and  romance  ;  Wiselius,  the  author 
of  several  tragedies,  a  scholar  and  political  writer ;  Klyn  (d. 
1856)  ;  Van  Walre  and  Van  Halmaal,  dramatic  poets  of  great 
merit ;  Da  Costa  and  Madame  Bilderdyk,  who,  as  a  poetess, 
shared  the  laurels  of  her  husband.  In  romance,  there  are  Anna 
Toussaint,  Bogaers,  and  Jan  Van  Lennep,  son  of  the  celebrated 
professor  of  that  name,  who  introduced  into  Holland  historical 
romances  modeled  after  those  of  Scott,  and  who  contributed 
much  to  discard  French  and  to  popularize  the  national  litera- 
ture. In  prose,  De  Vries  must  be  named  for  his  eloquent  his- 
tory of  the  poetry  of  the  Netherlands;  Van  Kampen  (1776- 
1839)  for  his  historical  works  ;  Geysbeck  for  his  biographical 
dictionary  and  anthology  of  the  poets,  and  De  s'Gravenweert,  a 
poet  and  the  translator  of  the  Hiad  and  Odyssey.  Von  Hoevell 
is  the  author  of  a  work  on  slavery,  which  appeared  not  many 
years  since,  the  effect  of  which  can  be  compared  only  to  that  of 
"  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin." 

In  Belgium,  Conscience  is  a  successful  author  of  fiction  and 
history,  and  his  works  have  been  frequently  translated  into  other 
languages.  De  Laet,  one  of  the  ablest  writers  of  the  country 
in  connection  with  Conscience,  has  done  much  for  the  revival  of 
Flemish  literature,  which  now  boasts  of  many  original  writers  in 
various  departments. 

The  literature  of  the  Netherlands,  like  the  people,  is  earnest, 
religious,  always  simple,  and  often  elevated  and  sublime.  It  is 
especially  distinguished  for  its  reflective  and  patriotic  character, 
and  bears  the  mark  of  that  accurate  study  of  the  classic  models 
which  has  formed  the  basis  of  the  national  education,  and  to 
which  its  purity  of  taste,  naturalness,  and  simplicity  are  un- 
doubtedly to  be  attributed.  There  exists  no  nation  of  equal 
population  which,  within  the  course  of  two  or  three  centuries, 
has  produced  a  greater  number  of  eminent  men. 


DUTCH  LITERATURE.  381 

From  the  age  of  Hooft  and  Vondel  to  the  present  day,  though 
the  Dutch  literature  may  have  submitted  at  times  to  foreign  in- 
fluence, and  though,  like  all  others,  it  may  have  paid  its  tribute 
to  the  fashions  and  faults  of  the  day,  it  has  still  preserved  its 
nationality,  and  is  worthy  of  being  known  and  admired. 


SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE. 

I.  Introduction.  The  Ancient  Scandinavians ;  their  Influence  on  the  English  Race. — 2. 
The  Mythology.  —  3.  The  Scandinavian  Languages.  —  4.  Icelandic,  or  Old  Norse  Litera- 
ture :  the  Poetic  Edda,  the  Prose  Edda,  the  Scalds,  the  Sagas,  the  "  Heimskringla."  The 
Folks-Sagas  and  Ballads  of  the  Middle  Ages.  — 5.  Danish  Literature :  Saxo  Grammaticus 
and  Theodoric  ;  Arreboe,  Kingo,  Tycho  Brahe,  Holberg,  Evald,  Baggesen,  Oehlenschla- 
ger,  Grundtvig,  Blicher,  Ingemann,  Heiberg,  G-yllenbourg,  Winther,  Hertz,  Miiller,  Hans 
Andersen,  Ploug,  Goldschmidt,  Hastrup,  and  others ;  Malte  Bruu,  Rask,  Rafn,  Magnu- 
sen,  the  brothers  Oersted. — 6.  Swedish  Literature:  Messenius,  Stjernhjelm,  Lncidor, 
and  others.  The  Gallic  period :  Dalin,  Nordenflycht,  Crutz  and  Gyllenborg,  Gustavus 
III.,  Kellgren,  Leopold,  Oxenstjerna.  The  New  Era  :  Bellman,  Hallman,  Kexel,  Wallen- 
berg, Lidner,  ThorUd,  Lengren,  Franzen,  Wallin.  The  Phosphorists :  Atterbom,  Ham- 
marskold,  and  Palmblad.  The  Gothic  School :  Geijer,  Tegn6r,  Stagnelius,  Almquist,  Vi- 
talis,  Runeberg,  and  others.  The  Romance  Writers :  Cederborg,  Bremer,  CarltSn,  Knor- 
ring.  Science  :  Swedenborg,  Linnaeus,  and  others. 

1.  INTRODUCTION.  —  It  is  a  singular  fact  that  the  progressive 
and  expanding  spirit  which  characterizes  the  English  race  should 
be  so  universally  referred  to  their  Anglo-Saxon  blood,  while  the 
transcendent  influence  of  the  Scandinavian  element  is  entirely 
overlooked.  The  so-called  Anglo-Saxons  were  a  handful  of 
people  in  Holstein,  where  they  may  still  be  found  in  inglorious 
obscurity,  the  reluctant  subjects  of  Denmark.  The  early  emi- 
grants who  bore  that  name,  were,  it  is  true,  from  various  por- 
tions of  Germany ;  but  even  if  the  glory  of  our  English  ancestry 
be  transferred  from  Anglen,  and  spread  over  the  whole  country, 
we  find  a  race  bearing  no  resemblance  to  the  English  in  their 
more  active  and  powerful  qualities,  but  an  intellectual  people, 
possessed  of  a  patient  and  conceding  nature,  which,  without 
other  more  aspiring  attributes,  doubtless  would  have  left  the 
English  people  in  the  same  condition  of  political  slavery  that  the 
Germans  continue  in  to  this  day.  Of  all  those  institutions  so 
commonly  and  gratuitously  ascribed  to  them,  of  representative 
government,  trial  by  jury,  and  such  machinery  of  political  and 
social  independence,  there  is  not  a  vestige  to  be  found  in  any 
age  in  Germany,  from  the  Christian  era  to  the  present  time. 
During  the  period  of  their  dominion  in  England,  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,  so  far  from  showing  themselves  an  enterprising  people 
were  notoriously  weak,  slothful,  and  degenerate,  overrun  by  the 
Danes,  and  soon  permanently  subjected  by  the  Normans.  It 
is  evident,  from  the  trifling  resistance  they  made,  that  they  had 
neither  energy  to  fight,  nor  property,  laws,  nor  institutions  to  de- 
fend, and  that  they  were  merely  serfs  on  the  lands  of  the  nobles 
or  of  the  church,  who  had  nothing  to  lose  by  a  change  of  mas- 
ters. It  is  to  the  renewal  of  the  original  spirit  of  the  Anglo- 


SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE.  383 

Saxons,  by  the  fresh  infusion  of  the  Danish  conquerors  into  a 
very  large  proportion  of  the  whole  population,  in  the  eleventh 
century,  that  we  must  look  for  the  actual  origin  of  the  national 
character  and  institutions  of  the  English  people,  and  for  that 
check  of  popular  opinion  and  will  upon  arbitrary  rule  which 
grew  up  by  degrees,  and  which  slowly  but  necessarily  produced 
the  English  law,  character,  and  institutions.  These  belong  not 
to  the  German  or  Anglo-Saxon  race  settled  in  England  previous 
to  the  tenth  or  eleventh  century,  but  to  that  small,  cognate 
branch  of  Northmen  or  Danes,  who,  between  the  ninth  and 
twelfth  centuries,  brought  their  paganism,  energy,  and  social  in- 
stitutions to  conquer,  mingle  with,  and  invigorate  the  inert  de- 
scendants of  the  old  race.  That  this  northern  branch  of  the 
common  race  has  been  the  more  influential  in  the  society  of  mod- 
ern Europe,  we  need  only  compare  England  and  the  United 
States  with  Saxony,  Prussia,  Hanover,  or  any  country  of  strictly 
ancient  Teutonic  descent,  to  be  satisfied.  From  whatever  quar- 
ter civil,  religious,  and  political  liberty  and  independence  of 
mind  may  have  come,  it  was  not  from  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  or 
the  forests  of  Germany. 

The  difference  in  the  spirit  of  the  two  branches  of  the  same 
original  race  was  immense,  even  at  the  earliest  period.  When 
the  Danes  and  Norwegians  overran  England,  the  Germans  had, 
for  six  centuries,  been  growing  more  and  more  pliant  to  despotic 
government,  and  the  Scandinavians  more  and  more  bold  and  in- 
dependent. At  home  they  elected  their  kings,  and  decided 
everything  by  the  general  voice  of  the  Althing,  or  open  Parlia- 
ment. Abroad  they  became  the  most  daring  of  adventurers ;  their 
Vikings  spread  themselves  along  the  shores  of  Europe,  plunder- 
ing and  planting  colonies ;  they  subdued  England,  seized  Nor- 
mandy, besieged  Paris,  conquered  a  large  portion  of  Belgium, 
and  made  extensive  inroads  into  Spain.  They  made  themselves 
masters  of  lower  Italy  and  Sicily  under  Robert  Guiscard,  in  the 
eleventh  century ;  during  the  Crusades  they  ruled  Antioch  and 
Tiberias,  under  Tancred  ;  and  in  the  same  century  they  marched 
across  Germany,  and  established  themselves  in  Switzerland, 
where  the  traditions  of  their  arrival,  and  traces  of  their  lan- 
guage still  remain.  In  861  they  discovered  Iceland,  and  soon 
after  peopled  it ;  thence  they  stretched  still  farther  west,  dis- 
covered Greenland,  and  proceeding  southward,  towards  the  close 
of  the  tenth  century  they  struck  upon  the  shores  of  North  Amer- 
ica, it  would  appear,  near  the  coast  of  Massachusetts.  They 
seized  on  Novogorod,  and  became  the  founders  of  the  Russian 
Empire,  and  of  a  line  of  Czars  which  became  extinct  only  in 
1598,  when  the  Slavonic  dynasty  succeeded.  From  Russia  they 
made  their  way  to  the  Black  Sea,  and  in  866  appeared  before 


384       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

Constantinople,  where  their  attacks  were  bought  off  only  on  the 
payment  of  large  sums  by  the  degenerate  emperors.-  From 
902  to  the  fall  of  the  empire,  the  emperors  retained  a  large 
body-guard  of  Scandinavians,  who,  armed  with  double-edged 
battle-axes,  were  renowned  through  the  world,  under  the  name 
of  Varengar,  or  the  Vdringjar  of  the  old  Icelandic  Sagas. 

Such  were  the  ancient  Scandinavians.  To  this  extraordinary 
people  the  English  and  their  descendants  alone  bear  any  resem- 
blance. In  them  the  old  Norse  fire  still  burns,  and  manifests 
itself  in  the  same  love  of  martial  daring  and  fame,  the  same  in- 
domitable seafaring  spirit,  the  same  passion  for  the  discovery  of 
new  seas  and  new  lands,  and  the  same  insatiable  longing,  when 
discovered,  to  seize  and  colonize  them. 

2.  THE  MYTHOLOGY.  —  The  mythology  of  the  northern  na- 
tions, as  represented  in  the  Edda,  was  founded  on  Polytheism  ; 
but  through  it,  as  through  the  religion  of  all  nations,  there  is 
dimly  visible,  like  the  sun  shining  through  a  dense  cloud,  the 
idea  of  one  Supreme  Being,  of  infinite  power,  boundless  knowl- 
edge, and  incorruptible  justice,  who  could  not  be  represented  by 
any  corporeal  form.  Such,  according  to  Tacitus,  was  the  su- 
preme God  of  the  Germans,  and  such  was  the  primitive  belief 
of  mankind.  Doubtless,  the  poet  priests,  who  elaborated  the 
imaginative,  yet  philosophical  mythology  of  the  north,  were 
aware  of  the  true  and  only  God,  infinitely  elevated  above  the 
attributes  of  that  Nature,  which  they  shaped  into  deities  for  the 
multitude  whom  they  believed  incapable  of  more  than  the  wor- 
ship of  the  material  powers  which  they  saw  working  in  every- 
thing around  them. 

The  dark,  hostile  powers  of  nature,  such  as  frost  and  fire,  are 
represented  as  giants,  "jotuns,"  huge,  chaotic  demons;  while 
the  friendly  powers,  the  sun,  the  summer  heat,  all  vivifying  prin- 
ciples, were  gods.  From  the  opposition  of  light  and  darkness, 
water  and  fire,  cold  and  heat,  sprung  the  first  life,  the  giant 
Ymer  and  his  evil  progeny  the  frost  giants,  the  cow  Adhumla, 
and  Bor,  the  father  of  the  god  Odin.  Odin,  with  his  brothers, 
slew  the  giant  Ymer,  and  from  his  body  formed  the  heavens  and 
earth.  From  two  stems  of  wood  they  also  shaped  the  first  man 
and  woman,  whom  they  endowed  with  life  and  spirit,  and  from 
whom  descended  all  the  human  race. 

There  were  twelve  principal  deities  among  the  Scandinavians, 
of  whom  Odin  was  the  chief.  There  is  a  tradition  in  the  north 
of  a  celebrated  warrior  of  that  name,  who,  near  the  period  of 
the  Christian  era,  fled  from  his  country,  between  the  Caspian 
and  the  Black  Sea,  to  escape  the  vengeance  of  the  Romans,  and 
marched  toward  the  north  and  west  of  Europe,  subduing  all 
who  opposed  him,  and  finally  established  himself  in  Sweden, 


SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE.  385 

where  he  received  divine  honors.  According  to  the  Eddas, 
however,  Odin  was  the  son  of  Bor,  and  the  most  powerful  of  the 
gods ;  the  father  of  Thor,  Balder,  and  others ;  the  god  of  war, 
eloquence,  and  poetry.  He  was  made  acquainted  with  every- 
thing that  happened  on  earth,  through  two  ravens,  Hugin  and 
Munin  (mind  and  memory)  ;  they  flew  daily  round  the  world, 
and  returned  every  night  to  whisper  in  his  ear  all  that  they  had 
seen  and  heard.  Thor,  the  god  of  thunder,  was  the  implacable 
and  dreaded  enemy  of  the  giants,  and  the  avenger  and  defender 
of  the  gods.  His  stature  was  so  lofty  that  no  horse  could  bear 
him,  and  lightning  flashed  from  his  eyes  and  from  his  chariot 
wheels  as  they  rolled  along.  His  mallet  or  hammer,  his  belt  of 
strength  and  his  gauntlets  of  iron,  were  of  wonderful  power,  and 
with  them  he  could  overthrow  the  giants  and  monsters  who  were 
at  war  with  the  gods.  Balder,  the  second  son  of  Odin,  was  the 
noblest  and  fairest  of  the  gods,  beloved  by  everything  in  nature. 
He  exceeded  all  beings  in  gentleness,  prudence,  and  eloquence, 
and  he  was  so  fair  and  graceful  that  light  emanated  from  him 
as  he  moved.  In  his  palace  nothing  impure  could  exist.  The 
death  of  Balder  is  the  principal  event  in  the  mythological  drama 
of  the  Scandinavians.  It  was  foredoomed,  and  a  prognostic  of 
the  approaching  dissolution  of  the  universe  and  of  the  gods 
themselves.  Heimdall  was  the  warder  of  the  gods ;  his  post 
was  on  the  summit  of  Bifrost,  called  by  mortals  the  rainbow  — 
the  bridge  which  connects  heaven  and  earth,  and  down  which 
the  gods  daily  traveled  to  hold  their  councils  under  the  shade 
of  the  tree  Yggdrasil.  The  red  color  was  the  flaming  tire, 
which  served  as  a  defense  against  the  giants.  Heimdall  slept 
more  lightly  than  a  bird,  and  his  ear  was  so  exquisite  that  he 
could  hear  the  grass  grow  in  the  meadows  and  the  wool  upon  the 
backs  of  the  sheep.  He  carried  a  trumpet,  the  sound  of  which 
echoed  through  all  worlds.  Loke  was  essentially  of  an  evil 
nature,  and  descended  from  the  giants,  the  enemies  of  the  gods ; 
but  he  was  mysteriously  associated  with  Odin  from  the  infancy 
of  creation.  He  instilled  a  spark  of  his  fire  into  a  man  at  his 
creation,  and  he  was  the  father  of  ihree  monsters,  Hela  or 
Death,  the  Midgard  Serpent,  and  the  wolf  Fenris,  the  constant 
terror  of  the  gods,  and  destined  to  be  the  means  of  their  de- 
struction. 

Besides  these  deities,  there  were  twelve  goddesses,  the  chief  of 
whom  was  Frigga,  the  wife  of  Odin,  and  the  queen  and  mother 
of  the  gods.  She  knew  tho  future,  but  never  revealed  it ;  and 
she  understood  the  language  of  animals  and  plants.  Freya  was 
the  goddess  of  love,  unrivaled  in  grace  and  beauty  —  the  Scan- 
dinavian Venus.  Iduna  was  possessed  of  certain  apples,  of  such 
virtue  that,  by  eating  of  them,  the  gods  became  exempted  from 
25 


386       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

the  consequences  of  old  age,  and  retained,  unimpaired,  all  the 
freshness  of  youth.  The  gods  dwelt  above,  in  Asgard,  the  gar- 
den of  the  Asen  or  the  Divinities ;  the  home  of  the  giants,  with 
whom  they  were  in  perpetual  war,  was  Jotunheim,  a  distant, 
dark,  chaotic  land,  of  which  Utgard  was  the  chief  seat.  Mid- 
gard,  or  the  earth,  the  abode  of  man,  was  represented  as  a  disk 
in  the  midst  of  a  vast  ocean  ;  its  caverns  and  recesses  were  peo- 
pled with  elves  and  dwarfs,  and  around  it  lay  coiled  the  huge 
Midgard  Serpent.  Muspelheim,  or  Flameland,  and  Nifelheim  or 
Mistland,  lay  without  the  organized  universe,  and  were  the  ma- 
terial regions  of  light  and  darkness,  the  antagonism  of  which  had 
produced  the  universe  with  its  gods  and  men.  Nifelheini  was  a 
dark  and  dreary  realm,  where  Hela,  or  Death,  ruled  with  des- 
potic sway  over  those  who  had  died  ingloriously  of  disease  or  old 
age.  Helheini,  her  cold  and  gloomy  palace,  was  thronged  with 
their  shivering  and  shadowy  spectres.  She  was  livid  and  ghastly 
pale,  and  her  very  looks  inspired  horror. 

The  chief  residence  of  Odin,  in  Asgard,  was  Valhalla,  or  the 
Hall  of  the  Slam ;  it  was  hung  round  with  golden  spears,  and 
shields,  and  coats  of  mail ;  and  here  he  received  the  souls  of  war- 
riors killed  in  battle,  who  were  to  assist  him  in  the  final  conflict 
with  the  giants  ;  and  here,  every  day,  they  armed  themselves  for 
battle,  and  rode  forth  by  thousands  to  their  mimic  combat  on  the 
plains  of  Asgard,  and  at  night  they  returned  to  Valhalla  to  feast 
on  the  flesh  of  the  boar,  and  to  drink  the  intoxicating  mead. 
Here  dwelt,  also,  the  numerous  virgins  called  the  Valkyriur,  or 
Choosers  of  the  Slain,  whom  Odin  sent  forth  to  every  battle-field 
to  sway  the  victory,  to  make  choice  of  those  who  should  fall  in 
the  combat,  and  to  direct  them  on  their  way  to  Valhalla.  They 
were  called,  also,  the  Sisters  of  War ;  they  watched  with  intense 
interest  over  their  favorite  warriors  and  sometimes  lent  an  ear 
to  their  love.  In  the  field  they  were  always  in  complete  armor ; 
led  on  by  Skulda,  the  youngest  of  the  Fates,  they  were  foremost 
in  battle,  with  helmets  on  their  heads,  armed  with  flaming 
swords,  and  surrounded  by  lightning  and  meteors.  Sometimes 
they  were  seen  riding  through  the  air  and  over  the  sea  on  shad- 
owy horses,  from  whose  manes  fell  hail  on  the  mountains  and 
dew  on  the  valleys  ;  and  at  other  times  their  fiery  lances  gleamed 
in  the  spectral  lights  of  the  aurora  borealis ;  and  again,  they 
were  represented  clothed  in  white,  with  flowing  hair,  as  cupbear- 
ers to  the  heroes  at  the  feasts  of  Valhalla. 

In  the  centre  of  the  world  stood  the  great  ash  tree  Yggdrasil, 
the  Tree  of  Life,  of  which  the  Christmas  tree  and  the  Maypole 
of  northern  nations  are  doubtless  emblems.  It  spread  its  life- 
giving  arms  through  the  heavens,  and  struck  its  three  roots  down 
through  the  three  worlds.  It  nourished  all  life,  even  that  of 


SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE.  387 

Nedhog,  the  most  venomous  of  serpents,  which  continually 
gnawed  at  the  root  that  penetrated  Nifelheim.  A  second  root 
entered  the  region  of  the  frost  giants,  where  was  the  well  in 
which  wisdom  and  understanding  were  concealed.  A  third  root 
entered  the  region  of  the  gods  ;  and  there,  beside  it,  dwelt  the 
three  Nornor  or  Fates,  over  whom  even  the  gods  had  no  power, 
and  who,  every  day,  watered  it  from  the  primeval  fountain,  so 
that  its  boughs  remained  green. 

The  gods  were  benevolent  spirits  —  the  friends  of  mankind, 
but  they  were  not  immortal.  A  destiny  more  powerful  than  they 
or  their  enemies,  the  giants,  was  one  day  to  overwhelm  them.  At 
the  Ragnarok,  or  twilight  of  the  gods,  foretold  in  the  Edda,  the 
monsters  shall  be  unloosed,  the  heavens  be  rent  asunder,  and  the 
sun  and  moon  disappear ;  the  great  Midgard  Serpent  shall  lash 
the  waters  of  the  ocean  till  they  overflow  the  earth  ;  the  wolf 
Fenris,  whose  enormous  mouth  reaches  from  heaven  to  earth, 
shall  rush  upon  and  devour  all  within  his  reach  ;  the  genii  of  fire 
shall  ride  forth,  clothed  in  flame,  and  lead  on  the  giants  to  the 
storming  of  Asgard.  Heimdall  sounds  his  trumpet,  which  echoes 
through  all  worlds  ;  the  gods  fly  to  arms  ;  Odin  appears  in  his 
golden  casque,  his  resplendent  cuirass,  with  his  vast  scimitar  in 
his  hand,  and  marshals  his  heroes  in  battle  array.  The  great  ash 
tree  is  shaken  to  its  roots,  heaven  and  earth  are  full  of  horror  and 
affright,  and  gods,  giants,  and  heroes  are  at  length  buried  in  one 
common  ruin.  Then  comes  forth  the  mighty  one,  who  is  above  all 
gods,  who  may  not  be  named.  He  pronounces  his  decrees,  and 
establishes  the  doctrines  which  shall  endure  forever.  A  new 
earth,  fairer  and  more  verdant,  springs  forth  from  the  bosom  of 
the  waves,  the  fields  bring  forth  without  culture,  calamities  are 
unknown,  and  in  Heaven,  the  abode  of  the  good,  a  palace  is 
reared,  more  shining  than  the  sun,  where  the  just  shall  dwell  for- 
evermore. 

Traces  of  the  worship  of  these  deities  by  our  pagan  ancestors 
still  remain  in  the  names  given  to  four  days  of  the  week.  Tues- 
day was  consecrated  to  Tyr,  a  son  of  Odin ;  Wednesday,  Odin's 
or  Wooden' s  day,  to  Odin  ;  Thursday,  or  Thor's  day,  to  Thor  ; 
and  Friday,  or  Freya's  day,  was  sacred  to  the  goddess  Freya. 

3.  THE  LANGUAGE.  —  The  Scandinavian  or  Norse  languages 
include  the  Icelandic,  Danish,  Swedish,  and  Norwegian  dialects. 

The  Icelandic  or  Old  Norse,  which  was  the  common  language 
of  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway,  in  the  ninth  centuiy,  was 
carried  into  Iceland,  where,  to  the  present  time,  it  has  wonder- 
fully retained  its  early  characteristics.  The  written  alphabet 
was  called  Runic,  and  the  letters,  Runes,  of  which  the  most  an- 
cient specimens  are  the  inscriptions  on  Rune  stones,  rings,  and 
wooden  tablets. 


388       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

The  Danish  and  Swedish  may  be  called  the  New  Norse  lan- 
guages ;  they  began  to  assume  a  character  distinct  from  the  Old 
Norse  about  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century.  The  Danish 
language  is  not  confined  to  Denmark,  but  is  used  in  the  litera- 
ture, and  by  the  cultivated  society  of  Norway. 

The  Swedish  is  the  most  musical  of  the  Scandinavian  dialects, 
its  pronunciation  being  remarkably  soft  and  agreeable.  Its  char- 
acter is  more  purely  Norse  than  the  Danish,  which  has  been 
greatly  affected  by  its  contact  with  the  German. 

The  Norwegian  exists  only  in  the  form  of  dialects  spoken  by 
the  peasantry.  It  is  distinguished  from  the  other  two  by  a  rich 
vocabulary  of  words  peculiar  to  itself,  and  by  its  own  pronuncia- 
tion and  peculiar  construction  ;  only  literary  cultivation  is  wanted 
to  make  it  an  independent  language  like  the  others. 

4.  ICELANDIC  OK  OLD  NORSE  LITERATURE.  —  In  868  one  of 
the  Norwegian  vikings  or  sea  rovers,  being;  driven  on  the  coast 
of  Iceland,  first  made  known  the  existence  of  the  island.  Har- 
old, the  fair-haired,  having  soon  after  subdued  or  slain  the  petty 
kings  of  Norway,  and  introduced  the  feudal  system,  many  of  the 
inhabitants,  disdaining  to  sacrifice  their  independence,  set  forth 
to  colonize  this  dreary  and  inhospitable  region,  whose  wild  and 
desolate  aspect  seemed  to  attract  their  imaginations.  Huge 
mountains  of  ice  here  rose  against  the  northern  sky,  from  which 
the  smoke  of  volcanoes  rolled  balefully  up  ;  and  the  large  tracts 
of  lava,  which  had  descended  from  them  to  the  sea,  were  cleft  into 
fearful  abysses,  where  no  bottom  could  be  found.  Here  were 
strange,  desolate  valleys,  with  beds  of  pure  sulphur,  torn  and 
.overhanging  precipices,  gigantic  caverns,  and  fountains  of  boiling 
water,  which,  mingled  with  flashing  fires,  soared  up  into  the  air, 
amid  the  undergroans  of  earthquakes,  and  howlings  and  hissings 
as  of  demons  in  torture.  Subterranean  fires,  in  terrific  contest 
with  the  wintry  ocean,  seemed  to  have  made  sport  of  rocks, 
mountains,  and  rivers,  tossing  them  into  the  most  fantastic  and 
appalling  shapes.  Yet  such  was  the  fondness  of  the  Scandina- 
vian imagination  for  the  wild  and  desolate,  and  such  their  ha- 
tred of  oppression,  that  they  soon  peopled  this  chaotic  island  to 
an  extent  it  has  never  since  reached.  In  spite  of  the  rigor  of 
the  climate,  where  corn  refused  to  ripen,  and  where  the  labors 
of  fishing  and  agriculture  could  only  be  pursued  for  four  months 
of  the  year,  the  people  became  attached  to  this  wild  country. 
They  established  a  republic  which  lasted  four  hundred  years,  and 
for  ages  it  was  destined  to  be  the  sanctuary  and  preserver  of  the 
grand  old  literature  of  the  North.  The  people  took  with  them 
their  Scalds  and  their  traditions,  and  for  a  century  after  the 
peopling  of  the  island,  they  retained  their  Pagan  belief.  Ages 
rolled  away  ;  the  religion  of  Odin  had  perished  from  the  main- 


SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE.  389 

land,  and  the  very  hymns  and  poems  in  which  its  doctrines  were 
recorded  had  perished  with  it,  when,  in  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  the  Rhythmical  Edda  of  Samund  was  discovered, 
followed  by  the  Prose  Edda  of  Snorre  Sturleson.  These  discov- 
eries roused  the  zeal  of  the  Scandinavian  literati,  and  led  to  fur- 
ther investigations,  which  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  a  vast 
number  of  chronicles  and  sagas,  and  much  has  since  been  done 
by  the  learned  men  of  Iceland  and  Denmark  to  bring  to  light 
the  remote  annals  of  northern  Europe. 

These  remains  fall  into  the  three  divisions  of  Eddaic,  Scaldic, 
and  Saga  literature.  Samund  the  Wise  (1056-1131),  a  Chris- 
tian priest  of  Iceland,  was  the  first  to  collect  and  commit  to 
writing  the  oral  traditions  of  the  mythology  and  poetry  of  the 
Scandinavians.  His  collection  has  been  termed  the  "  Edda,"  a 
word  by  some  supposed  to  signify  grandmother,  and  by  others 
derived,  with  more  probability,  from  the  obsolete  word  cedo,,  to 
teach.  The  elder  or  poetic  Edda  consists  of  thirty-eight  poems, 
and  is  divided  into  two  parts.  The  first,  or  mythological  cycle, 
contains  everything  relating  to  the  Scandinavian  ideas  of  the 
creation  of  the  world,  the  origin  of  man,  the  morals  taught  by 
the  priests,  and  stories  of  the  gods  ;  the  second,  or  heroic  cycle, 
contains  the  original  materials  of  the  "  Nibelungen  Lied  "  of 
Germany.  The  poems  consist  of  strophes  of  six  or  eight  lines 
each,  with  little  of  the  alliteration  by  which  the  Scalds  were 
afterwards  distinguished.  One  of  the  oldest  and  most  interest- 
ing is  the  "  Voluspa,"  or  Song  of  the  Prophetess,  a  kind  of  sibyl- 
line lay,  which  contains  an  account  of  the  creation,  the  origin  of 
man  and  of  evil,  and  concludes  with  a  prediction  of  the  destruc- 
tion and  renovation  of  the  universe,  and  a  description  of  the  fu- 
ture abodes  of  happiness  and  misery.  "  Vafthrudnir's  Song  "  is 
in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between  Odin,  disguised  as  a  mortal, 
and  the  giant  Vafthrudnir,  in  which  the  same  subjects  are  dis- 
cussed. "  Grimner's  Song "  contains  a  description  of  twelve 
habitations  of  the  celestial  deities,  considered  as  symbolical  of 
the  signs  of  the  zodiac.  "  Rig's  Song  "  explains,  allegorically, 
the  origin  of  the  three  castes  :  the  thrall,  the  churl,  and  the  noble, 
which,  at  a  very  early  period,  appear  to  have  formed  the  frame- 
work of  Scandinavian  society.  "  The  Havamal,"  or  the  High 
Song  of  Odin,  is  the  complete  code  of  Scandinavian  ethics. 
The  maxims  here  brought  together  more  resemble  the  Proverbs 
of  Solomon  than  anything  in  human  literature,  but  without  the 
high  religious  views  of  the  Scripture  maxims.  It  shows  a  worldly 
wisdom,  experience,  and  sagacity,  to  which  modern  life  can  add 
nothing.  In  the  Havamal  is  included  the  Rune  Song. 

Runes,  the  primitive  rudely-shaped  letters  of  the  Gothic  race, 
appear  never  to  have  been  used  to  record  their  literature,  which 


390       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

was  committed  to  the  Scalds  and  Sagamen,  but  they  were  re- 
served for  inscriptions  on  rocks  or  memorial  stones,  or  they  were 
cut  in  staves  of  wood,  as  a  rude  calendar  to  assist  the  memory. 
Odin  was  the  great  master  of  runes,  but  all  the  gods,  many  of 
the  giants,  kings,  queens,  prophetesses,  and  poets  possessed  the 
secret  of  their  power.  In  the  ballads  of  the  Middle  Ages,  long 
after  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  we  find  everywhere  the 
boast  of  Runic  knowledge  and  of  its  power.  Queens  and  prin- 
cesses cast  the  runic  spell  over  their  enemies ;  ladies,  by  the  use 
of  runes,  inspire  warriors  with  love ;  and  weird  women  by  their 
means  perform  witchcraft  and  sorcery.  Some  of  their  rune 
songs  taught  the  art  of  healing ;  others  had  power  to  stop  flying 
spears  in  battle,  and  to  excite  or  extinguish  hatred  and  love. 
There  were  runes  of  victory  inscribed  on  swords ;  storm  runes, 
which  gave  power  over  sails,  inscribed  on  rudders  of  ships,  drink 
runes,  which  gave  power  over  others,  inscribed  on  drinking 
horns ;  and  herb  runes,  cut  in  the  bark  of  trees  which  cured  sick- 
ness and  wounds.  These  awful  characters,  which  struck  terror 
into  the  hearts  of  our  heathen  ancestors,  and  which  appalled  and 
subdued  alike  kings,  warriors,  and  peasants,  were  simple  letters 
of  the  alphabet ;  but  they  prove  to  what  a  stupenduous  extent 
knowledge  was  power  in  the  dark  ages  of  the  earth.  The  poet 
who  sings  the  Rune  Song  in  the  Havamal  does  it  with  every 
combination  of  mystery,  calculated  to  inspire  awe  and  wonder  in 
the  hearer. 

The  two  poems,  "  Odin's  Raven  Song  "  and  the  "  Song  of  the 
Way-Tamer,"  are  among  the  most  deeply  poetical  hymns  of  the 
Edda.  They  relate  to  the  same  great  event  —  the  death  of  Bal- 
der —  and  are  full  of  mystery  and  fear.  A  strange  trouble  has 
fallen  upon  the  gods,  the  oracles  are  silent,  and  a  dark,  woeful 
foreboding  seizes  on  all  things  living.  Odin  mounts  his  steed, 
Sleipner,  and  descends  to  hell  to  consult  the  Vala  there  in  her 
tomb,  and  to  extort  from  her,  by  runic  incantations,  the  fate  of 
his  son.  This  "  Descent  of  Odin  "  is  familiar  to  the  English 
reader  through  Gray's  Ode.  In  all  mythologies  we  have  glimpses 
continually  of  the  mere  humanity  of  the  gods,  we  witness  their 
limited  powers  and  their  consciousness  of  a  coming  doom.  In 
this  respect  every  mythology  is  kept  in  infinite  subordination  to 
the  true  faith,  in  which  all  is  sublime,  infinite,  and  worthy  of 
the  Deity  —  in  which  God  is  represented  as  pure  spirit,  whom 
the  heaven  of  heavens  cannot  contain  ;  and  all  assumption  of  di- 
vinity by  false  gods  is  treated  as  a  base  superstition. 

The  remaining  songs  of  the  first  part  of  the  Edda  relate 
chiefly  to  the  exploits,  wanderings,  and  love  adventures  of  the 
gods.  The  "  Sun  Song,"  with  which  it  concludes,  is  believed  to 
be  the  production  of  Samund,  the  collector  of  the  Edda.  In  this 


SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE.  391 

he  retains  some  of  the  machinery  of  the  old  creed,  but  introduces 
the  Christian  Deity  and  doctrines. 

The  second  part  of  the  elder  Edda  contains  the  heroic  cycle 
of  Icelandic  poems,  the  first  part  of  which  is  the  Song  of  Vo- 
land,  the  renowned  northern  smith.  The  story  of  Voland,  or 
Wayland,  the  Vulcan  of  the  North,  is  of  unknown  antiquity ; 
and  his  fame,  which  spread  throughout  Europe,  still  lives  in  the 
traditions  of  all  northern  nations.  The  poems  concerning  Sigurd 
and  the  Niflunga  form  a  grand  epic  of  the  simplest  construction. 
The  versification  consists  of  strophes  of  six  or  eight  lines,  with- 
out rhyme  or  alliteration.  The  sad  and  absorbing  story  here 
narrated  was  wonderfully  popular  throughout  the  ancient  Scan- 
dinavian and  Teutonic  world,  and  it  is  impossible  to  say  for  how 
many  centuries  these  great  tragic  ballads  had  agitated  the  hearts 
of  the  warlike  races  of  the  north.  It  is  clear  that  Sigurd  and 
Byrnhilda,  with  all  their  beauty,  noble  endowment,  and  sorrowful 
history,  were  real  personages,  who  had  taken  powerful  hold  on 
the  popular  affections  in  the  most  ancient  times,  and  had  corne 
down  from  age  to  age,  receiving  fresh  incarnations  and  embel- 
lishments from  the  popular  Scalds.  There  is  a  great  and  power- 
ful nature  living  through  these  poems.  They  are  pictures  of  men 
and  women  of  godlike  beauty  and  endowments,  and  full  of  tho 
vigor  of  simple  but  impetuous  natures.  Though  fragmentary, 
they  stand  in  all  the  essentials  of  poetry  far  beyond  the  German 
Lied,  and,  in  the  tragic  force  of  passion  which  they  portray,  they 
are  superior  to  any  remains  of  ancient  poetry  except  that  of 
Greece.  Their  greatness  lies  less  in  their  language  than  their 
spirit,  which  is  sublime  and  colossal.  Passion,  tenderness,  and 
sorrow  are  here  depicted  with  the  most  vivid  power ;  and  the 
noblest  sentiments  and  the  most  heroic  actions  are  crossed  by 
the  foulest  crimes  and  the  most  terrific  tragedies.  They  con- 
tain materials  for  a  score  of  dramas  of  the  most  absorbing  char- 
acter. 

The  Prose  or  Younger  Edda  was  the  work  of  Snorre  Sturle- 
Bon  (1178—1241),  who  was  born  of  a  distinguished  Icelandic 
family,  and,  after  leading  a  turbulent  and  ambitious  life,  and 
being  twice  supreme  magistrate  of  the  republic,  was  at  last  assas- 
sinated. The  younger  Edda  repeats  in  prose  the  sublime  poetry 
of  the  elder  Edda,  mixed  with  many  extravagances  and  absurdi- 
ties ;  and  in  point  of  literary  and  philosophical  value  it  bears  no 
comparison  with  it.  It  marks  the  transition  from  the  art  of  the 
Scalds  to  the  prose  relation  of  the  Sagaman.  This  work  con- 
cludes with  a  treatise  on  the  poetic  phraseology  of  the  Scalds, 
and  a  system  of  versification  by  Snorre. 

The  Bard,  or  Scald  (literally  smoothers  of  language,  from 
scaldre,  to  polish),  formed  an  important  feature  of  the  courts  of 


392       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

the  princes  and  more  powerful  nobles.  They  often  acted,  at  the 
same  time,  as  bard,  councilor,  and  warrior.  Until  the  twelfth 
century,  when  the  monks  and  the  art  of  writing  put  an  end  to 
the  Scaldic  art,  this  race  of  poets  continued  to  issue  from  Ice- 
land, and  to  travel  from  country  to  country,  welcomed  as  the 
honored  guests  of  kings,  and  receiving  in  return  for  their  songs, 
rings  and  jewels  of  great  value,  but  never  money.  There  is  pre- 
served a  list  of  two  hundred  and  thirty  scalds,  who  had  dis- 
tinguished themselves  from  the  time  of  Ragnor  Lodbrok  to  that 
of  Vladimir  II.,  or  from  the  latter  end  of  the  eighth  to  the 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century.  Ragnor  Lodbrok  was  a 
Danish  king,  who,  in  one  of  his  predatory  excursions,  was  taken 
prisoner  in  England  and  thrown  into  a  dungeon,  to  be  stung 
to  death  by  serpents.  His  celebrated  death  song  is  said  to 
have  been  composed  during  his  torments.  The  best  of  the 
scaldic  lays,  however,  are  greatly  inferior  to  the  Eddaic  poems. 
Alliteration  is  the  chief  characteristic  of  the  versification. 

The  word  Saga  means  literally  a  tale  or  narrative,  and  is  used 
in  Iceland  to  denote  every  species  of  tradition,  whether  fabulous 
or  true.  In  amount,  the  Saga  literature  of  ancient  Scandinavia 
is  surprisingly  extensive,  consisting  of  more  than  two  hundred 
volumes.  The  Sagas  are,  for  the  most  part,  unconnected  biog- 
raphies or  narratives  of  greater  or  less  length,  principally  describ- 
ing events  which  took  place  from  the  ninth  to  the  thirteenth 
century.  They  are  historical,  mythic,  heroic,  and  romantic. 

The  first  annalist  of  Iceland  of  whom  we  have  any  remains 
was  Ari  the  Wise  (b.  1067),  the  contemporary  of  Samund,  and 
his  annals,  for  the  most  part,  have  been  lost.  Snorre  Sturleson, 
already  spoken  of  as  the  collector  of  the  Prose  Edda,  was  the 
author  of  a  great  original  work,  the  "  Heimskringla,"  or  Home- 
Circle,  so  called  from  the  first  word  of  the  manuscript,  a  most 
admirable  history  of  a  great  portion  of  northern  Europe  from 
the  period  of  the  Christian  Era  to  1177,  including  every  species 
of  S  "ga  composition.  It  traces  Odin  and  his  followers  from  the 
East,  from  Asaland  and  Asgard,  its  chief  city,  to  their  settle- 
ment in  Scandinavia.  It  narrates  the  contests  of  the  kings,  the 
establishment  of  the  kingdoms  of  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Den- 
mark, the  Viking  expeditions,  the  discovery  and  settlement  of 
Iceland  and  Greenland,  the  discovery  of  America,  and  the  con- 
quests of  England  and  Normandy.  The  stories  are  told  with  a 
life  and  freshness  that  belong  only  to  true  genius,  and  a  picture 
is  given  of  human  life  in  all  its  reality,  genuine,  vivid,  and  true. 
Some  of  the  Sagas  of  the  "  Heimskringla  "  are  grand  romances, 
full  of  brilliant  adventures,  while  at  the  same  time  they  lie  so 
completely  within  the  range  of  history  that  they  may  be  regarded 
as  authentic.  That  of  Harold  Haardrada  narrates  his  expedi- 


SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE.  393 

tion  to  the  East,  his  brilliant  exploits  in  Constantinople,  Syria, 
and  Sicily,  his  scaldic  accomplishments,  and  his  battles  in  Eng- 
land against  Harold,  the  son  of  Earl  Godwin,  where  he  fell  only 
a  few  days  before  Godwin's  son  himself  fell  at  the  battle  of  Has- 
tings. This  Saga  is  a  splendid  epic  in  prose,  and  is  particularly 
interesting  to  the  English  race.  The  first  part  of  the  "  Heims- 
kringla "  is  necessarily  derived  from  tradition ;  as  it  advances 
fable  and  fact  all  curiously  intermingle,  and  it  terminates  in  au- 
thentic history. 

Among  the  most  celebrated  Sagas  of  the  remaining  divisions 
are  the  "  Sagas  of  Erik  the  Wanderer,"  who  wen<,  in  search  of 
the  Island  of  Immortality  ;  "  Frithiof's  Saga,"  made  the  subject 
of  Tegner's  great  poem ;  the  Saga  of  Ragnor  Lodbrok,  of  Diet- 
rich of  Bern,  and  the  Volsunga  Saga,  relating  to  the  ancestors 
of  Sigurd  or  Siegfried,  the  hero  of  the  Nibelungen  Lied.  There 
are,  besides,  Sagas  of  all  imaginable  fictions  of  heroes,  saints, 
magicians,  conquerors,  and  fair  women.  Almost  every  leading 
family  of  Iceland  had  its  written  saga.  The  Sagamen,  like  the 
Scalds,  traveled  over  all  Scandinavia,  visited  the  courts  and 
treasured  up  and  transmitted  to  posterity  the  whole  history  of 
the  North.  This  wonderful  activity  of  the  Scandinavian  mind 
from  the  ninth  to  the  thirteenth  century,  both  in  amount  and 
originality,  throws  completely  into  the  shade  the  literary  achieve- 
ments of  the  Anglo-Saxons  during  the  same  period. 

When  Christianity  superseded  the  ancient  religion,  the  spirit 
and  traditions  of  the  old  mythology  remained  in  the  minds  of 
the  people,  and  became  their  fireside  literature  under  the  name 
of  "  Folk  Sagas."  Their  legends  and  nursery  tales  are  diffused 
over  modern  Scandinavia,  and  appear,  with  many  variations, 
through  all  the  literature  of  Europe.  Among  them  are  found 
the  originals  of  "Jack  the  Giant  Killer,"  "Cinderella,"  "Blue 
Beard,"  the  "  Little  Old  Woman  Cut  Shorter,"  "  The  Giant  who 
smelt  the  Blood  of  an  Englishman."  and  many  others. 

The  Folk  Sagas  have  only  recently  been  collected,  but  they 
are  the  true  productions  of  ancient  Scandinavians. 

The  art  of  the  Scald  and  Sagaman,  which  was  extinguished 
with  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  revived  after  a  time  in  the 
Romances  of  Chivalry  and  the  popular  ballads.  These  ballads 
are  classified  as  heroic,  supernatural,  historic,  and  ballads  of  love 
and  romance  ;  they  successively  describe  all  the  changes  in  the 
life  and  opinions  of  society,  and  closely  resemble  those  of  Eng- 
land, Scotland,  and  Germany.  They  are  the  common  expression 
of  the  life  and  feelings  of  a  common  race,  under  the  prevailing 
influences  of  the  same  period,  and  the  same  stories  often  inspired 
the  nameless  bards  of  both  countries.  They  are  composed  in  the 
same  form  and  possess  the  same  curious  characteristic  of  tho 


394       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

refrain  or  chorus  which  distinguishes  this  poetry  in  its  transition 
from  the  epic  to  the  lyric  form.  They  express  a  peculiar  poetic 
feeling  which  is  sought  for  in  vain  in  the  epic  age  —  a  sentiment 
which,  without  art  and  without  name,  wanders  on  until  it  is 
caught  up  by  fresh  lips,  and  becomes  the  regular  interpreter  of 
the  same  f eelings.  Thus  this  simple  voice  of  song  travels  onward 
from  mouth  to  mouth,  from  heart  to  heart,  the  language  of  the 
general  sorrows,  hopes,  and  memories ;  strange,  and  yet  near  to 
every  one,  centuries  old,  yet  never  growing  older,  since  the 
human  heart,  whose  history  it  relates  in  so  many  changing  im- 
ages and  notes,  remains  forever  the  same. 

Though  the  great  majority  of  the  popular  ballads  of  Scandi- 
navia are  attributed  to  the  twelfth,  thirteenth,  and  fourteenth 
centuries,  the  composition  of  them  by  no  means  ceased  then. 
This  voice  of  the  people  continued  more  or  less  to  find  expres- 
sion down  to  the  close  of  the  last  century,  when  it  became  the 
means  of  leading  back  its  admirers  to  truth  and  genuine  feeling, 
and,  more  than  anything  else,  contributed  to  the  revival  of  a  new 
era  in  literature. 

5.  DANISH  LITERATURE.  —  In  taking  leave  of  the  splendid 
ancient  literature  of  Scandinavia,  we  find  before  us  a  waste  of 
nearly  four  centuries  from  the  thirteenth,  which  presents  scarcely 
a  trace  of  intellectual  cultivation.  The  ballads  and  tales,  indeed, 
lingered  in  the  popular  memory  and  heart ;  fresh  notes  of  genu- 
ine music  were  from  time  to  time  added  to  them,  and  they  form 
the  connecting  link  between  the  ancient  and  modern  literature. 
Saxo  Grammaticus  and  Theodoric  the  monk,  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  adopted  the  Latin  language  in  their  chronicles  of  Den- 
mark and  Norway,  and  from  that  time  it  usurped  the  place  of 
the  native  tongue  among  the  educated.  In  the  sixteenth  century 
the  spirit  of  the  Reformation  began  to  exert  an  influence,  and 
the  Bible  was  translated  into  the  popular  tongue.  New  fields  of 
thought  were  opened,  a  passion  for  literature  was  excited,  and 
translations,  chiefly  from  the  German,  were  multiplied  ;  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  classics  was  cultivated,  and,  in  time,  a  noble  harvest 
of  literature  followed. 

The  first  author  who  marks  the  new  era  is  Arreboe  (1587- 
1637),  who  has  been  called  the  Chaucer  of  Denmark.  His  chief 
work  was  the  "  Hexameron,"  or  "  The  World's  First  Week." 
It  abounds  with  learning,  and  displays  great  poetic  beauty.  The 
religious  psalms  and  hymns  of  Kingo  (1634—1703)  are  charac- 
terized by  a  simple  yet  powerfully  expressed  spirit  of  piety,  and 
are  still  held  in  high  esteem.  His  Morning  and  Evening  Prayers, 
or,  as  he  beautifully  terms  them,  "  Sighs,"  are  admirable. 

Many  other  names  of  note  are  found  in  the  literature  of  this 
period,  but  the  only  one  who  achieved  a  world-wide  celebrity, 


SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE.  395 

was  Tycho  Brahe  (1546-1601),  who,  for  a  time,  was  the  centre 
of  a  brilliant  world  of  science  and  literature.  The  learned  and 
celebrated,  from  all  countries,  visited  him,  and  he  was  loaded 
with  gifts  and  honors,  in  return  for  the  honor  which  he  conferred 
upon  his  native  land.  But  at  length,  through  the  machinations 
of  his  enemies,  he  lost  the  favor  of  the  king,  and  was  forced  to 
exile  himself  forever  from  his  country.  The  services  rendered 
to  astronomy  by  Tycho  Brahe  were  great,  although  his  theory  of 
the  universe,  in  which  our  own  planet  constituted  the  centre,  has 
given  way  before  the  more  profound  one  of  Copernicus. 

Holberg  (1684-1754),  a  native  of  Norway,  is  commonly  styled 
the  creator  of  the  modern  literature  of  Denmark,  and  would 
take  a  high  place  in  that  of  any  country.  In  the  field  of  satire 
and  comedy  he  was  a  great  and  unquestionable  master.  All  his 
actors  are  types,  and  are  as  real  and  existent  at  the  present  hour 
as  they  were  actual  when  he  sketched  them.  Besides  satires 
and  numerous  comedies,  Holberg  was  the  author  of  various  his- 
tories, several  volumes  of  letters,  and  a  book  of  fables. 

The  principal  names  which  appear  in  Danish  literature,  from 
Holberg  to  Evald,  are  those  of  Stub,  Sneedorf,  Tullin,  and 
Sheersen.  Evald  (1743-1780)  was  the  first  who  perceived  the 
superb  treasury  of  poetic  wealth  which  lay  in  the  far  antiquity 
of  Scandinavia,  among  the  gods  of  the  Odinic  mythology,  and 
who  showed  to  his  nation  the  grandeur  and  beauty  which  the 
national  history  had  reserved  for  the  true  poetic  souls  who  should 
dare  to  appropriate  them.  But  the  sound  which  he  drew  from 
the  old  heroic  harp  startled  his  contemporaries,  while  it  did  not 
fascinate  them.  The  august  figures  which  he  brought  before 
them  seemed  monstrous  and  uncouth.  Neglected  in  life,  and 
doomed  to  an  early  death,  the  history  of  this  poet  was  painfully 
interesting ;  a  strangely  brilliant  web  of  mingled  gold  and  ordi- 
nary thread  —  a  strangely  blended  fabric  of  glory  and  of  grief. 
Solitary,  poor,  bowed  down  with  physical  and  mental  suffering, 
from  his  heart's  wound,  as  out  of  a  dark  cleft  in  a  rock,  swelled 
the  clear  stream  of  song.  The  poem  of  "  Adam  and  Eve," 
"  Rolf  Krage,"  the  first  original  Danish  tragedy,  "  Balder's 
Death,"  and  "  The  Fishermen,"  are  his  principal  productions. 
"  Rolf  Krage  "  is  the  outpouring  of  a  noble  heart,  in  which  the 
most  generous  and  exalted  sentiments  revel  in  all  the  inexperi- 
ence of  youth.  '•  Balder's  Death  "  is  a  masterpiece  of  beauty, 
sentiment,  and  eloquence  of  diction.  It  is  full  of  the  passion  of 
an  unhappy  love,  and  thus  expresses  the  burning  emotions  of  the 
poet's  own  heart.  The  old  northern  gods  and  mythic  person- 
ages are  introduced,  and  the  lyric  element  is  blended  with  the 
dramatic.  The  lyrical  drama  of  "  The  Fishermen  "  is  perhaps 
the  most  perfect  and  powerful  of  all  Evald's  works.  The  intense 


396       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

interest  it  excites  testifies  to  the  power  of  the  writer,  while  the 
music  of  the  versification  delights  the  ear.  His  lyric  of  "  King 
Christian,"  now  the  national  song  of  Denmark,  is  a  masterly 
production  of  its  kind. 

During  the  forty  years  which  succeeded  the  death  of  Evald, 
Denmark  produced  a  great  number  of  poets  and  authors  of  vari- 
ous kinds,  who  advanced  the  fame  of  their  country ;  but  the 
chief  of  those  who  closed  the  eighteenth  century  are  Baggesen 
(1764-1826)  and  Rahbek  (1760-1830).  Though  they  still  wrote 
in  the  nineteenth  century,  they  belonged  in  spirit  essentially  to 
the  eighteenth.  The  life  of  Baggesen  was  a  genuine  romance, 
with  all  its  sunshine  and  shade.  He  was  born  in  poverty  and 
obscurity,  and  when  a  child  of  seven  years  old,  on  one  occasion, 
attracted  the  momentary  attention  of  the  young  and  lovely  Queen 
Caroline,  who  took  him  in  her  arms  and  kissed  him.  "  Still, 
after  half  a  century,"  he  writes,  "glows  the  memory  of  that 
kiss ;  to  all  eternity  I  shall  never  forget  it.  From  that  kiss 
sprang  the  germ  of  my  entire  succeeding  fate."  After  a  long 
and  severe  struggle  with  poverty,  he  suddenly  found  himself  the 
most  popular  poet  of  the  country,  and  for  a  quarter  of  a  century 
he  was  the  petted  favorite  of  the  nation.  Supplanted  in  public 
favor  by  the  rising  glory  of  Oehlenschlager,  he  had  the  misfor- 
tune to  see  the  poetic  crown  of  Denmark  placed  on  the  head  of 
his  rival ;  and  the  last  years  of  his  life  were  embittered  by  dis- 
appointment and  care.  The  works  of  Baggesen  fill  twelve  vol- 
umes, and  consist  of  comic  stories,  numerous  letters,  satires  and 
impassioned  lyrics,  songs  and  ballads,  besides  dramas  and  operas. 
His  "  Poems  to  Nanna,"  who,  in  the  northern  mythology,  is  the 
bride  of  Balder,  are  among  the  most  beautiful  in  the  Danish 
language,  and  no  poet  could  have  written  them  until  he  had 
gone  through  the  deep  and  ennobling  baptism  of  suffering.  In 
these,  Nanna  is  the  symbol  of  the  pure  and  eternal  principle  of 
love,  and  Balder  is  the  type  of  the  human  heart,  perpetually 
yearning  after  it  in  sorrow,  yet  in  hope.  Nanna  appears  lost  — 
departed  into  a  higher  and  invisible  world ;  and  Balder,  while 
forever  seeking  after  her,  bears  with  him  an  internal  conscious- 
ness that  there  he  shall  overtake  her,  and  possess  her  eter- 
nally. One  of  Baggesen's  characteristics  was  the  projection  of 
great  schemes,  which  were  never  accomplished.  He  was  too 
fond  of  living  in  the  present  —  in  the  charmed  circle  of  admir- 
ing friends  —  to  achieve  works  otherwise  within  the  limit  of 
his  powers.  But  with  all  his  faults,  his  works  will  always  re- 
main brilliant  and  beautiful  amid  the  literary  wealth  of  his 
country. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  centuiy  the  new  light 
which  radiated  from  Germany  found  its  way  into  Denmark,  and 


SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE.  397 

in  no  country  was  the  result  so  rapid  or  so  brilliant.  There  soon 
arose  a  school  of  poets  who  created  for  themselves  a  reputation 
in  all  parts  of  Europe  that  would  have  done  honor  to  any  age 
or  country.  A  new  epoch  in  the  language  began  with  Oehlen- 
schlager  (1779-1856),  the  greatest  poet  of  Denmark,  and  the 
representative,  not  only  of  the  North,  but,  like  Scott,  Byron, 
Goethe,  and  Schiller,  the  outgrowth  of  a  great  era  as  well,  and 
the  incarnation  of  the  broader  and  more  natural  spirit  of  his 
time.  In  1819  he  published  the  "  Gods  of  the  North,"  in  which 
he  combines  ah1  the  legends  of  the  Edda  into  one  connected 
whole.  He  entered  fully  into  the  spirit  of  these  grand  old 
poems,  and  condensed  and  elaborated  them  into  one.  In  the 
various  regions  of  gods,  giants,  dwarfs,  and  men,  in  the  striking 
variety  of  characters,  the  great  and  wise  Odin,  the  mighty  Thor, 
the  good  Balder,  the  malicious  Loke,  the  queenly  Frigga,  the 
genial  Freya,  the  lovely  Iduna,  the  gentle  Nanna  —  in  all 
the  magnificent  scenery  of  Midgard,  Asgard,  and  Nifelheim, 
with  the  glorious  tree  Yggdrasil  and  the  rainbow  bridge,  the  poet 
found  inexhaustible  scope  for  poetical  embellishment,  and  he 
availed  himself  of  it  all  with  a  genuine  poet's  power.  The 
dramas  of  Oehlenschlager  are  his  masterpieces,  but  they  form 
only  a  small  portion  of  his  works.  His  prose  stories  and  ro- 
mances fill  several  volumes,  and  his  smaller  poems  would  of 
themselves  have  established  almost  a  greater  reputation  than 
that  of  any  Danish  poet  who  went  before  him. 

Grundtvig  (b.  1783)  is  one  of  the  most  original  and  inde- 
pendent minds  of  the  North.  As  a  preacher  he  was  fervid  and 
eloquent ;  as  a  writer  on  the  Scandinavian  mythology  and  hero- 
life,  he  gave,  perhaps,  the  truest  idea  of  the  spirit  of  the  north- 
ern myths. 

Blicher  (1782-1868)  was  a  stern  realist,  who  made  his  native 
province  of  Jutland  the  scene  of  his  poems  and  stories,  which  in 
many  respects  resemble  those  of  Crabbe. 

Ingemann  (1789-1862)  is  a  voluminous  writer  in  every  de- 
partment of  literature.  His  historical  romances  are  the  delight 
of  the  people,  who,  by  their  winter  firesides,  forget  their  snow- 
barricaded  woods  and  mountains  in  listening  to  his  pages. 

Heiberg  (1791-1860)  as  a  critic  ruled  the  Danish  world  of 
taste  for  many  years,  and  by  his  writings  did  much  to  elevate 
dramatic  art  and  public  sentiment.  The  greatest  authoress  that 
Denmark  has  produced  is  the  Countess  Gyllenbourg  (1773- 
1856).  Her  knowledge  of  life,  sparkling  wit,  and  faultless 
style,  make  her  stories,  the  authorship  of  which  was  unknown 
before  her  death,  masterpieces  of  their  kind. 

The  greatest  pastoral  lyrist  of  this  country  is  Winther  (1796— 
1876).  His  descriptions  of  scenery  and  rural  life  have  an  ex- 


398       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

traordinary  charm.  Hertz  (1796-1870)  is  the  most  cosmopolitan 
Danish  writer  of  his  time.  Miiller  (1809-1876)  is  celebrated 
for  his  comedies,  tragedies,  lyrics,  and  satires,  all  of  which  prove 
the  immense  breadth  of  his  compass  and  the  inexhaustible  riches 
of  his  imagination. 

Hans  Christian  Andersen  (1805-1875)  is  known  to  the  Eng- 
lish reader  by  his  stories  and  legends  for  the  young,  his  ro- 
mances, and  autobiography.  He  was  born  of  humble  peasants, 
and  early  attracted  the  attention  of  pers&ns  in  power,  who,  with 
that  liberality  to  youthful  genius  so  characteristic  of  Denmark, 
enabled  him  to  enter  the  university,  and  afterwards  to  travel 
over  Europe.  The  "  Improvisatore  "  is  considered  the  best  of 
his  romances. 

Three  writers  connect  the  age  of  romanticism  with  the  pres- 
ent day,  —  Ploug  (b.  1812),  a  vigorous  politician  and  poet;  Gold- 
schmidt  (b.  1818),  author  of  novels  and  poems  in  the  purest 
Danish ;  Hastrup  (b.  1818),  the  author  of  a  series  of  comedies 
unrivaled  in  delicacy  and  wit. 

Among  the  names  distinguished  in  science  are  those  of  Malte 
Brun  in  geography  ;  Rask,  Grundtvig,  Molbech,  Warsaae,  Rafn, 
Finn  Magnusen  and  others  in  philology  and  literary  antiquities. 
Of  the  two  brothers  Oersted,  one,  a  lawyer  and  statesman,  has 
done  much  to  establish  the  principles  of  state  economy,  while  the 
discoveries  of  the  other  entitle  him  to  the  highest  rank  in  phys- 
ical science. 

6.  SWEDISH  LITERATURE.  —  The  first  independent  literature 
of  modern  Scandinavia  was,  as  we  have  seen,  the  popular  songs 
and  ballads  which,  during  the  Middle  Ages,  kept  alive  the  germ 
of  intellectual  life.  The  effect  of  the  Reformation  was  soon 
seen  in  the  literature  of  Sweden,  as  of  other  countries.  The 
first  intellectual  development  displayed  itself  in  the  dramatic 
attempt  of  Messenius  and  his  son,  who  changed  and  substituted 
actual  history  for  legendary  and  scriptural  subjects.  The  genius 
of  Sweden,  however,  is  essentially  lyrical,  rather  than  dramatic 
or  epic.  Stjernhjelm  (1598-1672)  was  a  writer  of  great  merit, 
—  the  author  of  many  dramas,  lyrics,  and  epic  and  didactic 
poems.  He  so  far  surpassed  his  contemporaries  that  he  decided 
the  character  of  his  country's  literature  for  a  century ;  but  his 
influence  was  finally  lost  in  the  growing  Italian  and  German 
taste.  The  principal  names  of  this  period  are  those  of  Lucidor, 
a  wild,  erratic  genius ;  Mrs.  Brenner,  the  first  female  writer  of 
Sweden,  whose  numerous  poems  are  distinguished  for  their  neat 
and  easy  style  ;  and  Spegel  (d.  1711),  whose  Psalms,  full  of  the 
simplest  beauty,  give  him  a  lasting  place  in  the  literature  of  the 
country.  The  literary  taste  of  Sweden,  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, made  great  progress;  native  genius  awoke  to  conscious 


SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE.  399 

power,  and  the  finest  productions  of  Europe  were  quoted  and 
commented  on. 

During  the  eighteenth  century,  French  taste  prevailed  all 
over  Europe  ;  not  only  the  manners,  etiquette,  and  toilets  of 
France  were  imitated,  the  fashion  of  its  literature  was  also 
adopted.  Corneille,  Raciue,  Moliere,  and  Boileau  stamped  their 
peculiar  philosophy  of  literature  on  the  greater  portion  of  the 
civilized  world.  Imagination  was  frozen  by  these  cold,  glittering 
models  ;  life  and  originality  became  extinct,  imitator  followed 
upon  imitator,  until  there  was  a  universal  dearth  of  soul ;  and 
men  gravely  asserted  that  everything  had  been  said  and  done  in 
poetry  and  literature  that  could  be  said  and  done.  What  a  glo- 
rious reply  has  since  been  given  to  this  utterance  of  inanity  and 
formalism,  in  a  countless  host  of  great  and  original  names,  all 
the  world  knows.  But  in  no  country  was  this  Gallomania  more 
strongly  and  enduringly  prevalent  than  in  Sweden.  The  princi- 
pal writers  of  the  early  part  of  the  Gallic  period  are  Dalin,  Nor- 
denflycht,  Creutz,  and  Gyllenborg.  As  a  prose  writer,  rather 
than  a  poet,  Dalin  deserves  remembrance.  He  established  a  pe- 
riodical in  imitation  of  the  "  Spectator,"  and  through  this  con- 
ferred the  same  benefits  on  Swedish  literature  that  Addison  con- 
ferred on  that  of  England,  —  a  great  improvement  in  style,  and 
the  origination  of  a  national  periodical  literature.  Charlotte 
Nordenflycht  (b.  1718)  is  called  the  Swedish  Sappho.  Her  po- 
etry is  all  love  and  sorrow,  as  her  life  was ;  in  a  better  age  she 
would  have  been  a  better  poetess,  for  she  possessed  great  feeling, 
passion,  and  imagination.  She  exerted  a  wide  influence  on  the 
literary  life  of  her  time,  in  the  capital,  where  the  coteries  which 
sprung  up  about  her  embraced  all  the  poets  of  the  day.  Gyllen- 
borg and  Creutz  were  deficient  in  lyric  depth,  and  were  neither 
of  them  poets  of  the  first  order. 

Of  the  midday  of  the  Gallic  era,  the  king,  Gustavus  III. 
(1771-1792),  Kellgren,  Leopold,  and  Oxenstjerna  are  the 
chiefs.  Gustavus  was  a  master  of  rhetoric,  and  in  all  his  poet- 
ical tendencies  fast  bound  to  the  French  system.  He  was,  how- 
ever, the  true  friend  of  literature,  and  did  whatever  lay  in  his 
power  to  promote  it,  and  to  honor  and  reward  literary  men.  In 
1786  he  established  the  Swedish  Academy,  which  for  a  long 
time  continued  to  direct  the  public  taste.  As  an  orator,  Gus- 
tavus has  rarely  found  a  rival  in  the  annals  of  Sweden,  and  his 
dramas  in  prose  possess  much  merit,  and  are  still  read  with 
interest. 

Kellgren  (1751-1795)  was  the  principal  lyric  poet  of  this 
period.  His  works  betray  a  tendency  to  escape  from  the  bond- 
age of  his  age,  and  open  a  new  spring-time  in  Swedish  poetry. 
For  his  own  fame,  and  that  of  his  age,  his  early  death  was  a 


400       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

seriotft  loss.  Leopold  (1756-1829)  continued  to  sway  the  liter- 
ary sceptre,  after  the  death  of  Kellgren,  for  the  remainder  of 
the  century.  He  is  best  known  by  his  dramas  and  miscellane- 
ous poems.  His  plays  have  the  faults  that  belong  to  his  school, 
but  many  of  his  poems  abound  with  striking  thoughts,  and  are 
elastic  and  graceful  in  style.  The  great  writer  of  this  period, 
however,  was  Oxenstjerna  (1750—1818),  a  descriptive  poet,  who, 
with  all  the  faults  of  his  age  and  school,  displays  a  deep  feeling 
for  nature.  His  pictures  of  simple  life,  amid  the  fields  and 
woods  of  Sweden,  are  full  of  idyllic  beauty  and  attractive  grace. 

As  the  French  taste  overspread  Europe  at  very  nearly  the 
same  time,  so  its  influence  decayed  and  died  out  almost  simulta- 
neously. In  France  itself,  long  before  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  elements  were  at  work  destined  to  produce  the  most 
extraordinary  changes  in  the  political,  social,  and  literary  con- 
dition of  the  world.  Even  those  authors  who  were  most  French 
were  most  concerned  in  preparing  this  astounding  revolution. 
In  many  countries  it  was  not  the  French  doctrines,  but  the 
French  events,  that  startled,  dazzled,  and  excited  the  human 
heart  and  imagination,  and  produced  the  greatest  effects  on  lit- 
erature. Those  who  sympathized  least  with  French  views  were 
often  most  influenced  by  the  magnificence  of  the  scenes  which 
swept  over  the  face  of  the  civilized  world,  and  antagonism  was 
not  less  potent  than  sympathy  to  arouse  the  energies  of  mind. 
But  even  before  these  movements  had  produced  any  marked 
effect,  Gallic  influence  began  to  give  way,  and  genius  began 
freely  to  range  the  earth  and  choose  its  materials  wherever  God 
and  man  were  to  be  found. 

The  heralds  of  the  new  era  in  Sweden  were  Bellman,  Hall- 
man,  Kexel,  Wallenberg,  Lidner,  Thorild,  and  Lengren.  Bell- 
man (1740-1795)  is  regarded  by  the  Swedes  with  great  enthu- 
siasm. There  is  something  so  perfectly  national  in  his  spirit 
that  he  finds  an  echo  of  infinite  delight  in  all  Swedish  hearts. 
Everything  patriotic,  connected  with  home  life  and  feelings, 
home  memories,  the  loves  and  pleasures  of  the  past,  all  seem  to 
be  associated  with  the  songs  of  Bellman.  HaUrnan,  his  friend, 
wrote  comedies  and  farces.  His  characters  are  drawn  from  the 
bacchanalian  class  described  in  Bellman's  lyrics,  but  they  are 
not  sufficiently  varied  in  their  scope  and  sphere  to  create  an 
actual  Swedish  drama.  Kexel,  the  friend  of  the  two  last  named, 
lived  a  gay  and  vagabond  life,  and  is  celebrated  for  his  come- 
dies. Wallenberg  was  a  clergyman,  full  of  the  enjoyment  of 
life,  and  disposed  to  see  the  most  amusing  side  of  everything. 
Lidner  and  Thorild,  unlike  the  writers  just  named,  were  grave, 
passionate,  and  sorrowful.  Lidner  was  a  nerve-sick,  over-excited 
genius  ;  but  many  of  his  inspired  thoughts  struck  deep  into  the 


SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE.  401 

heart  of  the  time,  and  Swedish  literature  is  highly  indebted  to 
Thorild  for  the  spirit  of  manly  freedom  and  the  principles  of 
sound  reasoning  and  taste  which  he  introduced  into  it. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  names  of  the  transition  period  is 
that  of  Anna  Maria  Lengren  (1754-1811).  She  has  depicted 
the  scenes  of  domestic  and  social  life  with  a  skill  and  firmness, 
yet  a  delicacy  of  touch  that  is  perhaps  more  difficult  of  attain- 
ment than  the  broad  lines  of  a  much  more  ambitious  style.  Her 
scenes  and  personages  are  all  types,  and  her  heroes  and  hero- 
ines continually  present  themselves  in  Swedish  life  in  perpetual 
and  amusing  reproduction.  These  poems  will  secure  her  a  place 
among  the  classical  writers  of  her  country. 

The  political  revolution  of  1809  secured  the  freedom  of  the 
press,  new  men  arose  for  the  new  times,  and  a  deadly  war  was 
waged  between  the  old  school  and  the  new,  until  the  latter 
triumphed.  The  first  distinguished  names  of  the  new  school  are 
those  of  Franzen  and  Wallin.  Franzen  (1772-1847),  a  bishop, 
was  celebrated  for  his  lyrics  of  social  life,  and  in  many  points 
resembles  Wordsworth.  The  qualities  of  heart,  the  home  affec- 
tions, and  the  gladsome  and  felicitous  appreciation  of  the  beauty 
of  life  and  nature  found  in  his  poems,  give  him  his  great  charm. 
Archbishop  Wallin  (1779-1839)  is  the  great  religious  poet  of 
Sweden.  In  his  hymns  there  is  a  strength  and  majesty,  a  sol- 
emn splendor  and  harmony  of  intonation,  that  have  no  parallel 
in  the  Swedish  language. 

Among  other  writers  of  the  time  are  Atterbom,  Hammarskold, 
and  Palmblad.  The  works  of  Atterbom  (b.  1790)  indicate 
great  lyrical  talent,  but  they  have  an  airy  unreality,  which  dis- 
appoints the  healthy  appetite  of  modern  readers.  Hammarskold 
(1785-1827)  was  an  able  critic  and  literary  historian,  though 
his  poems  are  of  little  value.  Palmblad,  besides  being  a  critic, 
is  the  author  of  several  novels  and  translations  from  the  Greek. 
These  three  writers  belonged  to  the  Phosphoric  School,  so  called 
from  a  periodical  called  "The  Phosphorus,"  which  advocated 
their  opinions. 

The  most  distinguished  school  in  Swedish  literature  is  the 
Gothic,  which  took  its  rise  in  1811,  and  which,  aiming  at  a  na- 
tional spirit  and  character,  embraced  in  that  nationality  all  the 
Gothic  race  as  one  original  family,  possessing  the  same  ancestry, 
original  religion,  traditions,  and  even  still  the  same  spirit,  predi- 
lections, and  language,  although  broken  into  several  dialects. 
This  new  school  had  truth,  nature,  and  the  spirit  of  the  nation 
and  the  times  with  it,  and  it  speedily  triumphed.  First  in  the 
rank  of  its  originators  may  be  placed  Geijer  (1783—1847),  who 
was  at  once  a  poet,  musician,  and  historian ;  his  poems  are 
among  the  most  precious  treasures  of  Swedish  literature.  In  his 
26 


402       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

"  Chronicles  of  Sweden  "  he  penetrates  far  into  the  mists  and 
darkness  of  antiquity,  and  brings  thence  magnificent  traces  of 
men  and  ages  that  point  still  onward  to  the  times  and  haunts  of 
the  world's  youth.  The  work  presents  all  that  belongs  to  the 
North,  its  gods,  its  mythic  doctrines,  its  grand  traditions,  its  he- 
roes, vikings,  runes,  and  poets,  carrying  whole  ages  of  history  in 
their  trains.  In  his  hands  the  dry  bones  of  history  and  chronol- 
ogy live  like  the  actual  flesh  and  blood  of  the  present  time.  As 
Geijer  is  the  first  historian  of  Sweden,  so  is  Tegner  (1782-1846) 
the  first  poet ;  and  in  his  "  Frithiof  's  Saga  "  he  has  made  the 
nearest  approach  to  a  successful  epic  writer.  Although  this 
poem  has  rather  the  character  of  a  series  of  lyrical  poems  woven 
into  an  epic  cycle,  it  is  still  a  complete  and  great  poem.  It  is 
characterized  by  tender,  sensitive,  and  delicate  feeling  rather 
than  by  deep  and  overwhelming  passion.  In  the  story  he  has, 
for  the  most  part,  adhered  to  the  ancient  Saga.  Tegner  is  as 
yet  only  the  most  popular  poet  of  Sweden ;  but  the  bold  advance 
which  he  has  made  beyond  the  established  models  of  the  country 
shows  what  Swedish  poets  may  yet  accomplish  by  following  on 
in  the  track  of  a  higher  and  freer  enterprise.  The  other  most 
prominent  poets  of  the  new  school  are  Stagnelius  (1793-1828), 
who  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  Shelley  in  his  tendency  to  the 
mythic  and  speculative,  and  in  his  wonderful  power  of  language 
and  affluence  of  inspired  phrase  ;  Almquist  (d.  1866),  an  able 
and  varied  writer,  who  has  written  with  great  wit,  brilliancy, 
and  power  in  almost  every  department;  Vitalis  (d.  1828),  the 
author  of  some  religious  poetry ;  Dahlgren,  an  amusing  author, 
and  Fahlcrantz,  who  wrote  "  Noah's  Ark,"  a  celebrated  humor- 
ous poem.  Runeberg,  one  of  the  truest  and  greatest  poets  of 
the  North,  is  a  Finn  by  birth,  though  he  writes  in  Swedish  ; 
with  all  the  wild  melancholy  character  of  his  country  he  mingles 
a  deep  feeling  of  its  sufferings  and  its  wrongs.  His  verse  is  sol- 
emn and  strong,  like  the  spirit  of  its  subject.  He  brings  before 
you  the  wild  wastes  and  the  dark  woods  of  his  native  land,  and 
its  brave,  simple,  enduring  people.  You  feel  the  wind  blow 
fresh  from  the  vast,  dark  woodlands  ;  you  follow  the  elk-hunters 
through  the  pine  forests  or  along  the  shores  of  remote  lakes ;  you 
lie  in  desert  huts  and  hear  the  narratives  of  the  struggles  of  the 
inhabitants  with  the  ungenial  elements,  or  their  contentions  with 
more  ungenial  men.  Runeberg  seizes  on  life  wherever  it  pre- 
sents itself  in  strong  and  touching  forms,  —  in  the  beggar,  the 
gypsy,  or  the  malefactor,  —  it  is  enough  for  him  that  it  is  human 
nature,  doing  and  suffering,  and  in  these  respects  he  stands  pre- 
eminently above  all  the  poets  of  Sweden. 

Besides  the  poets  already  spoken  of,  there  are  many  others 
who  cannot  here  be  even  named. 


SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE.  403 

If  the  literature  of  Sweden  is  almost  wholly  modern,  its  ro- 
mance literature  is  especially  so.  Cederborg  was  not  unlike 
Dickens  in  his  peculiar  walk  and  character,  and  in  all  his  bur- 
lesque there  is  something  kind,  amiable,  and  excellent.  He  was 
followed  by  many  others,  who  displayed  much  talent,  correct 
sketching  of  costumes  and  manners,  and  touches  of  true  de- 
scriptive nature. 

But  an  authoress  now  appeared  who  was  to  create  a  new  era 
in  Swedish  novel-writing,  and  to  connect  the  literary  name  and 
interests  of  Sweden  more  intimately  with  the  whole  civilized 
world.  In  1828,  Fredrika  Bremer  (1802-1865)  published  her 
first  works,  which  were  soon  followed  by  others,  all  of  which 
attracted  immediate  attention.  Later  they  were  made  known  to 
the  English  and  American  public  through  the  admirable  transla- 
tions of  Mrs.  Howitt,  and  now  they  are  as  familiar  as  "  Robinson 
Crusoe,"  or  the  "  Vicar  of  Wakefield,"  wherever  the  English 
language  is  spoken.  Wherever  these  works  have  been  known 
they  have  awakened  a  more  genial  judgment  of  life,  a  better 
view  of  the  world  and  its  destinies,  a  deeper  trust  in  Providence, 
and  a  persuasion  that  to  enjoy  existence  truly  ourselves  is  to 
spread  that  enjoyment  around  us  to  our  fellow-men,  and  espe- 
cially by  the  daily  evidences  of  good-will,  affection,  cheerfulness, 
and  graceful  attention  to  the  feelings  of  others,  which,  in  the 
social  and  domestic  circle,  are  so  small  in  their  appearance,  but 
immense  in  their  consequences.  As  a  teacher  of  this  quiet, 
smiling,  but  deeply  penetrating  philosophy  of  life,  no  writer  has 
yet  arisen  superior  to  Fredrika  Bremer,  while  she  has  all  the 
time  not  even  professed  to  teach,  but  only  to  entertain. 

The  success  of  Miss  Bremer's  writings  produced  two  contem- 
poraneous female  novelists  of  no  ordinary  merit  —  the  Baroness 
Knorring  (d.  1833)  and  Emily  Carlen  (b.  1833).  The  works  of 
the  former  are  distinguished  by  a  brilliant  wit  and  an  extraor- 
dinary power  of  painting  life  and  passion,  while  a  kind  and 
amiable  feeling  pervades  those  of  the  latter.  Among  the  later 
novelists  of  Sweden  are  many  names  distinguished  in  other  de- 
partments of  literature. 

In  conclusion,  there  are  in  Sweden  hosts  of  able  authors  in 
whose  hands  all  sciences,  history,  philology,  antiquities,  theol- 
ogy, every  branch  of  natural  and  moral  philosophy  and  miscel- 
laneous literature  have  been  elaborated  with  a  talent  and  industry 
of  which  any  nation  might  be  proud.  Among  the  names  of  a 
world-wide  fame  are  those  of  Swedenborg  (1688-1772),  not 
more  remarkable  for  his  peculiar  religious  ideas  than  for  his 
profound  and  varied  acquirements  in  science  ;  Linnaeus  (1707— 
1778),  the  founder  of  the  established  system  of  botany ;  and 
Scheele  (1742-1786),  eminent  in  chemistry. 


404       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

If  the  literature  of  Scandinavia  continues  to  develop  during 
the  present  century  with  the  strength  and  rapidity  it  has  mani- 
fested during  the  last,  it  will  present  to  the  mind  of  the  English 
race  rich  sources  of  enjoyment  of  a  more  congenial  spirit  than 
that  of  any  other  part  of  the  European  continent ;  and  the  more 
this  literature  is  cultivated  the  more  it  will  be  perceived  that  we 
are  less  an  Anglo-Saxon  than  a  Scandinavian  race. 

The  last  few  years  in  Sweden  have  been  a  period  of  political 
rather  than  literary  activity,  yielding  comparatively  few  works  of 
high  aesthetic  value.  Rydberg,  a  statesman  and  metaphysician, 
has  produced  a  powerful  work  of  fiction,  "  The  Last  Athenian," 
and  other  works  of  minor  importance  have  been  produced  in  va- 
rious departments  of  literature. 

LITERATURE  OF  NORWAY.  —  Norway  cannot  be  said  to  have 
had  a  literature  distinct  from  the  Danish  until  after  its  union 
with  Sweden  in  1814.  The  period  from  that  time  to  the  pres- 
ent has  been  one  of  great  literary  activity  in  all  departments, 
and  many  distinguished  names  might  be  mentioned,  among  them 
that  of  Bjornson  (b.  1832),  whose  tales  have  been  extensively 
translated.  Jonas  Lie  who  enjoys  a  wide  popularity,  Camilla 
Collett,  and  Magdalene  Thoresen  are  also  favorite  writers. 
Wergeland  and  Welhaven  were  two  distinguished  poets  of  the 
first  half  of  the  century.  Kielland  is  an  able  novelist  of  the  re- 
alistic school,  and  Professor  Boyesen  is  well  known  in  the  United 
States  for  his  tales  and  poems  in  English.  Henrick  Ibsen  is  the 
most  distinguished  dramatic  writer  of  Norway  and  belongs  to  the 
realistic  school.  Among  other  writers  of  the  present  time  are 
Borjesson  whose  "  Eric  XIV."  is  a  masterpiece  of  Swedish 
drama ;  Tekla  Knbs,  a  poetess  whose  claims  have  been  sanc- 
tioned by  the  Academy ;  and  Claude  Gerard  (nom  de  plume), 
very  popular  as  a  novelist.  Charles  XV.  and  Oscar  II.  are  poets 
of  merit. 


GERMAN  LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION.  —1.  German  Literature  and  its  Divisions.  — 2.  The  Mythology.— 3.  The 
Language. 

PERIOD  FIBST.  —  1.  Early  Literature  ;  Translation  of  the  Bible  by  Ulphilas  ;  the  Hilde- 
brand  Lied.  —  2.  The  Age  of  Charlemagne ;  his  Successors  ;  the  Ludwig's  Lied  ;  Ros- 
witha;  the  Lombard  Cycle. — 3.  The  Suabian  Age;  the  Crusades;  the  Minnesingers; 
the  Romances  of  Chivalry ;  the  Heldenbuch  ;  the  Nibelungen  Lied.  —  4.  The  Fourteenth 
and  Fifteenth  Centuries ;  the  Mastersingers ;  Satires  and  Fables ;  Mysteries  and  Dra- 
matic Representations  ;  the  Mystics  ;  the  Universities ;  the  Invention  of  Printing. 

PEBIOD  SECOND.— From  1517  to  1700.— 1.  The  Lutheran  Period  :  Luther,  Melanchthon. 

—  2.  Manuel,  Zwingle,  Fischart,  Franck,  Arnd,  Boehm. —  3.  Poetry,  Satire,  and  Demonol- 
ogy ;  Paracelsus  and  Agrippa ;  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  —  4.     The  Seventeenth  Century : 
Opitz,  Leibnitz,  Puffendprf,  Kepler,  Wolf,  Thomasius,  Gerhard  ;  Silesian  Schools  ;  Hoff- 
manuswaldau,  Loheustein. 

PERIOD  THIRD.  —  1.  The  Swiss  and  Saxon  Schools :  Gottsched,  Bodmer,  Rabener, 
Gellert,  Kiistner,  and  others. —  2.  Klopstock,  Lessing,  Wieland,  and  Herder. —  3.  Goethe 
and  Schiller.  —  4.  The  GSttingen  School :  Voss,  Stolberg,  Claudius,  Burger,  and  others. 

—  5.  The  Romantic  School :   the  Schlegels,  Novalis  ;   Tieck,  Kiirner,  Arndt,  Uhland, 
Heine,  and  others.  —  6.  The  Drama:  Goethe  and  Schiller;  the  Power  Men;  Milliner, 
Werner,  Howald,   and  Grillparzer. — 7.  Philosophy:  Kant,   Fichte,   Schelling,   Hegel, 
Schopenhauer,  and  Hartmann ;  Science :  Liebig,  Du  Bois-Raymond,  Virchow,  Helmholst, 
Hseckel.  —  8.  Miscellaneous  Writings. 

INTRODUCTION. 

1.  GERMAN  LITERATURE  AND  ITS  DIVISIONS.  —  Central  Eu- 
rope, from  the  Adriatic  to  the  Baltic,  is  occupied  by  a  people 
who,  however  politically  divided  as  respects  language  and  race, 
form  but  one  nation.  The  name  Germans  is  that  given  to  them 
by  the  Romans  ;  the  appellation  which  they  apply  to  themselves 
is  Deutsch,  a  term  derived  from  Teutones,  by  which  they  were 
generally  known,  as  also  by  the  term  Goths,  in  the  early  history 
of  Europe. 

In  glancing  at  the  various  phases  of  German  literature,  we 
see  the  bards  at  first  uttering  in  primitive  strains  their  war  songs 
and  traditions.  The  introduction  of  Christianity  brought  with 
it  the  cultivation  of  the  classic  languages,  although  the  people 
had  no  part  in  this  learned  literature,  which  was  confined  to  the 
monasteries  and  schools.  In  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  cen- 
turies, letters,  so  long  monopolized  by  the  clergy,  passed  from 
their  hands  to  those  of  the  princes  and  nobles  ;  and  in  the  next 
century  the  songs  of  the  minnesingers  gave  way  to  the  pedantic 
craft  of  the  mastersingers. 

A  great  intellectual  regeneration  followed  the  Reformation, 
but  it  was  of  brief  duration.  With  the  death  of  Luther  and 
Melanchthon  the  lofty  spirit  of  reform  degenerated  into  scholas- 


406       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

ticism,  and  the  scholars  were  as  exclusive  in  their  dispensation 
of  intellectual  light  as  the  clergy  had  been  at  an  earlier  period. 
While  the  priests,  the  minstrels,  and  the  bookmen  had  each  en- 
larged the  avenues  to  knowledge,  they  were  still  closed  and 
locked  to  the  masses  of  the  people  ;  and  so  they  remained,  until 
philosophy  arose  to  break  down  all  barriers  and  to  throw  open 
to  humanity  at  large  the  whole  domain  of  knowledge  and  litera- 
ture. 

In  the  midst  of  the  convulsions  which  marked  the  close  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  the  leading  minds  of  Germany  sought  a 
solution  of  the  great  problems  of  civilization  in  the  abysses  of 
philosophy.  Kant  and  his  compeers  gave  an  electric  impulse  to 
the  German  mind,  the  effects  of  which  were  manifest  in  the  men 
who  soon  arose  to  apply  the  new  discoveries  of  philosophy  to 
literature.  In  Lessing,  Herder,  Goethe,  and  Schiller,  the 
clergy,  the  minstrels,  and  the  bookmen  were  each  represented, 
but  philosophy  had  breathed  into  them  an  all-embracing,  cosmi- 
cal  spirit  of  humanity,  and  under  their  influence  German  litera- 
ture soon  lost  its  exclusive  and  sectional  character,  and  became 
cosmopolitan  and  universal. 

The  long  cycle  of  literary  experiments,  however,  is  not  yet 
completed.  Since  the  philosophers  have  accomplished  their 
mission  by  establishing  principles,  and  the  poets  have  made 
themselves  intelligible  to  the  masses,  the  German  mind  has  en- 
tered upon  the  exploration  of  all  spheres  of  learning,  and  is 
making  new  and  great  advances  in  the  solution  of  the  problems 
of  humanity.  The  most  eminent  scholars,  no  longer  pursuing 
their  studies  as  a  matter  of  art  or  taste,  are  inspired  by  the  no- 
ble desire  of  diffusing  knowledge  and  benefiting  their  fellow- 
beings  ;  and  to  grapple  with  the  laws  of  nature,  and  to  secure 
those  conditions  best  adapted  to  the  highest  human  welfare,  are 
their  leading  aims.  The  German  explorers  of  the  universe  have 
created  a  new  school  of  natural  philosophers ;  German  histori- 
ans are  sifting  the  records  of  the  past  and  bringing  forth  great 
political,  social,  and  scientific  revelations.  In  geography,  eth- 
nology, philology,  and  in  all  branches  of  science,  men  of  power- 
ful minds  are  at  work,  carrying  the  same  enthusiasm  into  the 
world  of  fact  that  the  poets  have  shown  in  the  fairy-land  of  the 
imagination.  To  these  earnest  questioners,  these  untiring  ex- 
plorers, nature  is  reluctantly  unveiling  her  mysteries,  and  history 
is  giving  up  the  buried  secrets  of  the  ages.  The  lyre  of  the 
bard  may  be  silent  for  a  time,  but  this  mighty  struggle  with  the 
forces  of  nature  and  with  the  obscurities  of  the  past  will  at  last 
inspire  a  new  race  of  poets  and  open  a  new  vein  of  poetry,  far 
more  rich  than  the  world  of  fancy  has  ever  afforded.  Science, 
regarded  from  this  lofty  point  of  view,  will  gradually  assume 


.-,  .te 
,^- 


GERMAN  LITERATURE.  407 

epic  proportions,   and  other  and  more  powerful  Schillers  and 
Goethes  will  arise  to  illustrate  its  achievements. 

The  history  of  German  literature  may  be  divided  into  three 
periods. 

The  first,  extending  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  beginning 
of  the  Reformation,  1517,  embraces  the  early  literature  ;  that  of 
the  reign  of  Charlemagne  and  his  successors  ;  that  of  the  Sua- 
bian  age  (1138-1272),  and  of  the  first  centuries  of  the  reign  of 
the  House  of  Hapsburg. 

The  second  period,  extending  from  1517  to  1700,  includes 
the  literature  of  the  age  of  the  Reformation,  and  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War. 

The  third  period,  from  1700  to  the  present  time,  contains  the 
development  of  German  literature  in  the  eighteenth  and  nine- 
.teenth  centuries. 

THE  MYTHOLOGY.  —  The  German  mythology  is  almost 
identical  with  the  Scandinavian,  and  in  it,  as  in  all  the  legends 
of  the  North,  women  play  an  important  part.  Indeed,  they 
occupied  a  far  higher  position  among  these  ancient  barbarians 
than  in  the  polished  nations  of  Greece  and  Rome.  "It  is  be- 
lieved," says  Tacitus,  "  that  there  is  something  holy  and  pro- 
phetic about  them,  and  therefore  the  warriors  neither  despise 
their  counsels  nor  disregard  their  responses." 

The  Paganism  of  the  North,  less  graceful  and  beautiful  than 
that  of  Greece,  had  still  the  same  tendency  to  people  earth,  air, 
and  water  with  beings  of  its  own  creation.  The  rivers  had  their 
Undines,  the  ocean  its  Nixes,  the  caverns  their  Gnomes,  and  the 
woods  their  Sprites.  Christianity  did  not  deny  the  existence  of 
these  supernatural  races,  but  it  invested  them  with  a  demoniac 
character.  They  were  not  regarded  as  immortal,  although  per- 
mitted to  attain  an  age  far  beyond  that  granted  to  mankind,  and 
they  were  denied  the  hope  of  salvation,  unless  purchased  by  a 
union  with  creatures  of  an  earthly  mould. 

According  to  the  Edda,  the  Dwarfs  were  formed  by  Odin 
from  the  dust.  They  were  either  Cobolds  —  house  spirits  who 
attach  themselves  to  the  fortunes  of  the  family,  and,  if  well  fed 
and  treated,  nestle  beside  the  domestic  hearth  —  or  Gnomes, 
who  haunt  deserted  mansions  and  deep  caverns.  The  mountain 
echoes  are  the  mingled  sounds  of  their  voices  as  they  mock  the 
cries  of  the  wanderer,  and  the  fissures  of  the  rocks  are  the  en- 
trances to  their  subterranean  abodes.  Here  they  have  heaped 
up  countless  treasures  of  gold,  silver,  and  precious  stones,  and 
here  they  pass  their  time  in  fabricating  costly  armor.  The  Ger- 
man Elves,  like  those  of  other  climes,  have  an  irresistible  pro- 
pensity to  dance  and  song,  especially  the  Nixes,  who,  rising  from 
their  river  or  ocean  home,  will  seat  themselves  on  the  shore  and 


408       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

pour  forth  such  sweet  music  as  to  enchant  all  who  hear  them, 
and  are  ever  ready  to  impart  their  wondrous  skill  for  the  hope 
or  promise  of  salvation.  To  secure  this,  they  also  lure  young 
maidens  to  their  watery  domains,  and  force  or  persuade  them  to 
become  their  brides.  If  they  submit,  they  are  allowed  to  sit  on 
the  rocks  and  wreathe  their  tresses  with  corals,  sea-weeds,  and 
shells ;  but  if  they  manifest  any  desire  to  return  to  their  homes, 
a  streak  of  blocd  on  the  surface  of  the  waters  tells  the  dark  story 
of  their  doom. 

The  Walkyres  are  the  youthful  maidens  who  have  died  upon 
their  bridal  eve,  and  who,  unable  to  rest  in  their  graves,  return 
to  earth  and  dance  in  the  silver  rays  of  the  moon ;  but  if  a  mor- 
tal chances  to  meet  them,  they  surround  and  draw  him  within 
their  magic  ring,  till,  faint  and  exhausted,  he  falls  lifeless  to  the 
earth.  Not  less  dangerous  are  the  river-maids,  who,  rising  to 
the  surface  of  the  stream,  lure  the  unwary  traveler  into  the 
depths  below.  There  are  also  the  White  Women,  who  often  ap- 
pear at  dawn  or  evening,  with  their  pale  faces  and  shadowy 
forms ;  these  are  the  goddesses  of  ancient  Paganism,  condemned 
io  wander  through  ages  to  expiate  the  guilt  of  having  received 
divine  worship,  and  to  suffer  eternal  punishment  if  not  redeemed 
by  mortal  aid.  Among  the  goddesses  who,  in  the  form  of  White 
Women,  were  long  believed  to  exercise  an  influence  for  good  or  ill 
on  human  affairs,  Hertha  and  Frigga  play  the  most  conspicuous 
parts,  and  figure  in  many  wild  legends  ;  proving  how  strong 
was  the  hold  which  the  creed  of  their  ancestors  had  on  the 
minds  of  the  Germans  long  after  its  idols  had  been  broken  and 
its  shrines  destroyed.  Hertha  still  cherished  the  same  benefi- 
cent disposition  ascribed  to  her  in  the  old  mythology,  and  con- 
tinued to  watch  over  and  aid  mankind  until  driven  away  by  the 
calumnies  of  which  she  was  the  victim,  while  Frigga  appears  as 
a  fearful  ogress  and  sorceress. 

These  popular  superstitions,  which  retained  their  power  over 
the  minds  of  the  people  during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  which 
even  now  are  not  wholly  eradicated,  have  furnished  a  rich  mine 
from  which  the  poets  and  tale-writers  of  Germany  have  derived 
that  element  of  the  supernatural  by  which  they  are  so  often 
characterized. 

3.  THE  LANGUAGE.  —  The  Teutonic  languages,  which  belong 
to  the  Indo-European  stock,  consist  of  two  branches  ;  the  Northern 
or  Scandinavian,  and  the  Southern  or  German  of  the  continent. 
The  latter  has  three  subdivisions ;  the  Eastern  or  Gothic,  with  its 
kindred  idioms,  the  high  German  or  German  proper,  —  the  lit- 
erary idiom  of  Germany,  —  and  the  low  German,  which  includes 
the  Frisian,  old  Saxon,  Anglo-Saxon,  Dutch,  and  Flemish.  The 
high  German,  or  German  proper,  comprehends  the  language  of 


GERMAN  LITERATURE.  409 

three  periods:  the  old  high  German,  which  prevailed  from  the 
seventh  to  the  eleventh  century  ;  the  middle  high  German,  from 
the  eleventh  century  to  the  time  of  the  Reformation  ;  and  the 
new  high  German,  which  dates  from  the  time  of  Luther,  and  is 
the  present  literary  language  of  the  country. 

No  modern  language  equals  the  German  in  its  productiveness 
and  its  capacity  of  constant  and  homogeneous  growth,  in  its  ses- 
thetical  and  philosophical  character,  and  in  its  originality  and 
independence.  Instead  of  borrowing  from  the  Greek,  Latin, 
and  other  languages,  to  find  expressions  for  new  combinations  of 
ideas,  it  develops  its  own  resources  by  manifold  compositions  of 
its  own  roots,  words,  and  particles.  To  express  one  idea  in  its 
various  modifications,  the  English  requires  Teutonic,  Greek,  and 
Latin  elements,  while  the  German  tongue  unfolds  all  the  varie- 
ties of  the  same  idea  by  a  series  of  compositive  words  founded 
upon  one  Gothic  root.  The  German  language,  therefore,  while 
it  is  far  superior  in  originality,  flexibility,  richness,  and  univer- 
sality, does  not  admit  the  varieties  which  distinguish  the  English. 

* 

PERIOD  FIRST. 

FBOM  THE  EARLIEST  TIMES  TO  THE  REFORMATION  (360-1517). 

1.  EARLY  LITERATURE.  —  Previous  to  the  introduction  of 
Christianity  the  Germans  had  nothing  worthy  of  the  name  of 
literature.  The  first  monument  that  has  come  down  to  us"  is  the 
translation  of  the  Bible  into  Mceso-Gothic,  by  Ulphilas,  bishop 
of  the  Goths  (360-388),  who  thus  anticipated  the  work  of  Lu- 
ther by  a  thousand  years. 

As  the  art  of  writing  was  unknown  to  the  Goths,  Ulphilas 
formed  an  alphabet  by  combining  Runic,  Greek,  and  Roman 
letters,  and  down  to  the  ninth  century  this  version  was  held  in 
high  esteem  and  seems  to  have  been  in  general  use.  For  nearly 
four  hundred  years  after  Ulphilas,  no  trace  of  literature  is  dis- 
covered among  the  Teutonic  tribes.  They,  however,  had  their 
war-songs,  and  minstrel  skill  seems  to  have  been  highly  prized 
by  them.  These  lays  were  collected  by  Charlemagne,  and  are 
described  by  Eginhardt  as  "  ancient  barbarous  poems,  celebrating 
the  deeds  and  wars  of  the  men  of  old  ;  "  but  they  have  nearly 
all  disappeared,  owing,  probably,  to  the  refusal  of  the  monks, 
then  the  only  scribes,  to  transmit  to  paper  aught  which  tended 
to  recall  the  rites  and  myths  of  Paganism.  Only  two  relics  of 
this  age,  in  their  primitive  form,  remain  ;  they  are  rhymeless, 
but  alliterated,  —  a  kind  of  versification  common  to  the  Ger- 
man, Anglo-Saxon,  and  Scandinavian  poetry,  and  which,  early 
in  the  ninth  century,  gave  place  to  rhyme.  Of  these  two 


410       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

poems,  the  Hildebrand  Lied  is  probably  a  fragment  of  the  tradi- 
tions which  had  circulated  orally  for  centuries,  and  which,  with 
many  modifications,  were  transcribed  by  the  Scandinavians  in 
their  sagas,  and  by  Charlemagne  in  his  collection.  None  of  the 
other  poems  which  have  come  down  to  us  from  this  period  bear 
an  earlier  date  than  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  when 
they  were  remodeled  and  appeared  in  the  form  of  the  Helden- 
buch  and  Nibelungen  Lied.  The  Hildebrand  Lied  belongs  to 
the  cycle  of  Theodoric  the  Great,  or  Dietrich  of  Bern  or  Ve- 
rona, as  he  is  called  in  poetry,  from  that  town  being  the  seat  of 
his  government  after  he  had  subdued  the  Empire  of  the  West. 
This  poem,  though  rude  and  wild,  is  not  without  grandeur  and 
dramatic  effect. 

2.  CHARLEMAGNE  AND  HIS  SUCCESSORS. —  The  era  of  Charle- 
magne, in  all  respects  so  memorable,  could  not  be  without  influ- 
ence on  the  literature  of  Germany,  then  in  a  condition  of  almost 
primitive  rudeness.  The  German  language  was  taught  by  his 
command  in  the  schools  and  academies  which  he  established  in 
all  parts  of  the  empire ;  he  caused  the  monks  to  preach  in  the 
vernacular  tongue,  and  he  himself  composed  the  elements  of  a 
grammar  for  the  use  of  his  subjects.  He  recompensed  with  im- 
perial munificence  the  learned  men  who  resorted  to  his  court ; 
Alcuin,  Theodophilus,  Paul  Winifred,  and  Eginhardt  were  hon- 
ored with  his  peculiar  confidence.  Under  his  influence  the  mon- 
asteries became  literary  as  well  as  ecclesiastical  seminaries, 
which  produced  such  men  as  Otfried  (fl.  840),  the  author  of  the 
rhymed  Gospel-book,  and  Notker  Teutonicus,  the  translator  of 
the  Psalms. 

After  the  death  of  Charlemagne  the  intellectual  prospects  of 
Germany  darkened.  The  empire  was  threatened  by  the  Nor- 
mans from  the  west,  and  the  Hungarians  from  the  east,  and 
there  were  few  places  where  the  peaceful  pursuits  of  the  monas- 
teries and  schools  could  be  carried  on  without  interruption. 

The  most  important  relic  of  the  last  part  of  the  ninth  century 
is  the  "  Ludwig's  Lied,"  a  hymn  celebrating  the  victory  of  Louis 
over  the  Normans,  composed  by  a  monk  with  whom  that  mon- 
arch was  on  terms  of  great  intimacy.  The  style  is  coarse  and 
energetic,  and  blends  the  triumphant  emotions  of  the  warrior 
with  the  pious  devotion  of  the  recluse.  Towards  the  close  of  the 
tenth  century,  Roswitha,  a  nun,  composed  several  dramas  in 
Latin,  characterized  by  true  Christian  feeling  and  feminine  ten- 
derness. 

The  eleventh  century  presents  almost  an  entire  blank  in  the 
history  of  German  literature.  The  country  was  invaded  by  the 
Hungarian  and  Slavonic  armies  from  abroad,  or  was  the  scene 
of  contest  between  the  emperors  and  their  vassals  at  home,  and 


GERMAN  LITERATURE.  411 

in  the  struggle  between  Henry  IV.  and  Pope  Gregory  VII.,  the 
clergy,  who  had  hitherto  been  the  chief  supporters  of  their  liter- 
ature, became  estranged  from  the  German  people. 

A  series  of  lays  or  poems,  however,  known  as  the  Lwabftrd 
Cycle,  belongs  to  this  age,  among  which  are  "  Duke  Ernest," 
"  Count  Rudolph,"  and  others,  which  combine  the  wild  legends 
of  Paganism  with  the  more  courtly  style  of  the  next  period. 

3.  THE  SUABIAX  AGE.  —  A  splendid  epoch  of  belles-lettres 
dates  from  the  year  1138,  when  Conrad  III.,  of  the  Hohen- 
stauffen  dynasty,  ascended  the  throne  of  the  German  Empire. 
The  Crusades,  which  followed,  filled  Germany  with  religious  and 
martial  excitement,  and  chivalry  was  soon  in  the  height  of  its 
splendor.  The  grand  specimens  of  Gothic  architecture  produced 
during  this  period,  the  cathedrals  of  Ulm,  Strasbourg,  and  Co- 
logne, in  which  ponderous  piles  of  matter  were  reduced  to  forms 
of  beauty,  speak  of  the  great  ideas  and  the  great  powers  called 
into  exercise  to  fulfill  them.  The  commercial  wealth  of  Germany 
was  rapidly  developed ;  thousands  of  serfs  became  freemen ;  large 
cities  arose,  mines  were  discovered,  and  a  taste  for  luxury  began 
to  prevail. 

In  1149,  when  the  emperor  undertook  a  crusade  in  concert 
with  Louis  VII.  of  France,  the  nobility  of  Germany  were 
brought  into  habitual  acquaintance  with  the  nobility  of  France, 
who  at  that  time  cultivated  Prove^al  poetry,  and  the  result  was 
quickly  apparent  in  German  literature.  The  poets  began  to  take 
their  inspiration  from  real  life,  and  though  far  from  being  imi- 
tators, they  borrowed  their  models  from  the  romantic  cycles  of 
Brittany  and  Provence. 

The  emperors  of  the  Suabian  or  Hohenstauffen  dynasty 
formed  a  new  rallying-point  for  the  national  sympathies,  and 
their  courts  and  the  castles  of  their  vassals  proved  a  more  genial 
home  for  the  Muses  than  the  monasteries  of  Fulda  and  St.  Gall. 
In  the  Crusades,  the  various  divisions  of  the  German  race,  sepa- 
rated after  their  inroad  into  the  seats  of  Roman  civilization, 
again  met ;  no  longer  with  the  impetuosity  of  Franks  and  Goths, 
but  with  the  polished  reserve  of  a  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  and  the 
chivalrous  bearing  of  a  Frederic  Barbarossa.  The  German  em- 
perors and  nobles  opened  their  courts  and  received  their  guests 
with  brilliant  hospitality ;  the  splendor  of  their  tournaments  and 
festivals  attracted  crowds  from  great  distances,  and  foremost 
among  them  poets  and  singerss  thus  French  and  German  poetry 
were  brought  face  to  face.  While  the  Hohenstauffen  dynasty 
remained  on  the  imperial  throne  (1138—1272)  the  Suabian  dia- 
lect prevailed,  the  literature  of  chivalry  was  patronized  at  the 
court,  and  the  Suabian  minstrels  were  everywhere  heard.  These 
poets,  who  sang  their  love-songs,  or  minne  songs  (so  called  from 


412       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

an  old  German  word  signifying  love),  have  received  the  name 
of  Minnesingers.  During  a  century  and  a  half,  from  1150  to 
1300,  emperors,  princes,  barons,  priests,  and  minstrels  vied  with 
each  other  in  translating  and  producing  lays  of  love,  satiric  fa- 
bles, sacred  legends,  fabliaux,  and  metrical  romances.  Some  of 
the  bards  were  poor,  and  recited  their  songs  from  court  to  court ; 
but  many  of  them  sang  merely  for  pleasure  when  their  swords 
were  unemployed.  This  poetry  was  essentially  chivalric  ;  ideal 
love  for  a  chosen  lady,  the  laments  of  disappointed  affection,  or 
the  charms  of  spring,  formed  the  constant  subjects  of  their  verse. 
They  generally  sang  their  own  compositions,  and  accompanied 
themselves  on  the  harp  ;  yet  some  even  among  the  titled  min- 
strels could  neither  read  nor  write,  and  it  is  related  of  one  that 
he  was  forced  to  keep  a  letter  from  his  lady-love  in  his  bosom 
for  ten  days  until  he  could  find  some  one  to  decipher  it. 

Among  the  names  of  nearly  two  hundred  Minnesingers  that 
have  come  down  to  us,  the  most  celebrated  are  Wolfram  of  Es- 
chenbach  (fl.  1210),  Henry  of  Ofterdingen  (fl.  1250),  and  Wal- 
ter of  the  Vogel  Weide  (1170-1227). 

The  numerous  romances  of  chivalry  which  were  translated 
into  German  rhyme  during  the  Suabian  period  have  been  divided 
into  classes,  or  cycles.  The  first  and  earliest  cycle  relates  to 
Arthur  and  the  Knights  of  the  Round  Table  ;  they  are  of  An- 
glo-Norman origin,  and  were  probably  derived  from  Welsh 
chronicles  extant  in  Britain  and  Brittany  before  the  poets  on 
either  side  of  the  Channel  began  to  rhyme  in  the  Langue  d'oui. 
Of  all  the  Round  Table  traditions,  none  became  so  popular  in 
Germany  as  that  of  the  "  San  Graal,"  or  "Sang  Real "  (the  real 
blood).  By  this  was  understood  a  cup  or  charger,  supposed  to 
have  served  at  the  Last  Supper,  and  to  have  been  employed  in 
receiving  the  precious  blood  of  Christ  from  the  side-wound  given 
on  the  cross.  This  relic  is  stated  to  have  been  brought  by  Joseph 
of  Arimathea  into  northern  Europe,  and  to  have  been  intrusted 
by  him  to  the  custody  of  Sir  Parsifal.  Wolfram  of  Eschenbach, 
in  his  "  Parsifal,"  relates  the  adventures  of  the  hero  who  passed 
many  years  of  pilgrimage  in  search  of  the  sanctuary  of  the 
Graal.  The  second  cycle  of  romance,  respecting  Charlemagne 
and  his  twelve  peers,  was  mostly  translated  from  the  literature 
of  France.  The  third  cycle  relates  to  the  heroes  of  classical  an- 
tiquity, and  exhibits  them  in  the  costume  of  chivalry.  Among 
them  are  the  stories  of  Alexander  the  Great,  the  "  JEneid,"  and 
the  "  Trojan  War." 

But  the  age  ot  German  chivalry  and  chivalric  poetry  soon 
passed  away.  Toward  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  the 
Crusades  languished,  and  the  contest  between  the  imperial  and 
papal  powers  raged  fiercely ;  with  the  death  of  Frederic  I.  the 


GERMAN  LITERATURE.  413 

Btar  of  the  Suabian  dynasty  set,  and  the  sweet  sounds  of  the  Sua- 
bian  lyre  died  away  with  the  last  breath  of  Conradin  on  the  scaf- 
fold at  Naples,  in  1268. 

During  this  period  there  was  a  wide  difference  between  the 
minstrelsy  patronized  by  the  nobility  and  the  old  ballads  pre- 
served by  the  popular  memory.  These,  however,  were  seized 
upon  by  certain  poets  of  the  time,  probably  Henry  of  Ofterdin- 
gen,  Wolfram  of  Eschenbach,  and  others,  and  reduced  to  the 
epic  form,  in  which  they  have  come  down  to  us  under  the  titles 
of  the  Heldenbuch  and  the  Nibelungen  Lied.  They  contain 
many  singular  traits  of  a  warlike  age,  and  we  have  proof  of 
their  great  antiquity  in  the  morals  and  manners  which  they  de- 
scribe. 

The  Heldenbuch,  or  Book  of  Heroes,  which,  in  its  present 
form,  belongs  to  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century,  is  a  collection 
of  poems,  containing  traditions  of  events  which  happened  in  the 
time  of  Attila,  and  the  irruptions  of  the  German  nations  into  the 
Roman  Empire.  The  principal  personages  who  figure  in  these 
tales  of  love  and  war  are  Etzel  or  Attila,  Dietrich  or  Theodoric 
the  Great,  Siegfried,  the  Achilles  of  the  North,  Gudrune,  Hagan, 
and  others,  who  reappear  in  the  Nibelungen  Lied,  and  who 
have  been  already  alluded  to  in  the  heroic  legends  of  the  Scan- 
dinavian Edda.  The  Nibelungen  Lied  (from  Nibelungen,  the 
name  of  an  ancient  powerful  Burgundian  race,  and  Lied,  a  lay 
or  song)  occupies  an  important  place  in  German  literature,  and 
in  grandeur  of  design  and  beauty  of  execution  it  far  surpasses 
any  other  poetical  production  of  this  period.  The  "  Horny  Sieg- 
fried," one  of  the  poems  of  the  Heldenbuch,  serves  as  a  sort  of 
prelude  to  the  Nibelungen.  In  that,  Siegfried  appears  as  the 
personification  of  manly  beauty,  virtue,  and  prowess  ;  invulner- 
able, from  having  bathed  in  the  blood  of  some  dragons  which  he 
had  slain,  save  in  one  spot  between  his  shoulders,  upon  which  a 
leaf  happened  to  fall.  Having  rescued  the  beautiful  Chriemhild 
from  the  power  of  a  giant  or  dragon,  and  possessed  himself  of 
the  treasures  of  the  dwarfs,  he  restores  her  to  her  father,  the 
King  of  the  ancient  city  of  Worms,  where  he  is  received  with 
regal  honors,  and  his  marriage  with  Chriemhild  celebrated  with 
unparalleled  splendor. 

In  the  Nibelungen,  Chriemhild  is  represented  as  the  sister  of 
Glinther  the  King  of  Burgundy ;  the  gallant  Siegfried  having 
heard  of  her  surpassing  beauty,  resolves  to  woo  her  for  his  bride, 
but  all  his  splendid  achievements  fail  to  secure  her  favors.  In 
the  mean  time  tidings  reach  the  court  of  the  fame  of  the  beau- 
tiful Brunhild,  queen  of  Isenland,  of  her  matchless  courage  and 
strength ;  every  suitor  for  her  hand  being  forced  to  abide  three 
combats  with  her,  and  if  vanquished  to  suffer  a  cruel  death. 


414       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

Giinther  resolves  to  try  his  fortune,  and  to  win  her  or  perish, 
and  Siegfried  accompanies  him  on  condition  that  the  hand  of 
Chriemhild  shall  be  his  reward  if  they  succeed. 

At  the  court  of  Brunhild,  Siegfried  presents  himself  as  the 
vassal  of  Giinther,  to  increase  her  sense  of  his  friend's  power, 
and  this  falsehood  is  one  cause  of  the  subsequent  calamities.  In 
the  combats,  Siegfried,  becoming  invisible  by  means  of  a  magic 
cap  he  had  obtained  from  the  dwarfs,  seizes  the  arm  of  Giinther 
and  enables  him  to  overcome  the  martial  maid  in  every  feat  of 
arms :  and  the  vanquished  Brunhild  bids  her  vassals  do  homage 
to  him  as  their  lord.  A  double  union  is  now  celebrated  with 
the  utmost  pomp  and  rejoicing.  The  proud  Brunhild,  however, 
is  indignant  at  her  sister-in-law  wedding  a  vassal.  In  vain  Giin- 
ther assures  her  that  Siegfried  is  a  mighty  prince  in  his  own 
country ;  the  offended  queen  determines  to  punish  his  deception, 
and  ties  him  hand  and  foot  with  her  magic  girdle,  and  hangs 
him  upon  a  nail ;  Siegfried  pitying  the  condition  of  the  king, 
promises  his  aid  in  depriving  the  haughty  queen  of  the  girdle, 
the  source  of  all  her  magic  strength.  He  successfully  accom- 
plishes the  feat,  and  in  a  luckless  hour  presents  the  trophy  to 
Chriemhild,  and  confides  the  tale  to  her  ear.  A  dispute  having 
afterwards  arisen  between  the  two  queeus,  Chriemhild,  carried 
away  by  pride  and  passion,  produces  the  fatal  girdle,  a  token 
•which,  if  found  in  the  possession  of  any  save  the  husband,  was  re- 
garded as  an  almost  irrefutable  proof  of  guilt  among  the  nations 
of  the  North.  At  this  Brunhild  vows  revenge,  and  is  aided  by 
the  fierce  Hagan,  Giinther's  most  devoted  follower,  who,  having 
induced  Chriemhild  to  confide  to  him  the  secret  of  the  spot 
where  Siegfried  is  mortal,  seizes  the  first  occasion  to  plunge  a 
lance  between  his  shoulders,  and  afterwards  bears  the  body  to 
the  chamber  door  of  Chriemhild,  who  is  overwhelmed  with  grief 
and  burning  with  resentment.  To  secure  her  revenge  she  at 
length  marries  Etzel,  or  Attila,  king  of  the  Huns,  who  invites 
the  Burgundians  to  his  court,  and  at  a  grand  festival  Chriemhild 
involves  them  in  a  bloody  battle,  in  which  thousands  are  slain  on 
both  sides.  Giinther  and  Hagan  are  taken  prisoners  by  Dietrich 
of  Berne,  and  put  to  death  by  Chriemhild,  who  in  turn  suffers 
death  at  the  hands  of  one  of  the  followers  of  Dietrich. 

Such  is  an  imperfect  outline  of  this  ancient  poem,  which,  de- 
spite all  its  horrors  and  improbabilities,  has  many  passages  of 
touching  beauty,  and  wonderful  power.  Siegfried,  the  hero,  is 
one  of  the  most  charming  characters  of  romance  or  poetry. 
Chriemhild,  at  first  all  that  the  poet  could  fancy  of  loveliness, 
becomes  at  last  an  avenging  fury.  Brunhild  is  proud,  haughty, 
stern,  and  vindictive,  though  not  incapable  of  softer  emotions. 

In  the  Scandinavian  legend  we  find  the  same  personages  in 


GERMAN  LITERATURE.  415 

grander  outlines  and  more  gigantic  proportions.  The  mytholog- 
ical portion  of  the  story  occupies  the  most  prominent  place,  and 
Brunhild  is  there  represented  as  a  Valkyriur. 

The  time  in  which  the  scene  of  this  historical  tragedy  is  laid 
is  about  430  A.  D.  From  the  thirteenth  to  the  sixteenth  century 
it  was  widely  read,  and  highly  appreciated.  But  in  the  succeed- 
ing age  it  was  almost  entirely  forgotten.  It  was  brought  again  to 
light  in  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  and  since  that  time 
it  has  been  the  subject  of  many  learned  commentaries  and  re- 
searches. 

4.  THE  FOURTEENTH  AND  FIFTEENTH  CENTURIES.  —  The 
period  from  the  accession  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg  to  the  ber 
ginning  of  the  Reformation  was  crowded  with  events  of  great 
social  importance,  but  its  literature  was  remarkably  poor.  The 
palmy  days  of  the  minstrels  and  romancists  had  passed  away. 
Rudolph  was  an  economical  prince,  who  mended  his  own  doublet 
to  spare  money,  and  as  he  had  no  taste  for  minstrelsy,  the  com- 
posers of  songs  who  went  to  his  court  found  no  rewards  there. 
The  rank  and  influence  of  the  metropolis  were  transferred  from 
Frankfort  to  Vienna,  and  the  communication  with  the  southern 
and  southwestern  parts  of  Europe  was  greatly  impeded.  The 
Germans  were  occupied  in  crusades  against  the  Huns ;  the  court 
language  was  changed  from  west  Gothic  to  an  east  Gothic  dia- 
lect, which  was  less  national,  and  much  of  the  southern  culture 
and  the  European  sympathies  which  had  characterized  the  reign 
of  the  Suabian  emperors  disappeared. 

Some  inferior  princes,  however,  encouraged  versification,  but 
the  prizes  were  so  reduced  in  value  that  the  knights  and  noble- 
men left  the  field  in  favor  of  inferior  competitors.  A  versifying 
mania  now  began  to  pervade  all  classes  of  society ;  chaplains, 
doctors,  schoolmasters,  weavers,  blacksmiths,  shoemakers  —  all 
endeavored  to  mend  their  fortunes  by  rhyming.  Poetry  sank 
rapidly  into  dullness  and  mediocrity,  while  the  so-called  poets 
rose  in  conceit  and  arrogance.  The  spirit  of  the  age  soon  em- 
bodied these  votaries  of  the  muse  in  corporations,  and  the  Em- 
peror Charles  IV.  (1346-1378)  gave  them  a  charter.  They 
generally  called  twelve  poets  among  the  minnesingers  their  mas- 
ters, and  hence  their  name  Mastersingers.  They  met  on  certain 
days  and  criticised  each  other's  productions.  Correctness  was 
their  chief  object,  and  they  seemed  to  have  little  idea  of  the  dif- 
ference between  poetical  and  prosaic  expressions.  Every  fault 
was  marked,  and  he  who  had  fewest  received  the  prize,  and  was 
allowed  to  take  apprentices  in  the  art.  At  the  expiration  of  his 
poetical  apprenticeship  the  young  poet  was  admitted  to  the  cor- 
poration and  declared  a  master. 

Though  the  institution  of  the  Mastersingers  was  established 


416       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

at  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century,  it  was  not  until  the  fif- 
teenth and  sixteenth  that  it  really  flourished,  particularly  through 
the  genius  of  Hans  Sachs.  The  institution  survived,  however, 
though  languishing,  tlirough  the  seventeenth  century,  and  the 
calamities  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  At  Ulm  it  outlasted  even 
the  changes  which  the  French  Revolution  effected  in  Europe, 
and  as  late  as  1830  twelve  old  Mastersingers  yet  remained,  who, 
after  being  driven  from  one  asylum  to  another,  sang  their  ancient 
melodies  from  memory  in  the  little  hostelry  where  the  workmen 
used  to  meet  in  the  evening  to  drink  together.  In  1839  four 
only  were  living,  and  in  that  year  these  veterans  assembled  with 
great  solemnity,  and  declaring  the  society  of  Mastersingers  for- 
ever closed,  presented  their  songs,  hymns,  books,  and  pictures 
to  a  modern  musical  institution  at  Ulm. 

While  the  early  Mastersingers  were  pouring  forth  their  strains 
with  undiminished  confidence  in  their  own  powers,  a  new  species 
of  poetic  literature  was  growing  up  beside  them  in  the  form  of 
simple  and  humorous  fables,  or  daring  satires,  often  directed 
against  the  clergy  and  nobility,  which  were  among  the  most  pop- 
ular productions  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Such  were  "  Friar  Amis  " 
and  the  "  Ship  of  Fools."  Indeed,  from  the  year  1300  to  the 
era  of  the  Reformation,  we  may  clearly  trace  the  progress  of  a 
school  of  lay  doctrine  which  was  opposed  to  a  great  part  of  the 
teaching  of  the  church,  and  which  was  yet  allowed  to  prevail 
among  the  people. 

Among  the  fables,  "  Reynard  the  Fox  "  had  a  very  early  ori- 
gin, and  has  remained  a  favorite  of  the  German  people  for  sev- 
eral centuries.  After  many  transformations  it  reappeared  as  a 
popular  work  at  the  era  of  the  Reformation,  and  it  was  at  last 
immortalized  by  the  version  of  Goethe. 

5.  THE  DRAMA.  —  We  find  the  first  symptoms  of  a  German 
drama  as  early  as  the  thirteenth  century,  in  rude  attempts  to 
perform  religious  pieces  like  the  old  Mysteries  once  so  popular 
throughout  Europe.  At  first  these  dramatic  readings  were  con- 
ducted in  the  churches  and  by  the  priests,  but  when  the  people 
introduced  burlesque  digressions,  they  were  banished  to  the  open 
fields,  where  they  assumed  still  greater  license.  Students  in  the 
universities  delighted  to  take  part  in  them,  and  these  exhibi- 
tions were  continued  after  the  Reformation.  There  is  no  reason 
to  suppose  that  the  early  Christians  objected  to  these  sacred 
dramas  or  mysteries  when  they  were  compatible  with  their  relig- 
ion. They  were  imported  into  Europe  from  Constantinople,  by 
crusaders  and  pilgrims,  and  became  favorite  shows  to  an  illiterate 
populace.  Indeed,  Christianity  was  first  taught  throughout  the 
north  of  Europe  by  means  of  these  Mysteries  and  miracle  plays, 
and  the  first  missionaries  had  familiarized  their  rude  audiences 


GERMAN  LITERATURE.  417 

with  the  prominent  incidents  of  Biblical  history,  long  before  the 
art  of  reading  could  have  been  called  in  to  communicate  the 
chronicles  themselves. 

The  most  important  writings  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries  are  the  works  of  the  monks  of  the  mystic  school,  which 
form  the  connecting  link  between  the  great  era  of  the  Crusades 
and  the  greater  era  of  the  Reformation.  They  kindled  and  kept 
alive  a  new  religious  fervor  among  the  inferior  clergy  and  the 
middle  and  lower  classes,  and  without  the  labors  of  these  reform- 
ers of  the  faith,  the  reformers  of  the  church  would  never  have 
found  a  whole  nation  waiting  to  receive  them,  and  ready  to 
support  them.  While  the  scholastic  divines  who  wrote  in  Latin 
introduced  abstruse  metaphysics  into  their  theology,  the  mystics 
represented  religion  as  abiding  in  the  sentiments  of  the  heart, 
rather  than  in  doctrines.  Their  main  principle  was  that  piety 
depended  not  on  ecclesiastical  forms  and  ceremonies,  but  that  it 
consisted  in  the  abandonment  of  all  selfish  passions.  The  senti- 
ments of  the  mystic  writers  were  collected  and  arranged  by 
Tauler  (1361),  in  a  well-known  work,  entitled  "  German  The- 
ology." Luther,  in  a  preface  to  this  book,  expresses  his  ad- 
miration of  its  contents,  and  asserts  that  he  had  found  in  it  the 
doctrines  of  the  Reformation. 

Another  celebrated  woi'k  of  this  school  is  "  The  Imitation  of 
Christ,"  written  in  Latin,  and  generally  attributed  to  Thomas  a 
Kempis,  a  monk  who  died  1471.  It  has  passed  through  num- 
berless editions,  and  still  maintains  its  place  among  the  standard 
devotional  works  of  Germany  and  other  countries. 

Two  other  events  prepared  the  way  for  the  German  reform- 
ers of  the  sixteenth  century  —  the  foundation  of  the  universities 
(1350),  and  the  invention  of  printing.  The  universities  were 
national  institutions,  open  alike  to  rich  and  poor,  to  the  knight, 
the  clerk,  and  the  citizen.  The  nation  itself  called  these  schools 
into  life,  and  in  them  the  great  men  who  inaugurated  the  next 
period  of  literature  were  fostered  and  formed. 

The  invention  of  printing  (1438)  admitted  the  middle  classes, 
who  had  been  debarred  from  the  use  of  books,  to  the  privileges 
hitherto  enjoyed  almost  exclusively  by  the  clergy  and  the  nobil- 
ity, and  placed  in  their  hands  weapons  more  powerful  than  the 
swords  of  the  knights,  or  the  thunderbolts  of  the  clergy.  The 
years  from  1450  to  1500  form  a  period  of  preparation  for  the 
great  struggle  that  was  to  signalize  the  coming  age. 
27 


418       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 


PERIOD  SECOND. 

FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  EIGHTEENTH 
CENTURY  (1517-1700). 

1.  THE  LUTHERAN  PERIOD.  —  With  the  sixteenth  century 
we  enter  upon  the  modern  history  and  modern  literature  of 
Germany.  The  language  now  becomes  settled,  and  the  literature 
for  a  time  becomes  national.  Luther  and  the  Reformers  be- 
longed to  the  people,  who,  through  them,  now  for  the  first  time 
claimed  an  equality  with  the  old  estates  of  the  realm,  the  two 
representatives  of  which,  the  emperor  and  the  pope,  were  never 
more  powerful  than  at  this  period.  The  armies  of  the  emperor 
were  recruited  from  Spain,  Austria,  Naples,  Sicily,  and  Bur- 
gundy ;  while  the  pope,  armed  with  the  weapons  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion, and  the  thunderbolts  of  excommunication,  levied  his  armies 
of  priests  and  monks  from  all  parts  of  the  Christian  world. 
Against  these  formidable  powers  a  poor  Augustine  monk  came 
forth  from  his  study  in  the  small  university  of  Wittenberg,  with 
no  armies  and  no  treasures,  with  no  weapon  in  his  hand  but  the 
Bible,  and  in  his  clear  manly  voice  defied  both  emperor  and 
pope,  clergy  and  nobility.  History  affords  no  more  memorable 
spectacle. 

After  the  Reformation  nearly  all  eminent  men  in  Germany, 
poets,  philosophers,  and  historians,  belonged  to  the  Protestant 
party,  and  resided  chiefly  in  the  universities,  which  were  what 
the  monasteries  had  been  under  Charlemagne,  and  the  castles 
under  Frederic  Barbarossa  —  the  centres  of  gravitation  for  the 
intellectual  and  political  life  of  the  country.  A  new  aristocracy 
now  arose,  founded  on  intellectual  preeminence,  which  counted 
among  its  members  princes,  nobles,  divines,  soldiers,  lawyers, 
and  artists.  But  the  danger  which  threatens  all  aristocracies 
was  not  averted  from  the  intellectual  nobility  of  Germany ;  the 
spirit  of  caste,  which  soon  pervaded  all  their  institutions,  de- 
prived the  second  generation  of  that  power  which  men  like 
Luther  had  gained  at  the  beginning  of  the  Reformation.  The 
moral  influence  of  the  universities  was  great,  but  it  would  have 
been  far  greater  if  the  intellectual  leaders  of  the  realm  had  not 
separated  themselves  from  the  ranks  whence  they  themselves 
had  risen,  and  to  which  alone  they  owed  their  influence.  This 
intellectual  aristocracy  manifested  a  disregard  of  the  real  wants 
of  the  people,  a  contempt  of  all  knowledge  which  did  not  wear 
the  academic  garb,  and  the  same  exclusive  spirit  of  caste  that 
characterizes  all  aristocracies.  Latin  continued  to  be  the  lit- 
erary medium  of  scholars,  and  at  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century  German  was  only  beginning  to  assert  its  capabilities  as 
ft  vehicle  of  elegant  and  refined  literature. 


GERMAN  LITERATURE.  419 

The  sixteenth  century  may  be  called  the  Lutheran  period,  for 
Martin  Luther  (1483-1546)  was  the  most  prominent  character 
in  the  general  literature  as  well  as  in  the  theology  of  Germany. 
He  was  the  exponent  of  the  national  feeling,  he  gave  shape  and 
utterance  to  thoughts  and  sentiments  which  had  been  before 
only  obscurely  expressed,  and  his  influence  was  felt  in  almost 
every  department  of  life  and  literature.  The  remodeling  of  the 
German  tongue  may  be  said  to  have  gone  hand  in  hand  with 
the  Reformation,  and  it  is  to  Luther  more  than  to  any  other  that 
it  owes  its  rapid  progress.  His  translation  of  the  Bible  was  the 
great  work  of  the  period,  and  gives  to  him  the  deserved  title  of 
creator  of  German  prose.  The  Scriptures  were  now  familiarly 
read  by  all  classes,  and  never  has  their  beautiful  simplicity  been 
more  admirably  rendered.  The  hymns  of  Luther  are  no  less 
remarkable  for  their  vigor  of  style,  than  for  their  high  devotional 
feeling.  His  prose  works  consist  chiefly  of  twenty  volumes  of 
sermons,  and  eight  volumes  of  polemical  writings,  besides  his 
"  Letters  "  and  "  Table  Talk,"  which  give  us  a  view  of  the  sin- 
gular mixture  of  qualities  which  formed  the  character  of  the 
great  Reformer. 

The  literature  of  that  period  also  owes  much  to  Melanchthon 
(1497-1560),  the  author  of  the  "Confession  of  Augsburg," 
who  by  his  classical  learning,  natural  sagacity,  simplicity  and 
clearness  of  style,  and  above  all  by  his  moderation  and  mild- 
ness, greatly  contributed  to  the  progress  of  the  Reformation. 
He  devoted  himself  to  the  improvement  of  schools  and  the  dif- 
fusion of  learning,  and  through  his  influence  the  Protestant 
princes  of  Germany  patronized  native  literature,  established  pub- 
lic libraries,  and  promoted  the  general  education  of  the  people. 

The  earnest  polemical  writings  of  the  age  must  be  passed  over, 
as  they  belong  rather  to  ecclesiastical  and  political  than  to  lit- 
erary history.  Yet  these  are  the  most  characteristic  productions 
of  the  times,  and  display  the  effects  of  controversy  in  a  very  un- 
favorable light.  The  license,  personality,  acrimony,  and  gross- 
ness  of  the  invectives  published  by  the  controversial  writers, 
particularly  of  the  sixteenth  century,  can  hardly  be  imagined  by 
a  modern  reader  who  has  not  read  the  originals.  The  better 
specimens  of  this  style  of  writing  are  found  in  the  remains  of 
Manuel  and  Zwingle.  Manuel  (1484-1530),  a  native  of  Switz- 
erland, is  an  instance  of  the  versatility  of  talent,  which  was  not 
uncommon  at  this  time  ;  he  was  a  soldier,  a  poet,  a  painter,  a 
sculptor,  and  a  wood-engraver.  The  boldness  and  license  of  his 
satires  are  far  beyond  modern  toleration.  Zwingle  (1484- 
1531).  the  leading  reformer  of  Switzerland,  was  a  statesman,  a 
theologian,  a  musician,  and  a  soldier.  His  principal  work  is  the 
"  Exposition  of  the  Christian  Faith."  A  celebrated  writer  01 


420       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

prose  satire  was  Fischart  (1530-1590),  whose  numerous  works, 
under  the  most  extravagant  titles,  are  distinguished  by  wit  and 
extensive  learning.  His  "  Prophetic  Almanac  "  was  the  selling 
book  at  all  the  fairs  and  markets  of  the  day,  and  was  read  with 
an  excitement  far  exceeding  that  produced  by  any  modern 
novels.  In  his  "  Garagantua,"  he  borrowed  some  of  his  descrip- 
tions from  Rabelais  ;  and  this  extravagant,  satirical,  and  humor- 
ous book,  though  full  of  the  uncouth  and  far-fetched  combi- 
nations of  words  found  in  his  other  writings,  contains  many 
ludicrous  caricatures  of  the  follies  of  society  in  his  age. 

Franck  (fl.  1533),  one  of  the  best  writers  of  German  prose  on 
history  and  theology  during  the  sixteenth  century,  was  the  rep- 
resentative of  the  mystic  school,  and  opposed  Luther,  whom 
he  called  the  new  pope.  His  religious  views  in  many  respects 
correspond  with  those  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  Rejecting  all 
ecclesiastical  authority,  he  maintained  that  there  is  an  internal 
light  in  man  which  is  better  fitted  than  even  the  Scriptures  to 
guide  him  aright  in  religious  matters.  He  wrote  with  bitterness 
and  severity,  though  he  seldom  used  the  coarse  style  of  invective 
common  to  his  age. 

Arnd  (1555—1621)  may  be  classed  among  the  best  theological 
writers  of  the  period.  His  treatise  "  On  True  Christianity  "  is 
still  read  and  esteemed.  He  belonged  to  the  mystic  school,  and 
the  pious  and  practical  character  of  his  work  made  it  a  favorite 
among  religious  men  of  various  sects. 

Jacob  Boehm  (1575-1624)  was  a  poor  shoemaker,  who,  with- 
out the  advantages  of  education,  devoted  his  mind  to  the  most 
abstruse  studies,  and  professed  that  his  doctrines  were  derived 
from  immediate  revelation ;  his  works  contain  many  profound 
and  lofty  ideas  mingled  with  many  confused  notions. 

2.  POETRY,  SATIRE,  AND  DEMONOLOGY.  —  In  the  sixteenth 
century  the  old  poetry  of  Germany  was  in  a  great  measure  for- 
gotten ;  the  Nibelungen  Lied  and  the  Heldenbuch  were  despised 
by  the  learned  as  relics  of  barbarian  life ;  classical  studies  en- 
gaged the  attention  of  all  who  loved  elegant  literature,  and 
while  Horace  was  admired,  the  title  of  German  poet  was  gen- 
erally applied  as  a  badge  of  ridicule.  A  propensity  to  satire  of 
the  most  violent  and  personal  description  seems  to  have  been 
almost  universal  in  these  excited  times.  Hutten  (1488-1523) 
shared  the  general  excitement  of  the  age,  and  warmly  defended 
the  views  of  Luther.  He  addressed  many  satirical  pamphlets 
in  prose  and  verse  to  the  people,  and  was  compelled  to  flee  from 
one  city  to  another,  his  life  being  always  in  danger  from  the 
numerous  enemies  excited  by  his  severity.  Next  to  invectives 
and  satires,  comic  stories  and  fables  \vere  the  characteristic  pro- 
ductions of  these  times.  Hans  Sachs  (1494-1576),  the  most  dis- 


GERMAN  LITERATURE.  421 

tinguished  of  the  Mastersingers  of  the  sixteenth  century,  excelled 
in  that  kind  of  poetry  as  well  as  in  all  other  styles  of  composi- 
tion, and  following  his  business  as  shoemaker,  he  made  verses 
with  equal  assiduity.  He  employed  his  pen  chiefly  in  writing  in- 
numerable tales  and  fables  containing  common  morality  for  com- 
mon people.  In  one  of  these  he  represents  the  Apostle  St.  Peter 
as  being  greatly  perplexed  by  the  disorder  and  injustice  prevail- 
ing in  the  world.  Peter  longs  to  have  the  reins  of  government 
in  his  own  hand,  and  believes  that  he  could  soon  reduce  the 
world  to  order.  While  he  is  thinking  thus,  a  peasant  girl  comes 
to  him  and  complains  that  she  has  to  do  a  day's  work  in  the 
field,  and  at  the  same  time  to  keep  within  bounds  a  frolicsome 
young  goat.  Peter  kindly  takes  the  goat  into  custody,  but  it 
escapes  into  the  wood,  and  the  apostle  is  so  much  fatigued  by 
his  efforts  to  recover  the  animal  that  he  is  led  to  this  conclusion : 
"  If  I  am  not  competent  to  keep  even  one  young  goat  in  my 
care,  it  cannot  be  my  proper  business  to  perplex  myself  about 
the  management  of  the  whole  world." 

The  best  lyrical  poetry  was  devoted  to  the  service  of  the 
church.  Its  merit  consists  in  its  simple,  energetic  language. 
Hymns  were  the  favorite  literature  of  the  people ;  they  were  the 
cradle  songs  which  lulled  the  children  to  sleep,  they  were  sung 
by  mechanics  and  maid-servants  engaged  in  their  work ;  and  they 
were  heard  in  the  streets  and  market-places  instead  of  ballads. 
Luther,  who  loved  music  and  psalmody,  encouraged  the  people 
to  take  a  more  prominent  part  in  public  worship,  and  wrote  for 
them  several  German  hymns  and  psalms. 

The  belief  in  demonology  and  witchcraft,  which  was  univer- 
sally diffused  through  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  raged  in  Ger- 
many with  fearful  intensity  and  fury.  While  in  other  countries 
persecution  was  limited  to  the  old,  the  ugly,  and  the  poor,  here 
neither  rank  nor  age  offered  any  exemption  from  suspicion  and 
torture.  While  this  persecution  was  at  its  height,  from  1580 
to  1680,  more  than  one  hundred  thousand  individuals,  mostly 
women,  were  consigned  to  the  flames,  or  otherwise  sacrificed  to 
this  blood-thirsty  insanity.  Luther  himself  was  a  devout  believer 
in  witchcraft,  and  in  the  bodily  presence  of  the  Spirit  of  Evil 
upon  the  earth ;  all  his  harassing  doubts  and  mental  struggles 
he  ascribes  to  his  visible  agency.  Germany,  indeed,  seemed  to 
live  and  breathe  in  an  atmosphere  of  mysticism. 

Among  the  mystic  philosophers  and  speculators  on  natural 
history  and  the  occult  sciences  who  flourished  in  this  period  are 
Paracelsus  (1493-1546),  and  Cornelius  Agrippa  (1486-1539). 
Camerarius  was  distinguished  in  the  classics  and  philosophy ; 
Gesner  in  botany,  zoology,  and  the  classics  ;  Fuchs  in  botany  and 
medicine  ;  and  Agricola  in  mineralogy. 


422       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

Among  the  legends  of  the  period,  that  of  Faust,  or  Dr.  Faus- 
tus,  has  obtained  the  most  lasting  popularity.  There  are  good 
reasons  for  believing  that  the  hero  of  this  tale  was  a  real  person- 
age, who  lived  in  Suabia  in  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. He  is  frequently  mentioned  as  a  well-known  character 
who  gained  his  celebrity  by  the  profession  of  magic.  In  the 
"  History  of  Dr.  Faustus,"  first  published  1587,  he  is  repre- 
sented as  a  magician,  who  gained  by  unlawful  arts  a  mastery 
over  nature.  The  legend  rapidly  spread  ;  it  was  versified  by 
the  English  dramatist  Marlowe,  it  became  the  foundation  of  in- 
numerable tales  and  dramas,  until,  transformed  by  the  genius  of 
Goethe,  it  has  acquired  a  prominent  place  in  German  literature. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  sixteenth  century,  owing  to  the  dis- 
turbed state  of  religious,  social,  and  political  life,  and  to  the  fact 
that  the  best  minds  of  the  age  were  occupied  in  Latin  writings 
on  theology,  while  a  few,  devoted  to  quiet  study,  cultivated  only 
the  classics,  the  hopes  which  had  been  raised  of  a  national  poetry 
and  literature  were  blighted,  and  a  scholastic  and  polemical  the- 
ology continued  to  prevail.  The  native  tongue  was  again  neg- 
lected for  the  Latin ;  the  national  poems  were  translated  into 
Latin  to  induce  the  learned  to  read  them ;  native  poets  composed 
their  verses  in  Latin,  and  all  lectures  at  the  universities  were 
delivered  in  that  tongue.  The  work  of  Luther  was  undone : 
ambitious  princes  and  quarrelsome  divines  continued  the  rulers 
of  Germany,  and  everything  seemed  drifting  back  into  the  Mid- 
dle Ages.  Then  came  the  Thirty  Years'  War  (1618-1648), 
with  all  its  disastrous  consequences.  At  the  close  of  that  war 
the  public  mind  was  somewhat  awakened,  literary  societies  were 
organized,  and  literature  was  fostered ;  but  the  nation  was  so 
completely  demoralized  that  it  hardly  cared  for  the  liberty  sanc- 
tioned by  the  treaty  of  Westphalia,  or  for  the  efforts  of  a  few 
princes  and  scholars  to  better  its  intellectual  condition.  The 
population  of  Germany  was  reduced  by  one  half  ;  thousands  of 
villages  and  towns  had  been  burnt  to  the  ground  ;  the  schools, 
the  churches,  the  universities,  were  deserted  ;  and  a  whole  gener- 
ation had  grown  up  during  the  war,  particularly  among  the 
lower  classes,  with  no  education  at  all.  The  once  wealthy  mer- 
chants were  reduced  to  small  traders.  The  Hanse  League  was 
broken  up ;  commerce  was  suspended,  and  intellectual  activity 
paralyzed.  Where  any  national  feeling  was  left,  it  was  a  feel- 
ing of  shame  and  despair. 

3.  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CSNTUBY.  —  During  the  seventeenth 
century  the  German  language  was  regarded  by  comparatively 
few  writers  as  a  fit  vehicle  for  polite  literature,  and  was  re- 
served almost  exclusively  for  satires,  novels,  and  religious  dis- 
courses. 


GERMAN  LITERATURE.  423 

Opitz  (1597-1639)  attempted  to  introduce  the  use  of  his  na- 
tive tongue,  and,  in  a  work  on  German  poetry,  explained  the 
laws  of  poetic  composition  and  the  mechanism  of  versification. 

Several  scholars  at  length  directed  their  attention  to  the  gram- 
mar of  the  language,  which,  through  their  influence,  now  began 
to  be  used  in  the  treatment  of  scientific  subjects.  Meantime 
great  mathematical  and  physical  discoveries  were  made  through 
the  Academy  of  Berlin,  which  was  founded  under  the  auspices 
of  Leibnitz,  and  scientific  and  literary  associations  were  every- 
where established.  Books  became  a  vast  branch  of  commerce 
and  great  philologists  and  archaeologists  devoted  themselves  to  the 
study  of  classical  antiquity.  Puffendorf  expounded  his  theories 
of  political  history,  Kepler,  of  astronomy,  Arnold,  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal history  ;  and  Leibnitz  laid  a  basis  for  the  scientific  study  of 
philosophy  in  Germany.  Wolf  shaped  the  views  of  Leibnitz 
into  a  comprehensive  system,  and  popularized  them  by  publish- 
ing his  works  in  the  German  language.  Thomasius,  the  able 
jurist  and  ptetistic  philosopher,  was  the  first,  in  1688,  to  substi- 
tute in  the  universities  the  German  for  the  Latin  language  as  the 
medium  of  instruction. 

Satirical  novels  form  a  prominent  feature  in  the  prose  litera- 
ture of  the  time,  and  took  the  place  of  the  invectives  and  satires 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  No  work  of  fiction,  however,  produced 
such  an  excitement  as  the  translation  of  Defoe's  "  Robinson  Cru- 
soe." Soon  after  its  publication  more  than  forty  imitations  ap- 
peared. 

During  this  century  the  Mastersingers  went  on  composing,  ac- 
cording to  the  rules  of  their  guilds,  but  we  look  in  vain  for  the 
raciness  and  simplicity  of  Hans  Sachs.  Some  poets  wrote  plays 
in  the  style  of  Terence,  or  after  English  models ;  and  fables  in 
the  style  of  Phaedrus  became  fashionable.  But  there  was  no 
trace  anywhere  of  originality,  truth,  taste,  or  feeling,  except  in 
sacred  poetry.  Paul  Gerhard  (1606—1696)  is  yet  without  an 
equal  in  his  sacred  songs ;  many  of  the  best  hymns  which  are 
still  heard  in  the  churches  of  Germany  date  from  the  age  of  this 
poet.  Soon,  however,  even  this  class  of  poetry  degenerated  on 
one  side  into  dry  theological  phraseology,  on  the  other  into  sen- 
timental affectation. 

This  century  saw  the  rise  and  the  fall  of  the  first  and  the  sec- 
ond Silesian  schools.  The  first  is  represented  by  Opitz  (1597- 
1639),  Paul  Flemming,  a  writer  of  hymns  (1609-1640),  and  a 
number  of  less  gifted  poets.  Its  character  is  pseudo-classical. 
All  these  poets  endeavored  to  write  correctly,  sedately,  and  elo- 
quently. Some  of  them  aimed  at  a  certain  simplicity  and  sin- 
cerity, particularly  Flemming.  But  it  would  be  difficult  to  find 
in  all  their  writings  one  single  thought  or  expression  that  had 


424       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

not  been  used  before  ;  although  the  works  of  Opitz  and  of  his 
followers  were  marked  by  a  servile  imitation  of  French  and 
Dutch  poets,  they  exerted  an  influence  on  the  literary  taste  of 
their  country,  enriched  the  German  language  with  new  words 
and  phrases,  and  established  the  rules  of  prosody. 

The  second  Silesian  school  is  represented  by  Hoffmanswaldau 
(1618-1679)  and  Lohenstein  (1635-1683),  who  undertook  to  in- 
troduce into  the  German  poetry  the  bad  taste  of  Marini  which 
at  that  time  so  corrupted  the  literature  of  Italy.  Their  composiv 
tions  are  bombastic  and  full  of  metaphors, —  the  poetry  of  adjec- 
tives,  without  substance,  truth,  or  taste. 

Dramatic  writing  rose  little  above  the  level  of  the  first  period. 
The  Mysteries  and  Moralities  still  continued  popular,  and  some 
of  them  were  altered  to  suit  the  new  doctrines.  Opitz  wrote 
some  operas  in  imitation  of  the  Italian,  and  Gryphius  acquired 
popularity  by  his  translations  from  Marini  and  his  introduction 
of  the  pastoral  drama.  The  theatrical  productions  of  Lohen- 
stein, characterized  by  pedantry  and  bad  taste,  together  with 
the  multitude  of  others  belonging  to  this  age,  are  curious  in- 
stances of  the  folly  and  degradation  to  which  the  stage  may  be 
reduced. 

PERIOD    THIRD. 

FROM  THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  TO  THE  PRESENT 
TIME  (1700-1885.) 

1.  THE  SAXONIC  AND  Swiss  SCHOOLS.  —  In  contrast  to  the 
barrenness  of  the  last  period,  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  cen- 
turies present  us  with  a  brilliant  constellation  of  writers  in  every 
department  of  letters,  whose  works  form  an  era  in  the  intellec- 
tual development  of  Germany  unsurpassed  in  many  respects  by 
any  other  in  the  history  of  literature.  Gottsched  and  Bodmer 
each  succeeded  in  establishing  schools  of  poetry  which  exerted 
great  influence  on  the  literary  taste  of  the  country.  Gottsched 
(1700-1766),  the  founder  of  the  Saxonic  school,  exercised  the 
same  dictatorship  as  a  poet  and  critic  which  Opitz  had  exercised 
at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century.  He  was  the  advo- 
cate and  copyist  of  French  models  in  art  and  poetry,  and  he 
used  his  widespread  influence  in  favor  of  the  correct  and  so- 
called  classical  style.  After  having  rendered  good  service  in 
putting  down  the  senseless  extravagance  of  the  school  of  Lohen- 
stein, he  became  himself  a  pedantic  and  arrogant  critic  ;  then 
followed  a  long  literary  warfare  between  him  and  Bodmer 
(1698-1783),  the  founder  of  the  Swiss  school.  Gottsched  and 
his  followers  at  Leipsic  defended  the  French  and  insisted  on 
classical  forms  and  traditional  rules ;  Bodmer  and  his  friends  in 
Switzerland  defended  the  English  style,  and  insisted  on  natural 


GERMAN  LITERATURE.  425 

sentiment  and  spontaneous  expression.  A  paper  war  was  car- 
ried on  in  their  respective  journals,  which  at  length  ended  fa- 
vorably to  the  Swiss  or  Bodmer's  school,  which,  although  the 
smaller  party,  obtained  a  splendid  victory  over  its  antagonist. 

Many  of  the  followers  of  Gottsched,  disgusted  with  his  ped- 
antry, finally  separated  themselves  from  him  and  formed  a 
new  poetical  union,  called  the  Second  Saxonic  School.  They 
established  at  the  same  time  a  periodical,  which  was  at  once  the 
channel  of  their  communications  and  the  point  around  which 
they  centred.  The  principal  representatives  of  this  school  were 
Rabener  (1714-1771),  very  popular  for  the  cheerful  strain  of 
wit  that  runs  through  his  satires,  and  for  the  correctness  of  his 
language  and  style;  Gellert  (1715-1769),  whose  "Fables" 
contain  great  moral  truth  enlivened  by  vivid  pictures  of  life,  full 
of  sprightliness  and  humor,  and  expressed  in  a  style  of  extraor- 
dinary ease  and  clearness  ;  Kastner  (1719-1800),  a  celebrated 
and  acute  mathematician,  and  the  author  of  many  epigrams, 
elegies,  odes,  and  songs;  John  Elias  Schlegel  (1718-1749), 
distinguished  for  his  dramatic  compositions ;  and  Zachariae 
(1726-1777),  endowed  with  a  poetical  and  witty  invention, 
which  he  displayed  in  his  comic  epopees  and  descriptive  poems. 

The  following  two  poets  were  the  most  celebrated  of  them 
all:  Hagedorn  (1708-1754),  whose  fables  and  poems  are  re- 
markable for  their  fancy  and  wit;  and  Haller  (1708-1777), 
who  acquired  an  enduring  fame  as  a  poet,  anatomist,  physiolo- 
gist, botanist,  and  scholar.  Of  inferior  powers,  but  yet  of  great 
popularity,  were:  Gleim  (1719-1803),  upon  whom  the  Germans 
bestowed  the  title  of  "  father,"  which  shows  at  once  how  high 
he  ranked  among  the  poets  of  his  time;  Kleist  (1715-1759), 
whose  poems  are  characterized  by  pleasant  portraitures,  harmo- 
nious numbers,  great  ease,  and  richness  of  thought,  conciseness 
of  expression,  and  a  noble  morality;  Ramler  (1725-1798),  who 
has  been  styled  the  German  Horace,  from  his  odes  in  praise  of 
Frederic  the  Great;  Nicolai  (1733—1811),  who  acquired  consid- 
erable fame,  both  for  the  promotion  of  literature  and  for  the  cor- 
rection of  German  taste  particularly,  through  his  critical  reviews ; 
and  Gessner  (1730-1787),  who  gained  a  great  reputation  for  his 
"  Idyls,"  which  are  distinguished  by  freshness  of  thought  and 
grace  and  eloquence  of  style. 

2.  KLOPSTOCK,  LESSIXG,  WIELAND,  AND  HERDEH. —  Klop- 
stock  (1724-1803),  inspired  by  the  purest  enthusiasm  for  Chris- 
tianity, and  by  an  exalted  love  for  his  fatherland,  expressed  his 
thoughts  and  feelings  in  eloquent  but  somewhat  mystic  strains. 
He  was  hailed  as  the  herald  of  a  new  school  of  sacred  and  na- 
tional literature,  and  his  "  Messiah "  announced  him  in  some 
respects  as  the  rival  of  Milton.  In  comparing  the  Messiah 


426       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

with  the  "Paradise  Lost,"  Herder  says:  "Milton's  poem  is  a 
building  resting  on  mighty  pillars  ;  Klopstock's,  a  magic  picture 
hovering  between  heaven  and  earth,  amid  the  tenderest  emotions 
and  the  most  moving  scenes  of  human  nature." 

Lessing  (1729-1781)  produced  a  reformation  in  German  lit- 
erature second  only  to  that  effected  by  Luther  in  theology.  He 
was  equally  eminent  as  a  dramatist,  critic,  and  philosopher.  His 
principal  dramatic  productions  are  "  Emilie  Galotti  "  and  "  Na- 
than the  Wise."  As  a  critic  he  demanded  creative  imagination 
from  all  who  would  claim  the  title  of  poet,  and  spared  neither 
friends  nor  foes  in  his  efforts  to  maintain  a  high  standard  of  lit- 
erary excellence.  The  writings  of  Lessing  exerted  a  command- 
ing influence  on  the  best  minds  of  Germany  in  almost  all  depart- 
ments of  thought.  They  mark,  and  in  a  great  measure  produced, 
the  important  change  in  the  tone  of  German  literature,  from  the 
national  and  Christian  character  of  Klopstock  to  the  cosmopoli- 
tan character  which  prevails  in  the  writings  of  Goethe  and 
Schiller. 

Wieland  (1733-1813)  was,  in  his  youth,  the  friend  of  Klop- 
stock, and  would  tolerate  nothing  but  religious  poetry ;  but  he 
suddenly  turned  to  the  opposite  extreme,  and  began  to  write 
epicurean  romances  as  vehicles  of  his  new  views  of  human  life 
and  happiness.  Among  his  tales  are  "  Agathon,"  "  Musarion," 
and  "  Aristippus,"  which  last  is  considered  his  best  work.  In 
all  these  writings  his  purpose  was  to  represent  pleasure  or  utility 
as  the  only  criterion  of  truth.  Although  there  is  much  in  his 
prose  writings  to  subject  him  to  severe  censure,  he  maintains  his 
place  in  the  literature  of  his  native  country  as  one  of  its  most 
gay,  witty,  and  graceful  poets.  His  "  Oberon  "  is  one  of  the 
most  charming  and  attractive  poems  of  modern  times. 

Herder  (1741-1803)  was  deeply  versed  in  almost  all  branches 
of  study,  and  exercised  great  influence,  not  only  as  a  poet,  but 
as  a  theologian,  philosopher,  critic,  and  philologist.  He  studied 
philosophy  under  Kant,  and,  after  filling  the  offices  of  teacher 
and  clergyman,  he  was  invited  to  join  the  circle  of  poets  and 
other  literary  men  at  Weimar,  under  the  patronage  of  the  Grand 
Duke  Karl  August.  Here  he  produced  a  series  of  works  on 
various  subjects,  all  marked  by  a  kindly  and  noble  spirit  of 
humanity.  Among  them  are  a  treatise  "  On  the  Origin  of  Lan- 
guage," an  essay  on  "  Hebrew  Poetry,"  and  a  work  entitled 
"  Ideas  for  the  Philosophy  of  Humanity,"  besides  poetical  and 
critical  writings.  In  his  collection  of  popular  ballads  from  vari- 
ous nations  he  showed  his  power  of  appreciating  the  various  na- 
tional tomes  of  poetry. 

The  most  noble  feature  in  Herder's  character  was  his  constant 
striving  for  the  highest  interests  of  mankind.  He  did  not  en> 


GERMAN  LITERATURE.  427 

ploy  literature  as  the  means  of  satisfying  personal  ambition,  and 
the  melancholy  of  his  last  days  arose  from  his  lofty  and  unful- 
filled aspirations. 

His  friend  Richter  said  of  him  :  "  Herder  was  no  poet,  —  he 
was  something  far  more  sublime  and  better  than  a  poet,  — he 
was  himself  a  poem,  —  an  Indian  Greek  Epic  composed  by  one 
of  the  purest  of  the  gods." 

3.  GOETHE  AND  SCHILLER.  —  The  close  of  the  eighteenth 
and  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  age  of  Herder, 
Goethe,  and  Schiller,  was  one  of  remarkable  intellectual  excite- 
ment, and  it  has  produced  a  literature  richer,  more  voluminous, 
and  more  important  than  that  of  all  preceding  periods  taken  col- 
lectively. 

The  time  extending  between  1150  and  1300  has  been  styled 
the  First  Classic  Period,  and  that  we  are  now  entering  upon  is 
regarded  as  the  second.  These  two  epochs  resemble  each  other 
not  only  in  their  productiveness,  but  in  the  failure  of  both  to 
maintain  a  distinct  national  school  of  poetry.  In  the  thirteenth 
century  the  national  epic  appeared,  but  was  soon  neglected  for 
the  foreign  legends  and  sentimental  verses  of  the  romancists  and 
minnesingers.  In  the  eighteenth  century,  when  Lessing  had 
made  a  path  for  original  genius  by  clearing  away  French  ped- 
antry and  affectation,  there  appeared  some  hope  of  a  revival  of 
true  national  literature.  But  Herder  directed  the  literary  enthusi- 
asm of  his  time  towards  foreign  poetry  and  universal  studies,  and 
a  cosmopolitan  rather  than  a  national  style  has  been  the  result ; 
although  for  thoughtfulness  and  sincerity,  and  for  the  number  of 
important  ideas  which  it  has  brought  into  circulation,  modern 
German  literature  may  justly  claim  the  highest  honor. 

Goethe  (1749-1832)  was  a  man  of  universal  genius ;  he  was 
born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Maine,  and  of  his  boyhood  he  gives  a 
pleasant  account  in  his  work  entitled  "  Poetry  and  Truth."  In 
1773  the  appearance  of  his  "  Gb'tz  von  Berh'chingen,"  a  drama 
founded  upon  the  autobiography  of  that  national  and  popular 
hero,  was  regarded  as  the  commencement  of  an  entirely  new  pe- 
riod in  German  dramatic  literature.  It  was  followed,  in  1774, 
by  the  sentimental  novel,  "  The  Sorrows  of  Werther,"  in  which 
Goethe  gave  expression  to  the  morbid  sentiments  of  many  of  his 
contemporaries.  The  Grand  Duke  of  Weimar  invited  him  to  his 
court,  where  he  was  elevated  to  an  honorable  position.  Here  he 
produced  his  dramatic  poems,  "  Iphigenia,"  "  Egmont,"  "  Tasso," 
and  "  Faust,"  besides  many  occasional  poems  and  other  works, 
and  continued  writing  until  his  eighty-second  year,  while  he  va- 
ried his  literary  life  with  the  pleasures  of  society. 

As  a  poet,  Goethe  is  chiefly  known  by  his  dramas,  "  Faust," 
"  Tasso,"  and  "  Egmont ;  "  his  lyrical  and  occasional  poems,  and 


428       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

his  domestic  epic,  entitled  "  Herman  and  Dorothea."  The  first 
part  of  "  Faust "  is  the  poem  by  which  the  fame  of  this  author 
has  heen  most  widely  extended.  Though  incomplete,  it  is  re- 
markably original,  and  suggests  important  reflections  on  human 
character  and  destiny.  The  narrative  is  partly  founded  on  the 
old  legend  of  Faust,  the  magician.  We  are  introduced  to  Che 
hero  at  the  moment  when  he  despairs  of  arriving  at  any  valuable 
result,  after  years  of  abstruse  study,  and  is  about  to  put  the  cup 
of  poison  to  his  lips.  The  church  bells  of  Easter  Sunday  recall 
to  his  mind  the  scenes  of  his  innocent  childhood,  and  he  puts 
aside  the  cup  and  resolves  to  commence  a  new  career  of  life.  At 
this  moment,  his  evil  genius,  Mephistopheles,  appears,  and  per- 
suades him  to  abandon  philosophy  and  to  enjoy  the  pleasures  of 
the  world.  Faust  yields  to  his  advice,  and  after  many  adven- 
tures ends  his  career  in  crime  and  in  misery.  Many  parts  of 
the  poem  are  written  in  a  mystical  vein,  and  intimate  rather 
than  express  the  various  reflections  to  be  deduced  from  it.  The 
second  part  of  "  Faust "  is  remarkable  for  its  varied  and  harmo- 
nious versification. 

Goethe  was  a  voluminous  writer,  and  much  devoted  to  the 
fine  arts  and  the  natural  sciences,  as  is  attested  by  his  remarkable 
work  on  the  theory  of  colors.  He  extended  his  wide  sympathies 
over  almost  every  department  of  literature. 

The  great  merit  of  Goethe  lies  not  so  much  in  his  separate 
productions,  as  in  the  philosophy  of  life  and  individual  develop- 
ment which  pervades  has  works,  all  of  which,  from  "  Faust,"  his 
greatest  achievement,  to  his  songs,  elegies,  and  shorter  poems, 
have  the  same  peculiar  character,  and  are  tinged  with  the  same 
profound  reflections.  The  service  he  rendered  to  the  German 
language  was  immense.  The  clearness  and  simplicity  of  his  prose 
style  make  the  best  model  for  the  imitation  of  his  countrymen. 
During  his  lifetime,  professors  of  various  universities  lectured  on 
his  works,  and  other  authors  wrote  commentaries  on  his  produc- 
tions, while  his  genius  has  been  amply  recognized  in  foreign  coun- 
tries, especially  within  the  last  thirty  years. 

Schiller  (1759-1805)  was  born  at  Marbach,  a  town  of  Wur- 
temberg.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  was  admitted  to  the  mili- 
tary academy  at  Stuttgart,  where,  in  spite  of  its  dull  routine,  he 
secretly  educated  himself  as  a  poet.  At  the  age  of  twenty-two, 
he  gave  to  the  world  his  tragedy  of  the  "  Robbers  "  (composed 
when  he  was  only  seventeen),  in  which  his  own  wild  longings 
for  intellectual  liberty  found  a  turbulent  and  exaggerated  ex- 
pression. The  public  received  it  with  great  enthusiasm,  as  the 
production  of  a  vigorous  and  revolutionary  genius,  and  Schiller 
soon  after  escaped  from  the  academy  to  try  his  fortune  as  a  the- 
atrical author.  Accompanied  by  a  young  musician,  with  only 


GERMAN  LITERATURE.  429 

twenty-three  florins  in  his  pocket,  he  set  out  for  Manheim,  on 
the  night  when  the  Grand  Duke  Paul  of  Russia  paid  a  visit  to 
Stuttgart,  and  all  the  people  were  too  full  of  the  excitement  of 
the  royal  preparations  and  illuminations  to  observe  the  departure 
of  the  young  poet.  The  good  citizens  did  not  dream  that  an 
obscure  youth  was  leaving  the  city  gate,  of  whom  they  would  one 
day  be  far  more  proud  than  of  the  glittering  visit  of  the  Grand 
Duke.  Yet  the  royal  entrance  is  only  now  remembered  because 
on  that  night  young  Scliiller  ran  away  ;  and  the  people  of  Stutt- 
gart, when  they  would  show  a  stranger  their  objects  of  interest, 
point  first  of  all  to  the  statue  of  Friedrich  Schiller. 

After  many  adventures,  Schiller  was  appointed  poet  to  the 
theatre  at  Manheim.  At  a  later  period  he  was  made  Professor 
of  History  at  the  University  of  Jena,  a  position  for  which  his  ge- 
nius eminently  fitted  him,  and  every  prospect  of  happiness 
opened  before  him.  But  his  health  soon  failed,  and,  after  a 
short  illness,  he  expired  at  the  early  age  of  forty-five. 

The  principal  works  of  Schiller  are  the  dramas  of  "  Wallen- 
stein,"  "  Marie  Stuart,"  "  The  Maid  of  Orleans,"  "  The  Bride  <tf 
Messina,"  and  the  celebrated  ode  called  the  "  Song  of  the  Bell." 
Besides  these,  he  wrote  many  ballads,  didactic  poems,  and  lyrical 
pieces.  The  "  Song  of  the  Bell  "  stands  alone  as  a  successful 
attempt  to  unite  poetry  with  the  interests  of  daily  life  and  indus- 
try. In  his  lyrical  ballads  and  romances,  Scliiller  rises  above 
the  didactic  and  descriptive  style,  and  is  inspired  with  noble  pur- 
poses. The  "  Cranes  of  Ibycus "  and  the  "  Fight  with  the 
Dragon  "  may  be  mentioned  as  instances.  Schiller  was  so  inter- 
esting as  a  man,  a  philosopher,  a  historian,  and  critic,  as  well  as 
poet,  that,  as  Carlyle  observes,  in  the  general  praise  of  his  labors, 
his  particular  merits  have  been  overlooked.  His  aspirations  in 
literature  were  noble  and  benevolent.  He  regarded  poetry  es- 
pecially as  something  other  than  a  trivial  amusement,  —  as  the 
companion  and  cherisher  of  the  best  hopes  and  affections  that 
can  be  developed  in  human  life. 

While  Goethe  excels  Schiller  in  completeness  of  aesthetical  and 
philosophical  perception,  and  in  the  versatility  of  his  world-em- 
bracing and  brilliant  attainments,/as  a  lover  of  his  race,  and  as  a 
poet  who  knew  how  to  embody  (hat  love  in  the  most  exquisite 
conceptions,  Schiller  far  surpassed  him,  and  stands  preeminent 
among  all  other  poets.  While  Goethe  represented  the  actual 
thoughts  and  feelings  of  his  age,  Schiller  reflected  its  ideal 
yearnings  ;  while  the  practical  result  of  Goethe's  influence  was 
to  develop  the  capacities  of  each  individual  to  their  utmost  extent, 
Schiller's  aim  was  to  lead  men  to  consecrate  their  gifts  to  the 
good,  the  beautiful,  and  the  true,  the  ethical  trinity  of  the  ages. 
The  one  poet  represents  the  majesty,  and  at  the  same  time  the 


430       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

tyranny  of  the  intellect ;  the  other,  the  power  and  the  loveliness 
of  the  affections  ;  and  although  Goethe  will  always  receive  the 
respect  and  admiration  of  the  world,  Schiller  will  command  its 
love. 

4.  THE  GOTTINGEN  SCHOOL.  —  This  association  was  formed 
at  the  epoch  of  Goethe  and  Schiller,  when  poets  such  as  no  other 
times  had  produced  started  up  in  quick  succession.     The  follow- 
ing  are  among  the    principal  members  of  this    school:     Voss 
(1756-1826)  is  distinguished  by  a  classical  taste  and  great  flu- 
ency of  style.     His  "  Louise  "  is  a  masterpiece  of  bucolic  poetry. 
His  "  Idyls  "  are  the  best  of  his  minor  poems.     Christian  Stol- 
berg  (1748-1821)  was  the  author  of  two  dramas,  many  elegiac 
poems  and  translations  from  the  Greek.    Leopold  Stolberg  (1750- 
1817),  his  brother,  was  still  more  successful  as  a  poet,  and  distin- 
guished  for  his  acute  observation  of   the    beautiful  in  nature. 
Hoelty  (1748-1776)  was  a  poet  of  the  gentler  affections,  the  elo- 
quent advocate  of  love,  friendship,  and  benevolence.     Claudius 
(1743-1815),  in  his  poetical  productions,  ranges  through  song, 
elegy,  romance,  and  fable.    Burger  (1748-1794)  was  remarkable 
as  the  author  of  wild,  picturesque  ballads  and  songs.     His  most 
celebrated  poem  is  "  Leonore,"  which  was  at  one  time  known  by 
heart   all   over  Germany.     Schubart  (1739-1791),  though  not 
belonging  to  the  Gb'ttingen  association,  may  be  here  referred  to. 
His  songs  and  poems  evince  a  warm  imagination,  and  his  descrip- 
tions are  true  and  beautiful.     One  of  the  most  powerful  writers 
of  this  period  was  Klinger  (1753-1831),  whose  highly  wrought 
productions  reflected  most  vividly  the  vehemence  of  thought  and 
feeling  of  his  time,  and  whose  drama,  "  Storm  and  Stress,"  gave 
the  name  to  that  peculiar  school  known  as  the  Storm  and  Stress 
literature. 

5.  THE  ROMANTIC  SCHOOL.  —  The  founders  of  the  Romantic 
School,  Novalis,  the  two  Schlegels,  and  Tieck,  opposed  the  sys- 
tem which  held  up  the  great  masters  of  antiquity  as  exclusive 
models  of  excellence  ;  they  condemned  this  theory  as  cold  and 
narrow,  and  opposed  alike  to  the  true  interests  of  literature  and 
progress.     They  pointed  out  the  vast  changes  in  religion,  mo- 
rality, thought,  habits,  and  manners  which  separated  the  ancient 
from  the  modern  world,  and  declared  that  to  follow  blindly  the 
works  of  Virgil  and  Cicero  was  to  repress  all  originality  and 
creative  power.     From  the  times  of  Pericles  or  Augustus  they 
turned  to  the  Middle  Ages,  and,  forgetting  their  crimes  and 
miseries,  threw  around  them  a  halo  of  illusive  romance.     It  was 
not  only  in  poetry  that  this  reaction  was  visible  —  in  art  and 
architecture  the  same  tendency  appeared.     The  stiff  and  quaint 
but  vigorous  productions  of  the  old  German  painters  were  drawn 
forth  from  the  obscurity  where  they  had  long  mouldered  ;  the 


GERMAN  LITERATURE.  431 

glorious  old  cathedrals  were  repaired  and  embellished  ;  the  lays 
of  the  minnesingers,  collected  by  Tieck,  were  on  every  lip,  and 
the  records  of  the  olden  times  were  ransacked  for  historic  and 
traditionary  lore. 

Although  the  Romantic  School  soon  fell  into  extravagances 
which  did  much  to  diminish  its  influence,  the  whole  of  Germany 
was  to  some  extent  affected  by  it.  The  love  for  particular  epochs 
led  to  researches  in  the  language  and  antiquities,  as  such,  as  in 
Oriental  studies,  and  during  the  calamitous  period  of  the  French 
invasion  the  national  feeling  was  revived  and  kept  alive  by  the 
stirring  and  patriotic  songs  which  recalled  the  glories  of  the 
past. 

The  brothers  Schlegel  are  more  celebrated  as  philologists  and 
critics  than  as  poets  ;  although  their  metrical  compositions  are 
numerous,  they  are  wholly  deficient  in  warmth,  passion,  and 
imagination.  Tieck  is  more  distinguished  as  a  novelist  than  a 
poet,  but  even  his  prose  tales  are  so  pervaded  by  the  spirit  of 
poetry  that  they  may  be  said  to  belong  to  this  department. 

Among  other  poets,  Kurner  and  Arndt  are  best  remembered 
by  their  patriotic  songs,  which  once  thrilled  every  German  heart. 

Seldom  in  romance  or  history  is  there  found  a  more  noble  or 
heroic  character  than  Theodore  Korner  (1791-1813).  Short  as 
was  his  existence,  he  had  already  struck,  with  more  or  less  suc- 
cess, almost  every  chord  of  the  poetic  lyre.  His  dramas,  with 
many  faults,  abound  in  scenes  glowing  with  power  and  passion, 
and  prove  what  he  might  have  achieved  had  life  been  spared  to 
him.  But  it  is  his  patriotic  poems,  his  "  Lyre  and  Sword,"  which 
have  invested  the  name  of  Kb'rner  with  the  halo  of  fame  and 
rendered  his  memory  sacred  to  his  countrymen. 

The  name  of  Arndt  (1769-1860)  is  also  associated  in  every 
German  mind  with  the  cause  of  national  liberty ;  and  his  poems 
have  incited  many  German  hearts  to  the  achievement  of  heroic 
deeds.  His  patriotic  song,  "  Where  is  the  German's  fatherland," 
is  a  universal  favovite.  Arndt  is  not  less  celebrated  for  his  his- 
torical and  scientific  works  than  for  his  poems. 

The  Suabian  School  is  represented  by  Uhland,  Schwab,  Ker- 
ner,  and  others  who  have  enriched  German  poetry  with  many 
original  lyrics.  Uhland  (1787-1862)  is  the  most  distinguished 
ballad  writer  of  the  present  age  in  Germany.  The  conceptions 
embodied  in  his  poetry  refer  chiefly  to  the  Middle  Ages,  and  his 
stories  are  many  of  them  founded  on  well-known  legends. 

Kerner  (b.  1786)  is  more  intrinsically  romantic  than  Uhland, 
but  he  is  equally  at  home  in  other  species  of  composition.  Schwab 
(1792-1850)  is  distinguished  among  the  lyric  poets.  An  epic 
tendency,  combined  with  great  facility  in  depicting  scenery  and 
describing  events,  is  the  main  feature  of  his  metrical  romances. 


432       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

Riickert  (1789-1866),  one  of  the  most  original  lyric  poets  of 
Germany,  is  distinguished  for  the  versatility  of  his  descriptive 
powers,  the  richness  of  his  imagination,  and  his  hold,  fiery  spirit. 
He  has  heen  followed  by  Daumer,  Bodenstedt,  and  others. 

The  most  remarkable  poet  whom  Germany  has  produced  in 
the  present  century  is  Heinrich  Heine  (1800-1856),  and  his 
poems  are  among  the  most  fascinating  lyrics  in  European  litera- 
ture. The  delicacy,  wit,  and  humor  of  his  writings,  their  cruel 
and  cynical  laughter,  and  their  tender  pathos,  give  him  a  unique 
place  in  the  literature  of  his  country.  A  school  of  writers  known 
as  Young  Germany  was  deeply  influenced  by  Heine.  Their 
object  was  to  revolutionize  the  political,  social,  and  religious  in- 
stitutions of  the  country.  Borne  (d.  1837),  the  rival  of  Heine 
in  the  leadership  of  the  party,  was  inferior  to  him  in  poetical 
power,  but  his  superior  in  earnestness,  moral  beauty,  and  eleva- 
tion. Borne  was  the  nightmare  of  the  German  princes,  at 
whom  he  darted,  from  his  place  of  exile  in  Paris,  the  arrows  of 
his  bitter  satire.  Some  of  his  writings  are  among  the  most  elo- 
quent of  modern  German  compositions.  Prominent  among  the 
followers  of  Heine  and  Borne  are  Gutzkow  (b.  1811),  a  nov- 
elist, essayist,  and  dramatist ;  Laube  (b.  1806)  ;  and  Mundt 
(b.  1808). 

From  about  1830  a  group  of  Austrian  poets,  more  or  less 
political  in  tendency,  commanded  the  respect  of  all  Germans, 
the  chief  among  them  was  Count  Auersperg,  who,  under  the  as- 
sumed name  of  Anastasius  Griin,  wrote  lyrical  and  other  brill- 
iant and  effective  poems.  Of  the  writers  who  before  1848  at- 
tempted to  force  poetry  into  the  service  of  freedom,  the  best 
known  is  Herwegh,  who  advocated  liberty  with  a  vehemence 
that  won  for  him  immense  popularity.  The  poems  of  Freili- 
grath  (1810-1876)  have  graphic  force,  and  possess  merit  of  a 
high  order.  He  has  a  rich  imagination,  great  power  of  lan- 
guage, and  musical  versification.  Among  the  more  distinguished 
contemporary  poets,  Hamerling  is  remarkable  for  the  boldness 
of  his  conceptions,  and  the  passionate  vehemence  of  his  expres- 
sion. 

6.  THE  DRAMA.  —  At  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, Gottsched  and  his  followers  had  rendered  good  service  to 
the  stage,  not  so  much  by  their  own  productions  as  by  driving 
from  it  the  bombast  of  Lohenstein.  Lessing  followed  this  move- 
ment by  attacking  the  French  dramas,  which  had  hitherto  been 
esteemed  the  highest  productions  of  human  genius,  and  by  bring- 
ing forward  Shakspeare  as  the  true  model  of  dramatic  style. 
This  attack  was  so  successful  that  the  influence  of  the  French 
drama  soon  declined,  and  in  the  reaction,  Greeks,  Romans,  kings 
and  princesses  were  replaced  by  honest,  tiresome  burghers,  with 


GERMAN  LITERATURE.  433 

their  commonplace  wives  and  daughters,  and  the  toga  and  tunic 
gave  way  to  woolen  petticoats  and  dress-coats.  Everything  like 
poetry,  either  in  language  or  sentiment,  was  hanished  from  the 
stage.  Such  was  the  state  of  things  when  Goethe  appeared. 
His  rapid  glance  at  once  discerned  the  poverty  of  dramatic  art, 
and  his  flexible  and  many-sided  genius  set  itself  to  supply  the 
deficiency.  His  "  Gb'tz  von  Beiiichingen  "  illustrated  the  possi- 
bility of  a  dramatic  literature  founded  upon  national  history  and 
national  character.  His  "  Egmont  "  is  a  highly  poetic  and  elo- 
quent dramatization  of  that  popular  hero,  and  of  the  struggles  of 
the  Netherlands  against  the  tyranny  of  Spain.  His  "  Tasso  "  is 
a  poem  of  psychological  interest,  illustrating  a  favorite  maxim 
of  the  author  that  a  poet,  like  every  other  artist,  for  his  true 
development,  needs  education.  "  A  hundred  times,"  says  Goethe, 
"  have  I  heard  artists  boast  that  they  owed  everything  to  them- 
selves, and  I  am  often  provoked  to  add,  '  Yes,  and  the  result  is 
just  what  might  be  expected.'  What,  let  me  ask,  is  a  man  in 
and  of  himself  ?  " 

The  lesson  of  the  drama  of  "  Tasso  "  is  this  —  that  the  poet 
cannot  fulfill  his  duty  by  cultivating  merely  his  imagination, 
however  splendid  and  powerful  it  may  be.  Like  all  other  men 
who  would  be  good  and  great,  he  must  exercise  patience  and  mod- 
eration ;  must  learn  the  value  of  self-denial ;  must  endure  the 
hardships  and  contradictions  of  the  real  world ;  contentedly 
occupy  his  place,  with  its  pains  and  pleasures,  as  a  part  of  the 
great  whole,  and  patiently  wait  to  see  the  beauty  and  brightness 
which  flow  from  his  soul,  win  their  way  through  the  obstacles 
presented  by  human  society.  The  singular  merit  of  this  dramatic 
poem  is  this  :  that  it  is  the  fruit  of  genuine  experience,  adorned 
with  the  hues  of  a  beautiful  imagination,  and  clothed  in  classical 
language ;  but  it  is  a  work  written  for  the  few. 

"  Iphigenia  "  is  a  fine  imitation  of  the  ancient  Greek  style,  but 
not  well  suited  to  the  stage. 

In  his  dramatic,  as  in  all  his  other  works,  the  only  end  and  aim 
of  Goethe  was  to  carry  to  perfection  the  art  in  which  he  was  so 
great  a  master.  Virtue  and  vice,  truth  and  falsehood,  are  each 
portrayed  with  the  same  graceful  complacency  and  the  same,  ex- 
quisite skill.  His  immense  and  wide-spreading  influence  renders 
this  singular  indifference,  which  seems  to  confound  the  very  sense 
of  right  and  wrong,  doubly  lamentable. 

In  plastic  skill  and  variety,  the  dramatic  creations  of  Schiller 
are  regarded,  in  some  respects,  inferior  to  those  of  Goethe,  but 
they  all  glow  with  the  love  of  true  goodness  and  greatness,  and 
with  an  enthusiasm  for  virtue  and  liberty  which  communicates 
itself,  as  by  an  electric  spark,  to  his  readers.  The  violent  tone 
of  Schiller's  first  tragedy,  the  "  Robbers,"  was  suggested  by  other 
28 


434      HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

theatrical  writers  of  the  period,  who  esteemed  wildness  and  ab- 
surdity the  chief  characteristics  of  poetical  genius.  Schiller  gave 
to  his  dramatic  wo?ks  more  movement  and  popular  interest  than 
can  be  found  in  Goethe's  dramas,  but  yielded  in  some  instances 
to  the  sentimental  tone  so  prevalent  in  German  poetry.  "  Fi- 
esco  "  was  written  in  a  better  style  than  the  u  Robbers,"  though 
less  suited  to  please  the  low  theatrical  taste  of  the  time.  "  Don 
Carlos  "  showed  more  maturity  of  thought,  and  is  pervaded  by 
a  coloring  of  poetic  sentiment ;  "  Wallenstein  "  won  for  the  poet 
a  universal  reputation  in  his  native  land,  and  was  translated  into 
English  by  Coleridge.  "  Marie  Stuart,"  the  "  Maid  of  Orleans," 
and  the  "  Bride  of  Messina,"  contributed  still  more  to  increase 
the  poet's  fame.  "  Wilhelm  Tell "  was  the  most  popitlar  of 
Schiller's  plays,  and  is  still  esteemed  by  some  as  his  best  pro- 
duction. Here  the  love  of  liberty,  so  wildly  expressed  in  the 
"  Robbers,"  appears  in  its  true  and  refined  character. 

Kotzebue  (1760-1819)  was  one  of  the  most  successful  play- 
wrights of  Gel-many.  He  composed  an  almost  countless  number 
of  plays,  and  his  plots  were  equally  versatile  and  amusing  ;  but 
he  was  entirely  destitute  of  poetic  and  moral  beauty.  His  op- 
position to  liberal  principles  caused  him  to  be  regarded  as  the 
enemy  of  liberty,  and  to  be  assassinated  by  an  enthusiastic  stu- 
dent named  George  Sand,  who,  on  obtaining  admittance  to  him 
under  the  pretense  of  business,  stabbed  him  to  the  heart. 

While  the  influence  of  the  Romantic  School  tended  to  invest 
all  poetry  with  a  dreamy  and  transcendental  character,  in  the 
drama  it  was  mingled  with  stormy  and  exciting  incidents,  often 
carried  to  the  extreme  of  exaggeration  and  absurdity.  The  Ro- 
mancists  dealt  almost  exclusively  with  the  perturbed  elements 
of  the  human  mind  and  the  fearful  secrets  of  the  heart.  They 
called  to  their  aid  the  mysteries  of  the  dark  side  of  nature,  and 
ransacked  the  supernatural  world  for  its  marvels  and  its  horrors. 
The  principal  of  these  "  Power  Men,"  as  they  were  called,  are 
Miillner,  Werner,  Howald,  and  Grillparzer. 

Milliner  (1774-1829)  displayed  no  common  order  of  poetic 
genius ;  but  the  elements  of  crime,  horror,  and  remorse  often 
supply  the  place  of  originality  of  thought  and  delineation  of  char- 
acter. Werner  (1768-1823),  after  a  youth  of  alternate  prof- 
ligacy and  remorse,  embraced  the  Catholic  faith  and  became  a 
preacher.  His  dramas  of  "  Martin  Luther,"  "  Attila,"  and  the 
"  Twenty-ninth  of  February,"  have  rendered  him  one  of  the 
most  popular  authors  in  Germany.  Grillparzer  (b.  1790)  is  the 
author  of  a  drama  entitled  the  "  Ancestress."  The  wildest 
dreams  of  Milliner  and  Werner  sink  into  insignificance  before 
the  extravagance  of  this  production,  both  in  language  and  senti- 
ment. The  "  Sappho  "  of  this  author  displays  much  lyric  beauty. 


GERMAN  LITERATURE.  435 

Iffland  (1759-1814)  was  a  fertile  but  dull  dramatist.  One  of 
the  best  national  tragedies  was  written  by  Munch  Bellinghausen. 
Charlotte  Birchpfeifer  has  dramatized  a  great  number  of  stories. 
Raupach  (1784-1852)  was  one  of  the  most  able  of  recent  Ger- 
man writers  of  plays.  Gutzkow  is  distinguished  among  con- 
temporary dramatists  ;  and  Freytag  and  Bauernfeld  are  excel- 
lent writers  of  comedy.  Kleist  (d.  1811)  was  also  a  distinguished 
writer  of  dramas  of  the  Romantic  School.  Mosenthal,  the  au- 
thor of  "  Deborah,"  has  achieved  distinction  by  aiming  at  some- 
tiling  higher  than  stage  eifect. 

7.  PHILOSOPHY.  —  The  appearance  of  Kant  (1724-1804) 
created  a  new  era  in  German  philosophy.  Previous  to  his  time, 
the  two  systems  most  in  vogue  were  the  sensualism  of  Locke 
and  his  followers  and  the  idealism  of  Leibnitz,  Wolf,  and  others. 
Kant,  in  his  endeavors  to  ascertain  what  we  can  know  and  what 
we  originally  do  know,  was  led  to  the  fundamental  laws  of  the 
mind,  and  to  investigate  original  or  transcendental  ideas,  those 
necessary  and  unchangeable  forms  of  thought,  without  which 
we  can  perceive  nothing.  For  instance,  our  perceptions  are  sub- 
mitted to  the  two  forms  of  time  and  space.  Hence  these  two 
ideas  must  be  within  us,  not  in  the  objects  and  not  derived  from 
experience,  but  the  necessary  and  pure  intuitions  of  the  internal 
sense.  The  work  in  which  Kant  endeavored  to  ascertain  these 
ideas,  and  the  province  of  certain  human  knowledge,  is  entitled 
the  "  Critique  of  Pure  Reason,"  and  the  doctrines  there  ex- 
pounded have  been  called  the  Critical  Pliilosophy  and  also  the 
Transcendental.  In  the  "  Critique  of  Practical  Reason  "  the 
subject  of  morals  is  treated,  and  that  of  aesthetics  in  the  "  Obser- 
vations on  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful." 

The  advent  of  Kant  created  a  host  of  philosophical  writers 
and  critics,  and  besides  Lessing  and  Herder  there  were  Moses 
Mendelssohn,  Hamann  (the  Magus  of  the  North),  Reinhold, 
Jacobi,  and  many  others  who  speculated  in  various  directions 
upon  the  most  momentous  problems  of  humanity  and  of  the  hu- 
man soul. 

Fichte  (1762-1814)  carried  the  doctrine  of  Kant  to  its  ex- 
treme point,  and  represented  all  that  the  individual  perceives 
without  himself,  or  all  that  is  distinguished  from  the  individual, 
as  the  creation  of  this  /  or  ego  ;  that  the  life  of  the  mind  is  the 
only  real  life,  and  that  everything  else  is  a  delusion. 

Schelling  (1775-1854),  in  his  "  Philosophy  of  Identity,"  ar- 
gues that  the  same  laws  prevail  tltroughout  the  material  and  the 
intellectual  world.  His  later  writings  contain  theories  in  which 
the  doctrines  of  Christianity  are  united  with  philosophical  specu- 
lations. The  leading  principle  of  Schelling  is  found  in  a  sup- 
posed intuition,  which  he  describes  as  superior  to  all  reasoning, 


436       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

and  admitting  neither  doubt  nor  explanation.  Coleridge  adopted 
many  views  of  this  philosopher,  and  some  of  his  ideas  may  be 
found  in  the  contemplative  poems  of  Wordsworth. 

Hegel  (1770—1831),  in  his  numerous,  profound,  and  abstruse 
writings,  has  attempted  to  reduce  all  the  departments  of  knowl- 
edge to  one  science,  founded  on  a  method  which  is  expounded 
in  his  work  on  Logic.  The  ''Identity  System"  of  Schelling 
and  the  "  Absolute  Logic  "  of  Hegel  have  already  produced  an 
extensive  library  of  philosophical  controversy,  and  the  indirect 
influence  of  the  German  schools  of  philosophy  has  affected  the 
tone  of  the  literature  in  France,  England,  America,  Denmark, 
and  Sweden.  The  effect  of  German  philosophy  has  been  to  de- 
velop intense  intellectual  activity.  The  habit  of  searching  into 
the  hidden  mysteries  of  being  has  inclined  the  German  mind  to 
what  is  deepest,  and  sometimes  to  what  is  most  obscure  in 
thought ;  and  the  tendency  to  rise  to  the  absolute,  which  is  char- 
acteristic of  this  philosophy,  manifests  its  influence  not  only  in 
the  blending  of  poetry  and  metaphysics,  but  in  every  department 
of  science,  literature,  and  art.  The  literary  theory  thus  devel- 
oped, that  ideal  beauty  and  not  the  imitation  of  nature  is  the 
highest  principle  of  art,  is  everywhere  applied  even  to  the  study 
of  the  great  monuments  of  the  past,  and  in  the  writings  of  the 
German  archaeologists  new  youth  seems  to  spring  from  the  ruins 
of  the  ancient  world.  The  physical  sciences  are  also  introduced 
into  that  universal  sphere  of  ideas  where  the  most  minute  obser- 
vations, as  well  as  the  most  important  results,  pertain  to  general 
interests. 

From  1818  to  the  time  of  his  death,  in  1831,  the  influence  of 
Hegel  dominated  the  highest  thought.  Later,  his  school  broke 
into  three  divisions  ;  Ruge,  one  of  the  most  brilliant  writers  of 
the  school,  led  the  extreme  radicals  ;  Strauss  resolved  the  nar- 
ratives of  the  gospel  into  myths,  and  found  the  vital  elements 
of  Christianity  in  its  spiritual  teaching  ;  while  Feuerbach  urged 
that  all  religion  should  be  replaced  by  a  sentiment  of  humanity. 
Ulrici  and  the  younger  Fichte  exercised  considerable  influence 
as  advocates  of  a  pantheistic  doctrine  which  aims  to  reconcile 
religion  and  science.  None  of  these  names,  however,  have  the 
importance  which  attaches  to  that  of  Schopenhauer  (d.  1860), 
who,  at  the  present  day,  stirs  a  deeper  interest  than  any  other 
thinker.  His  main  doctrine  is  that  Will  is  the  foundation  prin- 
ciple of  existence,  the  one  reality  in  the  universe,  and  all  else  is 
mere  appearance.  History  is  a  record  of  turmoil  and  wretch- 
edness, and  the  world  and  life  essentially  evil.  High  moral 
earnestness  and  great  literary  genius  are  shown  in  his  graphic 
and  scornful  pictures  of  the  darker  aspects  of  the  world. 

Van  Hartmann,  the  most  prominent  leader  of  the  Pessimistic 


GERMAN  LITERATURE.  437 

School  (1842-1872),  the  latest  original  thinker  of  Germany,  in 
his  •'  Philosophy  of  the  Unconscious,"  follows  essentially  the  same 
line  of  thought.  He  assumes  that  there  is  in  nature  a  blind, 
impersonal,  unconscious,  all-pervading  will  and  idea,  a  pure  and 
spiritual  activity,  independent  of  brain  and  nerve,  and  mani- 
festing itself  in  thought,  emotion,  instinct,  morals,  language,  per- 
ception, and  history.  He  teaches  that  this  is  the  last  principle 
of  philosophy,  described  by  Spinoza  as  substance,  by  Fichte  as 
the  absolute  /,  by  Plato  and  Hegel  as  the  absolute  idea,  and  by 
Schopenhauer  as  Will.  He  believes  the  world  to  be  utterly 
and  hopelessly  bad,  and  the  height  of  wisdom  to  suppress  the 
desire  to  live.  At  the  same  time  he  believes  that  there  is  no 
peace  for  the  heart  and  intellect  until  religion,  philosophy,  and 
science  are  seen  to  be  one,  as  root,  stem,  and  leaves  are  all  or- 
ganic expressions  of  one  same  living  tree. 

8.  MISCELLANEOUS  WRITINGS.  —  The  best  German  minds 
of  the  nineteenth  century  have  been  absorbed  by  severe  labor 
in  all  branches  of  learning  and  the  sciences.  Many  memoirs  of 
eminent  persons  have  appeared,  and  many  books  of  travel,  since 
the  days  of  George  Forster  (1754-1794),  the  teacher  of  Hum- 
boldt  and  the  inaugurator  of  a  new  scientific  and  picturesque 
school  of  the  literature  of  travel.  Lichtenstein  has  written  his 
travels  in  Southern  Africa ;  Prince  Maximilian  von  Wied  and 
Martius,  in  Brazil  ;  Poppig,  in  Chili,  Peru,  etc. ;  Burmeister  and 
Tschudi,  in  South  America  ;  Lepsius  and  Brugsch,  in  Egypt ; 
and  more  recently,  Giitzlaff,  in  China  ;  Siebold,  in  Japan  ;  Barth 
and  Vogel,  in  Africa ;  Leichhardt,  in  Australia ;  the  brothers 
Schlagintweit,  one  of  whom  fell  a  victim  to  his  zeal,  in  Asia ; 
and  Ida  Pfeiffer  (1797-1858),  a  woman  of  rare  intrepidity, 
who  visited,  mostly  on  foot,  the  most  remote  regions  of  the  globe. 
Another  tourist  and  voluminous  writer  is  Kohl  (b.  1808). 
Qualities  rarely  united  in  one  individual  met  in  the  character  of 
Alexander  von  Humboldt  (1769-1859),  an  enterprising  traveler, 
a  man  of  extensive  science,  and  an  accomplished  writer.  Ac- 
companied by  his  friend  Bonpland,  he  visited  South  America, 
and  after  five  years  of  adventurous  research  among  the  wonders 
of  nature,  he  returned,  and  prepared  for  the  press  the  results  of 
his  travels  —  the  "Aspects  of  Nature,"  "Picturesque  Views  of 
the  Cordilleras,"  and  "  Travels  in  the  Equinoctial  Regions  of 
America."  This  veteran  student  produced  at  an  advanced  age 
a  remarkable  work  entitled  "  Cosmos,"  containing  the  results  of 
a  long  life  of  observation  and  contemplation.  In  the  first  part 
he  gives  general  views  of  the  economy  of  nature,  while  in  the 
second  we  find  ingenious  speculations  regarding  the  influence  of 
nature  on  human  society,  in  its  various  stages  of  culture. 

The  Chevalier  Bunsen  (d.  1860)  celebrated  by  his  theological 


438      HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

and  historico-philosophical  researches,  has  written,  among  other 
works,  one  on  the  "  Position  of  Egypt  in  the  History  of  the 
World,"  which  is  a  learned  dissertation  on  the  antiquities  and 
especially  on  the  primitive  language  of  Egypt. 

In  the  periodicals  of  Germany  every  department  of  letters 
and  science  is  represented,  and  through  the  book-fairs  of  Leipsic 
all  the  literature  of  the  ancient  and  modern  world  passes.  They 
are  the  magazines  of  the  productions  of  all  nations.  Every 
class  of  contending  tastes  and  opinions  is  represented  and  all  the 
contrasts  of  thought  which  have  been  developed  in  the  course  of 
ages  meet  in  the  Leipsic  book-market. 

SCIENCE.  —  The  growth  of  science  has  been  one  of  the  most 
powerful  factors  in  the  recent  development  of  Germany,  and 
some  of  the  best  works  present  in  a  popular  form  the  results  of 
scientific  labor.  Among  these  the  first  place  belongs  to  the 
"  Cosmos  "  of  Humboldt.  Although  no  longer  in  accordance 
with  the  best  thought,  it  has  enduring  merit  from  the  author's 
power  of  handling  vast  masses  of  facts,  his  poetic  feeling  and 
purity  and  nobility  of  style. 

In  chemistry  Liebig  (d.  1873)  is  widely  and  popularly  known  ; 
DuBois-Raymond  has  made  great  researches  in  animal  electric- 
ity, physics,  and  physiology  ;  Virchow  in  biology ;  Helmholtz  in 
physiological  optics  and  sound  ;  Haeckel  has  extended  the  theo- 
ries and  investigations  of  Darwin,  and  all  have  made  admirable 
attempts  to  render  science  intelligible  to  ordinary  readers. 

With  the  death  of  Goethe  began  a  new  era  in  German  litera- 
ture not  yet  closed.  The  period  has  been  one  of  intense  political 
excitement,  and  while  much  of  the  best  of  the  nation  has  been 
devoted  to  politics  there  has  also  been  great  literary  activity 
deeply  influenced  by  the  practical  struggles,  hopes,  and  fears  of 
the  time.  There  has  been  a  tendency  in  German  writers  hith- 
erto to  neglect  the  laws  of  expression,  although  their  writings 
have  evinced  great  originality  and  power  of  imagination,  owing 
doubtless  to  the  fact  that  they  were  addressed  only  to  particular 
classes  of  readers.  But  since  the  political  unity  of  the  country 
has  been  accomplished,  increasing  numbers  of  thinkers  and  schol- 
ars have  appealed  to  the  whole  nation,  and,  in  consequence,  have 
cultivated  more  directness  and  force  of  style. 

NOVELS,  ROMANCES,  AND  POPULAR  LEGENDS.  —  Poetry  and 
prose  fiction  form  the  general  literature  of  a  nation,  and  are  dis- 
tinguished from  the  literature  of  the  study  or  from  special  litera- 
ture, which  consists  chiefly  of  books  for  the  use  of  distinct  classes 
or  parties.  Fiction  borders  closely  on  the  province  of  history, 
which,  in  its  broad  and  comprehensive  outlines,  must  necessarily 
leave  unnoticed  many  of  the  finer  lights  and  shades  of  human 
life,  descriptions  of  motives,  private  characters,  and  domestic 


GERMAN  LITERATURE.  439 

scenes.  To  supply  these  in  the  picture  of  humanity  is  the  dis- 
tinct office  of  fiction,  which,  while  free  in  many  respects,  should 
still  be  essentially  true.  The  poetry  and  fiction  of  a  country 
should  be  the  worthy  companion  to  its  history.  The  true  poet 
should  be  the  interpreter  and  illustrator  of  life.  While  the  his- 
torian describes  events  and  the  outward  lives  of  men,  the  poet 
penetrates  into  the  inner  life,  and  portrays  the  spirit  that  moves 
them.  The  historian  records  facts ;  the  poet  records  feelings, 
thoughts,  hopes,  and  desires;  the  historian  keeps  in  view  the 
actual  man ;  the  poet,  the  ideal  man ;  the  historian  tells  us  what 
man  has  been  ;  the  poet  reminds  us  either  in  his  dreams  of  th* 
past,  or  in  his  visions  of  the  future,  what  man  can  be  ;  and  the 
true  poet  who  fulfills  such  a  duty  is  as  necessary  to  the  develop- 
ment and  education  of  mankind  as  the  historian. 

The  numerous  fictitious  works  of  Germany  may  be  arranged 
in  four  different  classes.  The  first,  comprehending  historical 
-romances;  affords  few  writers  who  bear  comparison  with  Scott. 
In  the  second  class,  containing  novels  which  describe  characters 
and  scenes  in  real  life,  German  literature  is  also  comparatively 
poor.  The  third  class  comprises  all  the  fictions  marked  by  par- 
ticular tendencies  respecting  art.  literature,  or  society.  In  the 
fourth  class,  which  includes  imaginative  tales,  German  literature 
is  especially  rich.  To  this  department  of  fiction,  in  which  the 
imagination  is  allowed  to  wander  far  beyond  the  bounds  of  real 
life  and  probability,  the  Germans  apply  distinctively  the  term 
poetical.  In  these  imaginative  and  mystical  fictions  there  is  an 
important  distinction  between  such  tales  as  convey  moral  truth 
and  interest  under  an  array  of  visionary  adventures,  and  those 
which  are  merely  fantastic  and  almost  destitute  of  meaning. 

Goethe's  novel,  "•  Wilhelm  Meister's  Apprenticeship,"  may  be 
classed  with  fictions  intended  to  convey  certain  views  of  life  ; 
but  its  chief  defect  is,  that  the  object  of  the  writer  remains  in 
a  mist,  even  at  the  end  of  the  story.  The  "  Elective  Affinities," 
while  it  contains  many  beauties  as  a  work  of  art,  is  objectionable 
in  a  moral  point  of  view. 

Jean  Paul  Richter  (1763-1825)  describes  human  life  in  all 
its  aspects  of  light  and  shade,  and  his  voluminous  works  embrace 
all  subjects,  from  the  highest  problems  of  transcendental  philoso- 
phy and  the  most  passionate  poetical  delineations  to  "  Instruc- 
tions in  the  Art  of  Falling  Asleep ; "  but  his  essential  character, 
however  disguised,  is  that  of  a  philosopher  and  moral  poet, 
whose  study  has  been  human  nature,  and  whose  delight  is  in  all 
that  is  beautiful,  tender,  and  mysteriously  sublime  in  the  fate  or 
history  of  man.  Humor  is  the  ruling  quality  of  his  mind,  the 
central  fire  that  pervades  and  vivifies  his  whole  being.  The 
chief  productions  of  Jean  Paul  (the  title  under  which  he  wrote) 


440      HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

are  novels,  of  which  "  Hesperus"  and  "Titan  "  are  considered  his 
masterpieces.  These  and  the  charming  pi  ose  idyl,  "  The  Years 
of  Wild  Oats,"  keep  their  place  as  works  of  permanent  excellence. 
In  his  famous  "  Dream,"  in  which  he  describes  a  universe  with- 
out religion,  he  rises  to  the  loftiest  height  of  imagination. 

Tieck  (1773-1853)  was  at  once  a  novelist,  poet,  and  critic ; 
but  his  fairy  tales  have  perhaps  rendered  him  most  popular. 
His  fancy  was  brilliant  and  sportive,  and  his  imagination  varied 
and  fantastic.  The  world  of  his  creation  was  peopled  by  demons 
who  shed  their  malignant  influence  on  mankind,  or  by  spirits 
Such  as  the  Rosicrucians  had  conjured  up,  nymphs  of  the  air, 
the  woods,  or  waters.  These  airy  visions  he  wove  into  form  and 
shape  with  a  master  hand,  and  he  invested  even  the  common  ob- 
jects of  life  with  a  supernatural  hue.  At  times  he  seems  almost 
to  have  acquired  a  closer  intimacy  with  nature  than  that  granted 
to  common  men,  and  to  have  dived  into  the  secret  of  her  opera- 
tions and  the  working  of  her  laws.  But  while  Tieck  is  unrivaled 
in  the  world  of  phantasy,  he  becomes  an  ordinary  writer  when 
he  descends  to  that  of  daily  life. 

Hardenberg,  known  by  the  assumed  name  of  Novalis  (1772— 
1801),  by  his  unsullied  character,  his  early  death,  and  the  mystic 
tone  of  his  productions,  was  long  regarded  with  an  enthusiasm 
which  has  now  greatly  declined.  His  romance,  "Henry  von  Of- 
terdingen,"  contains  elements  of  beauty,  but  it  deals  too  exclu- 
sively with  the  shadowy,  the  distant,  and  the  unreal.  His  "Aph- 
orisms "  are  sometimes  deep  and  original,  but  often  paradoxical 
and  unintelligible. 

La  Motte  Fouque*  (1777—1843)  is  best  known  by  his  charm- 
ing story  of  "  Undine,"  founded  on  one  of  those  traditions  in 
which  the  ancient  fairy  mythology  of  Germany  abounded.  Un- 
dine, a  beautiful  water-spirit,  wins  the  heart  of  a  noble  knight, 
and  consents  to  be  his  bride.  We  have  seen  that  it  was  only 
through  the  union  with  a  being  of  mortal  mould  that  the  spirits 
of  air  or  water  could  obtain  the  gift  of  a  soul.  But  before  giv- 
ing her  hand  to  her  lover,  Undine  reminds  him  that  the  relentless 
laws  of  her  race  condemn  her  to  become  herself  the  instrument 
of  his  destruction  if  he  should  break  his  plighted  vow.  The 
knight  accepts  the  conditions,  and  for  a  time  he  remains  true  to 
his  beautiful  wife.  But  at  length,  weary  of  her  charms,  he  seeks 
the  daughter  of  a  neighboring  baron  for  his  bride,  and  in  the 
midst  of  the  wedding  festivities  the  faithless  knight  is  suffocated 
by  an  embrace  from  Undine,  who  is  forced  by  the  race  of  spirits 
thus  to  destroy  him.  The  sweetness  and  pathos  of  this  tale  and 
its  dream-like  beauty  have  given  it  a  place  among  those  creations 
which  appeal  to  all  the  world,  and  do  not  depend  for  their  popu- 
larity on  the  tendencies  of  any  particular  age. 


GERMAN  LITERATURE.  441 

Chamisso  (1781-1836),  one  of  the  most  popular  poets  of 
Germany,  was  the  author  of  ''  Peter  Schlemihl,"  a  well-known 
tale  describing  the  adventures  of  a  man  who  sold  his  shadow  for 
a  large  sum  of  money,  and  found  afterward  that  he  had  made  a 
very  bad  bargain.  The  moral  it  seems  to  indicate  is  that  gold 
is  dearly  obtained  at  the  sacrifice  of  any  part,  even  of  the  shadow, 
of  our  humanity. 

Hoffmann  (1776-1822)  surpassed  all  other  imaginative  writ- 
ers in  inventing  marvelous  incidents,  while  he  was  inferior  to 
many  of  them  in  poetical  genius.  His  stories  mingle  the  cir- 
cumstances of  real  life  with  grotesque  amd  visionary  adventures. 

Zschokke  (1771-1847)  was  remarkable  as  a  man  and  an 
author.  His  literary  activity  extended  over  more  than  half  a 
century,  and  his  tales  and  miscellaneous  writings  have  had  ex- 
tensive popularity.  His  studies  were  generally  directed  toward 
human  improvement,  as  in  "  The  Goldmaker's  Village,"  where  he 
describes  the  progress  of  industry  and  civilization  among  a  de- 
graded population. 

Of  the  other  numerous  writers  of  fiction  the  names  of  a  few 
only  can  be  mentioned. 

Theresa  Huber  (1764-1829)  was  the  authoress  of  several 
popular  novels.  Benedicte  Naubert  wrote  several  historical  ro- 
mances mentioned  by  Scott  as  having  afforded  him  some  sugges- 
tions. Caroline  Pichler's  "  Tales  "  were  accounted  among  the 
best  fictions  of  her  times.  Henriette  Hanke  produced  eighty- 
eight  volumes  of  domestic  narratives  and  other  writings  of  a  moral 
character ;  the  Countess  Hahn-Hahn  follows  the  tendencies  of 
Madame  Dudevant  (George  Sand),  though  with  less  genius. 

Brentano,  the  author  of  "Godiva,"  and  Arnim,  author  of  the 
"  Countess  Dolores,"  may  also  be  mentioned  among  the  remark- 
able writers  of  fantastic  romances. 

Bettina  (1785-1859),  the  sister  of  Brentano,  and  the  wife  of 
Arnim,  who  resembles  these  authors  in  her  imaginative  char- 
acter, wrote  a  singularly  enthusiastic  book,  entitled,  "  Goethe's 
Correspondence  with  a  Child."  Imaginative  pictures  in  words, 
interspersed  with  sentiments,  characterize  the  writings  of  Bettina 
and  many  other  romancists,  while  they  show  little  power  in  the 
construction  of  plots  and  the  development  of  character. 

Among  the  more  renowned  female  writers  are  Auguste  von 
Paalzow,  Amalie  Schoppe,  Johanna  Schoppenhauer,  Friederike 
Brun,  Talvi  (Mrs.  Robinson).  Henriette  Herz  (1764-1841) 
and  Rahel  (1771—1844)  also  occupied  a  brilliant  position  in  the 
literary  and  social  world.  The  latter  was  the  wife  of  Varnhagen 
von  Ense  (d.  1859),  the  most  able  and  attractive  biographical 
writer  of  Germany.  Wilhelm  Haring  (Wilibald  Alexis)  is  par- 
ticularly eminent  as  a  romance  writer. 


442      HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

The  historical  novelists  of  the  early  part  of  this  century,  as 
Van  der  Velde,  Spindler,  Rellstab,  Storch,  and  Rau,  have  been 
succeeded  by  Konig,  Heller,  and  several  others.  Good  French 
and  English  novels  are  translated  into  German,  almost  immedi- 
ately after  their  appearance,  and  the  comparative  scarcity  of  in- 
teresting German  novels  is  accounted  for  by  the  taste  for  this 
foreign  literature,  and  also  by  the  increasing  absorption  of  lit- 
erary talent  in  the  periodical  press.  Schucking  is  remarkable 
for  his  power  of  vividly  conceiving  character.  Fanny  Lewald  is 
artistic  in  her  methods  and  true  and  keen  in  her  observation  of 
life ;  and  among  novelists  of  simple  village  life  Auerbach  (1812— 
1883)  takes  the  first  place.  Gustave  Freytag  (b.  1816),  whose 
"  Debit  and  Credit  "  is  an  intensely  realistic  study  of  commer- 
cial life,  is  also  one  of  the  distinguished  writers  of  fiction. 

The  popular  legends  of  Germany  are  numerous  and  charac- 
teristic of  the  country.  These  narratives  are  either  legends  of 
local  interest,  associated  with  old  castles,  or  other  antiquities, 
or  they  are  purely  fabulous.  Though  they  are  sometimes  fan- 
tastic and  in  their  incidents  show  little  respect  to  the  laws  of 
probability,  they  are  genuine  and  fairly  represent  the  play  of  the 
popular  imagination ;  while  under  their  wild  imagery  they  often 
convey  symbolically  a  deep  and  true  meaning. 

LITERARY  HISTORY  AND  CRITICISM.  —  Modern  German  lit- 
erature is  singularly  rich  in  this  department.  In  the  Republic 
of  Letters,  German  students  have  found  the  liberty  they  could 
not  enjoy  in  actual  life,  and  this  cause  has  promoted  investiga- 
tion in  ancient  and  modern  literature.  Poets,  historians,  phi- 
losophers, and  other  writers  have  been  studied  and  criticised, 
not  merely  as  authors,  but  with  especial  reference  to  their  re- 
spective contributions  to  the  progress  of  ideas  and  the  move- 
ments of  society.  Some  of  the  most  eminent  German  critical 
writers  have  already  been  mentioned  under  various  preceding 
heads.  Winckelmann  (1717—1768)  devoted  himself  with  enthu- 
siasm to  the  study  of  antique  sculpture,  and  wrote  elegant  dis- 
sertations on  the  grace  and  beauty  of  the  works  of  ancient  art. 
His  writings  display  true  enthusiasm  and  refined  taste.  It  may 
be  said  that  the  school  of  art-criticism  in  Germany  owes  its  ori- 
gin to  the  studies  of  Winckelmann.  The  critical  writings  cf 
Herder  were  more  remarkable  for  the  impulse  which  they  gave 
to  the  studies  of  authors  than  for  their  intrinsic  merits.  Goethe 
in  his  prose  writings  showed  with  what  grace  and  precision  the 
German  language  might  be  written.  The  letters  of  Schiller  are 
pervaded  by  a  lofty  and  ideal  tone.  William  von  Humboldt 
(1762-1832)  was  the  founder  of  the  science  of  comparative 
philology,  a  scholar  of  remarkable  comprehensiveness  and  scien- 
tific knowledge,  and  the  author  of  several  highly  important 


GERMAN  LITERATURE.  443 

works  on  language  and  literature.  The  brothers  Schlegel  devel- 
oped that  taste  for  universal  literature  which  had  been  intro- 
duced by  Herder.  The  mind  of  Augustus  Schlegel  (1767-1845) 
was  rather  comprehensive  than  endowed  with  original  and  crea- 
tive genius.  His  poems  are  elegant,  but  not  remarkable.  Fried- 
rich  Schlegel  (1772-1829),  like  his  brother,  was  opposed  to  the 
skeptical  character  of  some  of  the  philosophical  theories  of  his 
day,  and  after  entering  the  Catholic  Church  he  expressed  his  re- 
ligious and  polemical  opinions  in  his  works  on  literature.  His 
lectures  on  "  The  Philosophy  of  History  "  were  evidently  writ- 
ten with  political  and  religious  purposes.  He  participated  with 
his  brother  in  the  study  of  Oriental  literature  and  language,  but 
his  lectures  on  "  The  Literature  of  all  Nations  "  have  chiefly  ex- 
tended his  fame  for  great  capacity,  critical  acumen,  and  exten- 
sive learning.  The  main  purpose  of  the  author  is  to  describe 
the  development  of  literature  in  its  connection  with  the  social 
and  religious  institutions  of  various  nations  and  periods.  He 
thus  elevates  literature,  and  especially  poetry,  far  above  the 
views  of  trivial  and  commonplace  criticism,  and  regards  it  in  its 
highest  aspect  as  the  product  of  human  life  and  genius  in  vari- 
ous stages  of  cultivation.  The  history  of  the  world  of  books  is 
thus  represented  as  no  dry  and  pedantic  study,  but  as  one  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  best  interests  of  humanity.  In  the 
establishment  of  this  humanitarian  style  of  literature,  the  ser- 
vices of  this  author  were  of  great  value,  although  many  of  his 
works,  as  well  as  those  of  others  in  this  department,  have  been 
written  rather  for  the  use  of  scholars  than  for  the  public.  There 
still  remains  in  Germany  that  distinction  between  a  popular  and 
scholastic  style  which  characterized  the  Middle  Ages,  when  the 
literati  excluded  their  thoughts  from  the  people  by  writing  in 
Latin.  The  literature  of  the  past,  which  is  in  itself  too  diffuse 
to  be  comprehended  by  men  of  scanty  leisure  in  modern  times, 
is  with  most  writers  too  often  rather  complicated  and  extended 
than  simplified  and  compressed  into  a  readable  form.  If  the 
labors  of  learned  historians  and  critics  had  been  directed  to  pop- 
ularize the  results  of  their  extensive  scholarship,  readers  with- 
out much  time  for  study  might  have  acquired  a  fair  general  ac- 
quaintance with  universal  literature.  But  while  concise  and 
masterly  summaries  are  required,  many  scholars  love  to  wander 
in  never-ending  disquisitions,  and  the  consequence  is  that  the 
greater  number  of  readers  acquire  only  a  fragmentary  and  acci- 
dental knowledge  of  books. 

While  the  brothers  Schlegel,  and  many  other  writers,  followed 
the  tendencies  of  Herder  in  universal  literature,  a  national 
school  of  criticism  was  founded  and  supported  by  the  brothers 
Grimm,  with  many  able  associates.  Jacob,  the  eldest  (d.  1863), 


444      HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

devoted  his  researches  to  the  German  literature  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  collected  the  scattered  remnants  of  old  popular  leg- 
ends. In  conjunction  with  his  brother  William  (d.  1850)  he 
published  his  "  Children's  Fables,"  or  "  Household  Tales,"  which 
are  marked  by  great  simplicity,  and  often  convey  pleasing  senti- 
ments and  good  morals  mingled  with  fantastic  and  supernatural 
adventures.  Later  works  on  the  "  German  Language,"  "  Legal 
Antiquities,"  and  "  German  Mythology,"  have  secured  for  this 
author  the  highest  position  among  national  philologists  and  anti- 
quaries. The  example  of  these  brothers  gave  a  strong  impulse 
to  the  study  of  German  archaeology,  and  the  results  have  been 
received  with  great  enthusiasm.  Many  relics  of  old  literature 
have  been  recovered,  and  these  remains  form  a  considerable 
library  of  literary  antiquities. 

Menzel  (d.  1855),  well  known  as  a  critical  and  polemical 
writer  of  the  national  school,  has  written  the  "  History  of  Ger- 
man Literature,"  "  The  Spirit  of  History,"  and  other  works,  in 
which  he  has  warmly  opposed  the  extreme  revolutionary  tenden- 
cies of  recent  political  and  social  theorists. 

Gervinus  (d.  1871)  may  be  considered  as  a  historian,  politi- 
cian, and  critic.  In  his  "  History  of  the  Poetical  National  Lit- 
erature of  the  Germans,"  he  traces  the  development  of  poetry 
in  its  relations  to  civilization  and  society.  He  has  also  written  a 
work  on  Shakspeare,  and  a  history  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
which  is  characterized  by  its  liberal  tendencies.  His  views  of 
literature  are  directly  opposed  to  those  of  Frederic  Schlegel. 

As  historians  of  ancient  classical  literature,  German  scholars 
have  maintained  the  highest  position,  and  to  them  the  world  is 
prodigiously  indebted.  Their  works,  however,  are  too  compre- 
hensive to  be  described  here,  and  too  numerous  even  to  be  men- 
tioned. The  idea  of  classical  erudition,  as  maintained  by  them, 
is  extended  far  beyond  its  common  limitation,  and  is  connected 
with  researches  respecting  not  the  language  only,  but  also  the 
religion,  philosophy,  social  economy,  arts,  and  sciences  of  ancient 
nations. 

Karl  Ottfried  Miiller  (d.  1840)  must  be  mentioned  as  an  ac- 
complished scholar  and  the  author  of  a  standard  work,  the 
"  History  of  Greek-iritEfatuYe."  Among  the  other  great  writ- 
ers on  ancient  history  are  Bockh,  Duncker,  Droysen,  Mommsen, 
and  Kortiim. 

Several  works  on  the  modern  literature  of  European  nations 
have  recently  been  published  in  Germany ;  and  much  industry 
and  research  have  been  displayed  in  numerous  criticisms  on  the 
fine  arts.  The  principles  of  Winckelmann  and  Lessing  have 
been  developed  by  later  authors  who  have  written  excellent  criti- 
cal and  historical  works  on  the  plastic  arts,  sculpture,  painting, 


GERMAN  LITERATURE.  445 

and  architecture.  In  general,  the  literary  criticism  of  Germany 
deserves  the  highest  commendation  for  its  candor,  carefulness, 
and  philosophical  consistency. 

HISTORY  AND  THEOLOGY.  —  The  extensive  historical  works  of 
the  modern  writers  of  Germany  form  an  important  feature  in 
the  literature.  The  political  circumstances  of  the  country  have 
been  in  many  respects  favorable  to  the  progress  of  these  studies. 
Professors  and  students,  excluded  in  a  great  measure  from  polit- 
ical life,  have  explored  the  histories  of  ancient  nations,  and  have 
given  opinions  in  the  form  of  historical  essays,  which  they  could 
not  venture  to  apply  to  the  institutions  of  Germany.  While 
Prussia  and  Austria  were  perilous  topics  for  discussion,  liberal 
and  innovating  doctrines  might  be  promulgated  in  lectures  on 
the  progress  and  decline  of  liberty  in  the  ancient  world.  Ac- 
cordingly, the  study  of  universal  history,  to  which  the  philosoph- 
ical views  of  Herder  gave  the  impulse,  has  been  industriously 
prosecuted  during  the  last  fifty  years,  and  learned  and  diligent 
collectors  of  historical  material  are  more  numerous  in  Germany 
than  in  any  other  country. 

Miiller  (d.  1804),  a  native  of  Switzerland,  displayed  true  his- 
torical genius  and  extended  erudition  in  his  "  Lectures  on  Uni- 
versal History."  Among  other  writers  on  the  same  subject  are 
Rotteck,  Becker,  Bb'ttiger,  Dittmar,  and  Vehse.  Of  the  two 
last  authors,  the  one  wrote  on  this  vast  subject  especially  in  ref- 
erence to  Christianity,  and  the  other  describes  the  progress  of 
civilization  and  intellectual  culture. 

Schlosser's  (b.  1786)  "  History  of  the  Ancient  World  and  its 
Culture  "  holds  a  prominent  place  among  historical  works.  His 
writings  are  the  result  of  laborious  and  conscientious  researches 
to  which  he  has  devoted  his  life. 

Heeren  (d.  1842)  opened  a  new  vein  of  ancient  history  in  his 
learned  work  on  the  "  Commercial  Relations  of  Antiquity." 
While  other  historians  have  been  attracted  by  the  sword  of  the 
conqueror,  Heeren  followed  the  merchant's  caravan  laden  with 
corn,  wine,  oils,  silks,  and  spices.  His  work  is  a  valuable  con- 
tribution to  the  true  history  of  humanity. 

Carl  Ritter  (d.  1859)  has  united  the  studies  of  geography  and 
history  in  his  "  Geography  viewed  in  its  Relations  to  Nature  and 
History."  This  great  work,  the  result  of  a  life  devoted  to  in- 
dustrious research,  lias  established  the  science  of  comparative 
geography. 

Lepsius  and  Brugsch  have  rendered  important  services  to 
Egyptology,  and  Lachmann,  K.  O.  Miiller,  Von  der  Hagen, 
Bockh,  the  brothers  Grimm,  Moritz  Haupt,  and  others,  to  an- 
cient and  German  philology. 

In  Roman  history,  Niebuhr   (1776-1831),  stands  alone  as 


446       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

the  founder  of  a  new  school  of  research,  by  which  the  fictions 
so  long  mingled  with  the  early  history  of  Rome,  and  copied 
from  book  to  book,  and  from  century  to  century,  have  been 
fully  exploded.  Through  the  labors  of  this  historian,  modern 
readers  know  the  ancient  Romans  far  better  than  they  were 
known  by  nations  who  were  in  close  contact  with  them.  Nie- 
buhr  made  great  preparations  for  his  work,  and  took  care  not  to 
dissipate  his  powers  by  appearing  too  soon  as  an  author. 

Besides  many  other  histories  relating  to  the  Roman  Empire, 
German  literature  is  especially  rich  in  those  relating  to  the  Mid- 
dle Ages.  The  historical  writings  of  Ranke  (b.  1795)  connect 
the  events  of  that  period  with  modern  times,  and  give  valuable 
notices  of  the  age  of  the  Reformation.  "  The  History  of  Pa- 
pacy in  the  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Centuries "  is  highly 
esteemed,  though  Catholic  critics  have  objected  to  some  of  its 
statements.  Histories  of  the  German  people,  of  the  Hohen- 
stauffen  Dynasty,  of  the  Crusades ;  histories  of  nations,  of 
cities,  of  events,  and  of  individuals,  all  have  found  their  inter- 
preters in  German  genius.  Schlosser  (b.  1776),  the  vigorous 
and  truthful  historian  of  the  eighteenth  century ;  Dahlmann  (b. 
1785)  the  German  Guizot,  and  Raumer  (b.  1781),  the  historian 
of  the  Hohenstauffens,  deserve  particular  mention.  Nor  is  the 
department  of  ecclesiastical  history  and  theology  less  distin- 
guished by  its  research. 

No  writer  of  his  time  contributed  more  towards  the  formation 
of  an  unproved  prose  style  than  Mosheim  (1694—1755)  ;  al- 
though his  "  Ecclesiastical  History  "  is  now  superseded  by  works 
of  deeper  research.  His  contemporary,  Reimarus,  wrote  in 
favor  of  natural  theology,  and  may  be  considered  the  founder  of 
the  Rationalistic  School.  Neander  (d.  1850)  wrote  a  history  of 
the  church,  in  ten  volumes,  distinguished  for  its  liberal  views. 
The  sermons  of  Reinhard  (d.  1812),  in  thirty-nine  volumes,  dis- 
play earnestness  and  unaffected  solemnity  of  style.  Schleier- 
macher  (d.  1834),  celebrated  as  a  preacher  at  Berlin,  was  the 
author  of  many  works,  in  which  he  attempted  to  reconcile  the 
doctrines  of  Protestantism  with  certain  philosophical  specula- 
tions. De  Wette,  the  friend  of  Schleiermacher,  is  one  of  the 
most  learned  and  able  representatives  of  the  Rationalistic  School. 
Tholuck  (b.  1799)  is  celebrated  as  a  learned  exegetical  writer. 

Mommsen  (b.  1817)  is  the  vigorous  historian  of  ancient 
Rome,  and  Curtius  (b.  1819),  the  author  of  a  history  of  Greece, 
not  more  remarkable  for  its  learning  than  for  the  clear  and  at- 
tractive arrangement  of  its  material.  In  histories  of  philosophy 
recent  German  literature  is  absolutely  supreme.  Hegel  still 
ranks  as  one  of  the  greatest  writers  in  this  line,  and  Ueberweg, 
Uedmann,  and  others  are  important  workers  in  the  same  de- 


GERMAN  LITERATURE.  447 

partment.  Fischer  writes  the  history  of  philosophy  with  sym- 
pathetic appreciation  and  in  a  fascinating  style,  and  Lange,  in 
his  "  History  of  Materialism,"  does  full  justice  to  the  different 
phases  of  materialistic  philosophy. 

Since  the  time  of  Lessing,  aesthetics  have  formed  a  prominent 
branch  of  philosophy  with  the  Germans,  and  they  have  been  no 
less  successful  as  historians  of  art  than  of  metaphysics.  Among 
the  most  distinguished  are  Kugler,  Carriere,  and  Ltibke.  Biog- 
raphers and  historians  of  literature  are  numerous. 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION. — 1.  English  lAlerature.    Its  Divisions.  —  2.  The  Language. 

PERIOD  FIRST.  —  1.  Celtic  Literature.  Irish,  Scotch,  and  Cymric  Celts  ;  the  Chroni- 
cles of  Ireland  ;  Ossian's  Poems  ;  Traditions  of  Arthur  ;  the  Triads  ;  Tales.  —  2.  Latin 
Literature.  Bede  ;  Alcuin ;  Erigena.  —  3.  Anglo-Saxon  Literature.  Poetry  ;  Prose  ; 
Versions  of  Scripture ;  the  Saxon  Chronicle  ;  Allred. 

PERIOD  SECOND.  —  The  Norman  Age  and  the  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Centuries.  — 
1.  Literature  in  the  Latin  Tongue.  —  2.  Literature  in  Norman-French.  Poetry ;  Ro- 
mances of  Chivalry.  —  3.  Saxon-English.  Metrical  Remains.  — 4.  Literature  in  the  Four- 
teenth Century. — Prose  Writers:  Occam,  Duns  Scotus,  Wicklitt'e,  Mandeville,  Chaucer. 
Poetry;  Langland,  Gower,  Chaucer.  —  5.  Literature  in  the  Fifteenth  Century.  Ballads. 
—  6.  Poets  of  the  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Centuries  in  Scotland.  Wyntouu,  Barbour, 
and  others. 

PERIOD  THIRD. —  1.  Age  of  the  Reformation  (1509-1558).  Classical,  Theological,  and 
Miscellaneous  Literature  :  Sir  Thomas  More  and  others.  Poetry  :  Skelton,  Surrey,  and 
Sackville;  the  Drama  — 2.  The  Age  of  Spenser,  Shakspeare,  Bacon,  and  Milton  (1558- 
1660).  Scholastic  and  Ecclesiastical  Literature.  Translations  of  the  Bible  :  Hooker, 
Andrews,  Donne,  Hall,  Taylor,  Baxter ;  other  Prose  Writers  :  Fuller,  Cudworth,  Bacon, 
Hobbes.  Raleigh,  Milton,  Sidney,  Selden,  Burton,  Browne,  and  Cowley.  Dramatic  Po- 
etry :  Marlowe  and  Greene,  Shakspeare,  Beaumout  and  Fletcher,  Ben  Jonson,  and  oth- 
ers ;  Massinger,  Ford,  and  Shirley ;  Decline  of  the  Drama.  Non-dramatic  Poetry : 
Spenser  and  the  Minor  Poets.  Lyrical  Poets :  Donne,  Cowley,  Denham,  Waller,  Mil- 
ton. —  3.  The  Age  of  the  Restoration  and  Revolution  (1060-1702).  Prose  :  Leighton,  Til- 
lotson,  Barrow,  Bunyan,  Locke,  and  others.  The  Drama :  Dryden,  Otway.  Comedy  : 
Didactic  Poetry  :  Roscommon,  Marvell,  Butler,  Pryor,  Dryden.  —  4.  The  Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury. The  First  Generation  (1702-1727) :  Pope,  Swift,  and  others;  the  Periodical  Essay- 
ists :  Addison,  Steele.  The  Second  Generation  (1727-1760) ;  Theology :  Warburton,  But- 
ler, Watts,  Doddridge.  Philosophy :  Hume.  Miscellaneous  Prose :  Johnson ;  the 
Novelists :  Richardson,  Fielding,  Smollett,  and  Sterne.  The  Drama ;  Non-dramatic 
Poetry  :  Young,  Blair,  Akenside,  Thomson,  Gray,  and  Collins.  The  Third  Generation 
(1760-1800) ;  the  Historians :  Hume,  Robertson,  and  Gibbon.  Miscellaneous  Prose : 
Johnson,  Goldsmith,  "  Junius,"  Pitt,  Fox,  Sheridan,  and  Burke.  Criticism :  Burke, 
Reynolds,  Campbell,  Kames.  Political  Economy  :  Adam  Smith.  Ethics  :  Paley,  Smith, 
Tucker.  Metaphysics:  Reid.  Theological  aiid  Religious  Writers:  Campbell,  Paley, 
Watson,  Newton,  Hannah  More,  and  Wilberforce.  Poetry  :  Comedies  of  Goldsmith  and 
Sheridan;  Minor  Poets;  Later  Poems;  Beattie's  Minstrel ;  Cowper  and  Burns.  5.  The 
Nineteenth  Century.  The  Poets :  Campbell,  Southey,  Scott,  Byron ;  Coleridge  and 
Wordsworth ;  Wilson,  Shelley,  Keats ;  Crabbe,  Moore,  and  others ;  Tennyson,  Browning, 
Procter,  and  others.  Fiction :  the  Waverley  and  other  Novels ;  Dickens,  Thackeray,  and 
others.  History :  Arnold,  Thirlwall,  Grote,  Macaulay,  Alison,  Carlyle,  Freeman,  Buckle. 
Criticism :  Hallam,  De  Quincey,  Macaulay,  Carlyle,  Wilson,  Lamb,  and  others.  Theol- 
ogy :  Foster,  Hall,  Chalmers.  Philosophy :  Stewart,  Brown,  Mackintosh,  Bentham, 
Alison,  and  others.  Political  Economy :  Mill,  Whewell,  Whately,  De  Morgan,  Hamilton. 
Periodical  Writings :  the  Edinburgh,  Quarterly,  and  Westminster  Reviews,  and  Black- 
wood's  Magazine.  Physical  Science  :  Brewster,  Herschel,  Playfair,  Miller,  Buckland, 
Whewell.—  Since  1860.  1.  Poets :  Matthew  Arnold,  Algernon  Swinburne,  Dante  Rossetti, 
Robert  Buchanan,  Edwin  Arnold,  "  Owen  Meredith,"  William  Morris,  Jean  Ingelow, 
Adelaide  Procter,  Christina  Rossetti,  Augusta  Webster,  Mary  Robinson,  and  others.  2. 
Fiction  :  "  George  Eliot,"  MacDonald,  Collins,  Black,  Blackmore,  Mrs.  Oliphant,  Yates, 
McCarthy,  Trollope,  and  others.  3.  Scientific  Writers :  Herbert  Spencer,  Charles  Darwin, 
Tyndall,  Huxley,  and  others.  4.  Miscellaneous. 

INTRODUCTION. 

1.  ENGLISH  LITERATURE  AND  ITS  DIVISIONS.  —  The  original 
inhabitants  of  England,  belonging  to  the  great  race  of  Celts, 
were  not  the  true  founders  of  the  English  nation ;  and  their 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  449 

language,  which  is  still  spoken  unchanged  in  various  parts  of 
the  kingdom,  has  exerted  but  an  incredibly  small  influence  on 
the  English  tongue.  During  the  period  of  the  Roman  domina- 
tion (55  B.  c.  -447  A.  D.),  the  relations  between  the  conquerors 
and  the  natives  did  not  materially  alter  the  nationality  of  the 
people,  nor  did  the  Latin  language  permanently  displace  or 
modify  the  native  tongue. 

The  great  event  of  the  Dark  Ages  which  succeeded  the  fall 
of  the  Roman  empire  was  the  vast  series  of  emigrations  which 
planted  tribes  of  Gothic  blood  over  large  tracts  of  Europe,  and 
which  was  followed  by  the  formation  of  all  the  modern  Euro- 
pean languages,  and  by  the  general  profession  of  Christianity. 
The  Anglo-Saxon  invaders  of  England  continued  to  emigrate 
from  the  Continent  for  more  than  a  hundred  years,  and  before 
many  generations  had  passed  away,  their  language,  customs,  and 
character  prevailed  throughout  the  provinces  they  had  seized. 
During  the  six  hundred  years  of  their  independence  (448-1066), 
the  nation  made  wonderful  progress  in  the  arts  of  life  and 
thought.  The  Pagans  accepted  the  Christian  faith ;  the  pirate 
ical  sea-kings  applied  themselves  to  the  tillage  of  the  soil  and 
the  practice  of  some  of  the  ruder  manufactures ;  the  fierce  sol- 
diers constructed,  out  of  the  materials  of  legislation  common  to 
the  whole  Teutonic  race,  a  manly  political  constitution. 

The  few  extant  literary  monuments  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  pos- 
sess a  singular  value  as  illustrations  of  the  character  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  have  the  additional  attraction  of  being  written  in  what 
was  really  our  mother  tongue. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  (from  the  eleventh  to  the  sixteenth  centu- 
ries), the  painful  convulsions  of  infant  society  gave  way  to  the 
growing  vigor  of  healthy  though  undisciplined  youth.  All  the 
relations  of  life  were  modified,  more  or  less,  by  the  two  influ- 
ences predominant  in  the  early  part  of  the  period,  but  decaying 
in  the  latter,  —  Feudalism  and  the  Church  of  Rome,  —  and  by 
the  consolidation  of  the  new  languages,  which  were  successively 
developed  in  all  European  countries,  and  were  soon  qualified  as 
instruments  for  communicating  the  results  of  intellectual  activity. 
The  Middle  Ages  closed  by  two  events  occurring  nearly  at  the 
same  time  :  the  erection  of  the  great  monarchies  011  the  ruins  of 
feudalism,  and  the  shattering  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  Romish 
Church  by  the  Reformation.  At  the  same  period,  the  invention 
of  printing ,-  the  most  important  event  in  the  annals  of  literature, 
became  available  as  a  means  of  enlightenment. 

The  Norman  conquest  of  England  (1066)  subjected  the  na- 
tion at  once  to  both  of  the  ruling  mediaeval  impulses  :  feudalism, 
which  metamorphosed  the  relative  positions  of  the  people  and 
the  nobles,  and  the  recognition  of  papal  supremacy,  which  al- 
29 


450       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

tered  not  less  thoroughly  the  standing  of  the  church.  "While 
these  changes  were  not  unproductive  of  good  at  that  time,  they 
were  distasteful  to  the  nation,  and  soon  became  injurious,  both 
to  freedom  and  knowledge,  until  at  length,  under  the  dynasty 
of  the  Tudors,  the  ecclesiastical  shackles  were  cast  off,  and  the 
feudal  bonds  began  gradually  to  be  loosened. 

The  Norman  invaders  of  England  took  possession  of  the 
country  as  military  masters.  They  suppressed  the  native  polity 
by  overwhelming  force,  made  Norman-French  the  fashionable 
speech  of  the  court  and  the  aristocracy,  and  imposed  it  on  the 
tribunals.  Their  romantic  literature  soon  weaned  the  hearts  of 
educated  men  from  the  ancient  rudeness  of  taste,  but  the  mass 
of  the  English  people  clung  so  obstinately  to  their  ancestral 
tongue,  that  the  Anglo-Saxon  language  kept  its  hold  in  substance 
until  it  was  evolved  into  modern  English  ;  and  the  Norman  no- 
bles were  at  length  forced  to  learn  the  dialect  which  had  been 
preserved  among  their  despised  English  vassals. 

Emerging  from  the  Middle  Ages  into  the  illuminated  vista 
of  modern  history,  we  find  the  world  of  action  much  more 
powerfully  influenced  by  the  world  of  letters  than  ever  before. 
Among  the  causes  which  produced  this  change  are  the  invention 
of  printing,  the  use  of  a  cultivated  living  language,  and  in  Eng- 
land the  vindication  of  freedom  of  thought  and  constitutional 
liberty. 

The  period  from  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  to  the  Restoration 
(1558-1660)  is  the  most  brilliant  in  the  literary  history  of  Eng- 
land. The  literature  assumes  its  most  varied  forms,  expatiates 
over  the  most  distant  regions  of  speculation  and  investigation  ; 
and  its  intellectual  chiefs,  while  they  breathe  the  spirit  of  mod- 
ern knowledge  and  freedom,  speak  to  us  in  tones  which  borrow 
an  irregular  stateliness  from  the  chivalrous  past.  But  this  mag- 
nificent panorama  does  not  meet  the  eye  at  once ;  the  unveiling 
of  its  features  is  as  gradual  as  the  passing  away  of  the  mists 
that  shroud  the  landscape  before  the  morning  sun. 

The  first  quarter  of  the  century  was  unproductive  in  all  de- 
partments of  literature.  Of  the  great  writers  who  have  immor- 
talized the  name  of  Elizabeth,  scarcely  one  was  born  five  years 
before  she  ascended  the  throne,  and  the  immense  and  invaluable 
series  of  literary  works  which  embellished  the  period  in  question 
may  be  regarded  as  beginning  only  with  the  earliest  poem  of 
Spenser,  1579. 

"  There  never  was  anywhere,"  says  Lord  Jeffrey,  "  anything 
like  the  sixty  or  seventy  years  that  elapsed  from  the  middle  of 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth  to  the  Restoration.  In  point  of  real  force 
and  originality  of  genius,  neither  the  age  of  Pericles  nor  the  age 
of  Augustus,  nor  the  times  of  Leo  X.,  or  of  Louis  XIV.,  can 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  451 

come  at  all  into  comparison.  In  that  short  period  we  shall  find 
the  names  of  almost  all  the  very  great  men  that  this  nation  has 
ever  produced." 

Among  the  influences  which  made  the  last  generation  of  the 
sixteenth  century  so  strong  in  itself,  and  capable  of  bequeathing 
so  much  strength  to  those  who  took  up  its  inheritance,  was  the 
expanding  elasticity,  the  growing  freedom  of  thought  and  action. 
The  chivalry  of  the  Middle  Ages  began  to  seek  more  useful  fields 
of  adventure  in  search  of  new  worlds,  and  fame,  and  gold. 
There  was  an  increasing  national  prosperity,  and  a  correspond- 
ing advance  of  comfort  and  refinement,  and  mightier  than  all 
these  forces  was  the  silent  working  of  the  Reformation  on  the 
hearts  of  the  people. 

The  minor  writers  of  this  age  deserve  great  honor,  and  may 
almost  be  considered  the  builders  of  the  structure  of  English 
literature,  whose  intellectual  chiefs  were  Spenser,  Shakspeare, 
and  Hooker. 

Spenser  and  Shakspeare  were  both  possessed  of  thoughts, 
feelings,  and  images,  which  they  could  not  have  had  if  they  had 
lived  a  century  later,  or  much  earlier ;  and,  although  their  views 
were  very  dissimilar,  they  both  bear  the  characteristic  features 
of  the  age  in  which  they  lived.  Spenser  dwelt  with  animation 
on  the  gorgeous  scenery  which  covered  the  elfin  land  of  knight- 
hood and  romance,  and  present  realities  were  lost  in  his  dream 
of  antique  grandeur  and  ideal  loveliness.  He  was  the  modern 
poet  of  the  remote  past ;  the  last  minstrel  of  chivalry,  though 
incomparably  greater  than  his  forerunners. 

Shakspeare  was  the  poet  of  the  present  and  the  future,  and 
of  universal  humanity.  He  saw  in  the  past  the  fallen  fragments 
on  which  men  were  to  build  anew  —  august  scenes  of  desolation, 
whose  ruin  taught  men  to  work  more  wisely.  He  painted  them 
as  the  accessory  features  and  distant  landscape  of  colossal  pic- 
tures, in  whose  foreground  stood  figures  soaring  beyond  the  lim- 
its of  their  place,  instinct  with  the  spirit  of  the  time  in  which 
the  poet  lived,  yet  lifted  out  of  it  and  above  it  by  the  impulse  of 
potent  genius  prescient  of  momentous  truths  that  lay  slumbering 
in  the  bosom  of  futurity. 

By  the  side  of  poetry  contemporary  prose  shows  poorly,  with 
one  great  exception.  In  respect  to  style,  Hooker  stands  almost 
alone  in  his  time,  and  may  be  considered  the  first  of  the  illustri- 
ous train  of  great  prose  writers.  His  "  Ecclesiastical  Polity  " 
appeared  in  1594.  Sir  Philip  Sidney's  "  Arcadia "  had  been 
written  before  1587.  Bacon's  Essays  appeared  in  1596,  and 
also  Spenser's  "  View  of  Ireland."  But  none  of  these  are  com- 
parable in  point  of  style  to  Hooker. 

The  reign  of  Elizabeth  gave  the  key-note  to  the  literature  of 


452       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

the  two  succeeding  reigns,  that  of  James  I.  (1603-1625),  and 
Charles  (1625-1649),  and  the  literary  works  of  this  period  were 
not  only  more  numerous,  but  stand  higher  in  the  mass  than  those 
which  closed  the  sixteenth  century.  But  Spenser  remained  un- 
imitated  and  Shakspeare  was  inimitable ;  the  drama,  however, 
which  in  this  as  in  the  last  generation  monopolized  the  best 
minds,  received  new  developments,  poetry  was  enriched  beyond 
precedent,  and  prose  writing  blossomed  into  a  harvest  of  unex- 
ampled eloquence.  But  although,  under  the  rule  of  James, 
learning  did  good  service  in  theology  and  the  classics,  English 
writing  began  to  be  infected  with  pedantic  affectations.  The 
chivalrous  temper  of  the  preceding  age  was  on  the  wane,  coarse- 
ness began  to  pass  into  licentiousness,  and  moral  degeneracy 
began  to  diffuse  its  poison  widely  over  the  lighter  kinds  of  liter- 
ature. Bacon,  the  great  pilot  of  modern  science,  gave  to  the 
world  the  rudiments  of  his  philosophy.  Bishop  Hall  exemplified 
not  only  the  eloquence  and  talent  of  the  clergy,  but  the  begin- 
ning of  that  resistance  to  the  tendencies  by  which  the  church 
was  to  be  soon  overthrown.  The  drama  was  headed  by  Ben 
Jonson,  honorably  severe  in  morals,  and  by  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher,  who  heralded  the  licentiousness  which  soon  corrupted 
the  art  generally,  while  the  poet  Donne  introduced  fantastic 
eccentricities  into  poetical  composition. 

Some  of  the  most  eloquent  prose  writings  of  the  English 
language  had  their  birth  amidst  the  convulsions  of  the  Civil 
War,  or  in  the  strangely  perplexed  age  of  the  Commonwealth 
and  protectorate  (1649-1660),  that  stern  era  which  moulded  the 
mind  of  one  poet  gifted  with  extraordinary  genius.  Although 
Milton  would  not,  in  all  likelihood,  have  conceived  the  "  Para- 
dise Lost "  had  he  not  felt  and  acted  with  the  Puritans,  yet  it 
would  have  been  less  the  consummate  work  of  art  which  it  is, 
had  he  not  fed  his  fancy  with  the  courtly  pomp  of  the  last  days 
of  the  monarchy. 

The  prose  writers  of  this  time  are  represented  by  Bishop  Hall 
and  Jeremy  Taylor,  among  the  clergy,  and  Selden  and  Camden 
among  the  laymen.  The  roughness  of  speech  and  manners  of 
Elizabeth's  time,  followed,  in  the  next  reign,  by  a  real  coarse- 
ness and  lowness  of  sentiment,  grew  rapidly  worse  under  Charles, 
whose  reign  was  especially  prolific  in  poetry,  the  tone  of  which 
varied  from  grave  to  gay,  from  devotion  to  licentiousness,  from 
severe  solemnity  to  indecent  levity ;  but  no  great  poet  appeared 
in  the  crowd.  The  drama  was  still  rich  in  genius,  its  most  dis- 
tinguished names  being  those  of  Ford,  Massinger,  and  Shirley ; 
but  here  depravity  had  taken  a  deeper  root  than  elsewhere,  and 
it  was  a  blessing  that,  soon  after  the  breaking  out  of  the  war,  the 
theatres  were  closed,  and  the  poets  left  to  idleness  or  repentance. 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  453 

The  Commonwealth  and  Protectorate,  extending  over  eleven 
years  (1649-1660),  made  an  epoch  in  literature,  as  well  as  in 
the  state  and  church.  The  old  English  drama  was  extinct,  and 
poetry  had  few  votaries.  Cowley  now  closed  with  great  brill- 
iancy the  eccentric  and  artificial  school  of  which  Donne  had 
been  the  founder,  and  Milton  was  undergoing  the  last  steps  of 
that  mental  discipline  that  was  to  qualify  him  for  standing  forth 
the  last  and  all  but  the  greatest  of  the  poetical  ancients.  At  the 
same  time,  the  approach  of  a  modern  era  was  indicated  by  the 
frivolity  of  sentiment  and  ease  of  versification  which  prevailed  in 
the  poems  of  Waller. 

In  philosophy,  Hobbes  now  uttered  his  defiance  to  constitu- 
tional freedom  and  ecclesiastical  independence ;  Henry  More 
expounded  his  platonic  dreams  in  the  cloisters  of  Cambridge  ; 
and  Cudworth  vindicated  the  belief  in  the  being  of  the  Almighty 
and  in  the  foundations  of  moral  distinctions.  The  Puritans,  the 
ruling  power  in  the  state,  became  also  a  power  in  literature,  nobly 
represented  by  Richard  Baxter.  Milton,  like  many  of  his  re- 
markable contemporai'ies,  lived  into  the  succeeding  generation, 
and  he  may  be  accepted  as  the  last  representative  of  the  elo- 
quence of  English  prose  in  that  brilliant  stage  of  its  history 
which  terminated  about  the  date  of  the  Restoration. 

The  aspect  of  the  last  forty  years  of  the  seventeenth  century 
—  the  age  of  the  Restoration  and  the  Revolution  —  is  far  from 
being  encouraging,  and  some  features  marking  many  of  their 
literary  works  are  positively  revolting.  Of  the  social  evils  of 
the  time,  none  infected  literature  so  deeply  as  the  depravation  of 
morals,  into  which  the  court  and  aristocracy  plunged,  and  many 
of  the  people  followed.  The  drama  sunk  to  a  frightful  gross- 
ness,  and  the  tone  of  all  other  poetry  was  lowered.  The  rein- 
stated courtiers  imported  a  mania  for  foreign  models,  especially 
French,  literary  works  were  anxiously  moulded  on  the  tastes  of 
Paris,  and  this  prevalence  of  exotic  predilections  lasted  for  more 
than  a  century.  But  amidst  these  and  other  weaknesses  and 
blots  there  was  not  wanting  either  strength  or  brightness. 

The  literary  career  of  Dryden  covers  the  whole  of  this  period 
and  marks  a  change  which  contained  many  improvements. 
Locke  was  the  leader  of  philosophical  speculation ;  and  mathe- 
matical and  physical  science  had  its  distinguished  votaries, 
headed  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  whose  illustrious  name  alone  would 
have  made  the  age  immortal. 

The  Nonconformists,  forbidden  to  speak,  wrote  and  printed. 
A  younger  generation  was  growing  up  among  them,  and  some 
of  the  elder  race  still  survived,  such  as  Baxter,  Owen,  and  Cal- 
amy.  But  greatest  of  all,  and  only  now  reaching  the  climax  of 
his  strength,  was  Milton,  in  his  neglected  old  age  consoling  him- 


454       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

self  for  the  disappointments  which  had  darkened  a  weary  life, 
by  consecrating  its  waning  years,  with  redoubled  ardor  of  devo- 
tion, to  religion,  to  truth,  and  to  the  service  of  a  remote  pos- 
terity. 

In  England,  as  elsewhere  in  Europe,  the  temper  of  the 
eighteenth  century  was  cold,  dissatisfied,  and  hypercritical. 
Old  principles  were  called  in  question,  and  the  literary  man,  the 
statesman,  the  philosopher,  and  the  theologian  found  their  tasks 
to  be  mainly  those  of  attack  or  defence.  The  opinions  of  the 
nation  and  the  sentiments  which  they  prompted  were  neither 
speculative  nor  heroic,  and  they  received  adequate  literary  ex- 
pression in  a  philosophy  which  acknowledged  no  higher  motive 
than  utility,  —  in  a  kind  of  poetry  which  found  its  field  in  didactic 
discussion,  and  sunk  in  narrative  into  the  coarse  and  domestic. 
In  all  departments  of  literature,  the  form  had  come  to  be  more 
regarded  than  the  matter ;  and  melody  of  rhythm,  elegance  of 
phrase,  and  symmetry  of  parts  were  held  to  be  higher  excel- 
lences than  rich  fancy  or  fervid  emotion.  Such  an  age  could 
not  give  birth  to  a  literature  possessing  the  loftiest  and  most 
striking  qualities  of  poetry  or  of  eloquence ;  but  it  increased  the 
knowledge  previously  possessed  by  mankind,  swept  away  many 
wrong  opinions,  produced  many  literary  works,  excellent  in 
thought  and  expression,  and  exercised  on  the  English  language 
an  influence  partly  for  good  and  partly  for  evil,  which  is  shown 
in  every  sentence  which  we  now  speak  or  write. 

The  First  Generation  is  named  from  Queen  Anne  (1702- 
1714),  but  it  includes  also  the  reign  of  her  successor.  Our  no- 
tion of  its  literary  character  is  derived  from  the  poetry  of  Pope 
and  the  prose  of  Addison  and  his  friends.  In  its  own  region, 
which,  though  not  low,  is  yet  far  from  the  highest,  the  lighter 
and  more  popular  literature  of  Queen  Anne's  time  is  valuable ; 
its  lessons  were  full  of  good  sense  and  correct  taste,  and  as  liter- 
ary artists,  the  writers  of  this  age  attained  an  excellence  as  emi- 
nent as  can  be  attained  by  art  not  inspired  by  the  enthusiasm  of 
genius  nor  employed  on  majestic  themes.  In  its  moral  tone, 
the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  much  better  than 
that  of  the  age  before  it. 

The  Second  Generation  of  the  century  may  be  reckoned  as 
contained  in  the  reign  of  George  II.  (1727-3760).  It  was  more 
remarkable  than  the  preceding  for  vigor  of  thinking  and  often 
for  genuine  poetic  fancy  and  susceptibility,  though  inferior  in 
the  skill  and  details  of  literary  composition.  Samuel  Johnson 
produced  his  principal  works  before  the  close  of  this  period. 
Among  the  novelists,  Richardson  alone  had  anything  in  common 
with  him.  Fielding,  Smollett,  and  Sterne  are  equally  distant 
from  the  dignified  pomp  of  his  manner  and  the  ascetic  elevation 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  455 

of  his  morality.  In  contrast  to  the  looseness  of  the  novels  and 
the  skepticism  of  Hume,  the  reasoning  of  Butler  was  employed 
in  defense  of  sacred  truth,  and  the  stern  dissent  of  Whitefield 
and  Wesley  was  entered  against  religious  deadness.  Poetry 
began  to  stir  with  new  life  ;  a  noble  ambition  animated  Young 
and  Akenside,  and  in  Thomson,  Gray,  and  Collins  a  finer  poetic 
sense  was  perceptible. 

The  Third  Generation  of  the  eighteenth  century,  beginning 
with  the  accession  of  George  III.  (1760),  was  by  no  means  so 
fertile  in  literary  genius  as  either  of  the  other  two.  But  the 
earliest  of  its  remarkable  writers,  Hume,  Robertson,  and  Gib- 
bon, produced  works  which  have  rarely  been  exceeded  as  liter- 
ary compositions  of  their  class.  In  ethics,  there  were  Paley 
and  Adam  Smith  ;  in  psychology  and  metaphysics,  Reid  and 
the  founders  of  the  Scottish  school ;  and  in  the  list  of  poets 
who  adorned  these  forty  years  were  Goldsmith,  Cowper,  and 
Burns. 

The  nineteenth  century,  for  us  naturally  more  interesting  than 
any  other  period  of  English  literature,  is,  in  its  intellectual  char- 
acter, peculiarly  difficult  of  analysis,  from  its  variety  and  nov- 
elty. For  the  reason  that  we  have  been  moulded  on  its  lessons, 
we  are  not  favorably  placed  for  comprehending  it  profoundly,  or 
for  impartially  estimating  the  value  of  the  monuments  it  has  pro- 
duced. 

It  has  been  a  time  of  extraordinary  mental  activity  more 
widely  diffused  than  ever  before  throughout  the  nation  at  large. 
While  books  have  been  multiplied  beyond  precedent,  readers 
have  increased  in  a  yet  greater  proportion,  and  the  diffusion  of 
enlightenment  has  been  aimed  at  as  zealously  as  the  discovery 
of  new  truths.  While  no  other  time  has  exhibited  so  surpris- 
ing a  variety  in  the  kinds  of  literature,  none  has  been  so  distin- 
guished for  the  prevalence  of  enlightened  and  philanthropic  sen- 
timent. 

In  point  of  literary  merit,  the  half  century  presents  two  suc- 
cessive and  dissimilar  stages,  of  which  the  first  or  opening  epoch 
of  the  century,  embraced  in  its  first  thirty  years,  was  by  far  the 
most  brilliant.  The  animation  and  energy  which  characterized 
it  arose  from  the  universal  excitation  of  feeling  and  the  mighty 
collision  of  opinions  which  broke  out  over  all  Europe  with  the 
first  French  Revolution,  and  the  fierce  struggle  so  long  main- 
tained almost  single-handed  by  England  against  Napoleon  I. 
The  strength  of  that  age  was  greatest  in  poetry,  but  it  gave  birth 
to  much  valuable  speculation  and  eloquent  writing.  The  poeti- 
cal literature  of  that  time  has  no  parallel  in  English  literature, 
unless  in  the  age  of  Shakspeare. 

A  marked  feature  in  the  English  poetry  of  the  nineteenth 


456       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

century  is  the  want  of  skill  in  execution.  Most  of  the  poets  not 
only  neglect  polishing  in  diction  but  also  in  symmetry  of  plan, 
and  this  fault  is  common  to  the  most  reflective  as  well  as  the 
most  passionate  of  them.  Byron,  in  his  tales  and  sketches,  is 
not  more  deficient  in  skill  as  an  artist  than  Wordsworth  in  his 
"Excursion,"  the  huge  fragment  of  an  unfathomable  design, 
cherished  throughout  a  long  and  thoughtful  lifetime. 

Another  feature  is  this,  that  the  poems  which  made  the  strong- 
est impression  were  of  the  narrative  kind.  That  and  the  drama 
may  be  said  to  be  the  only  forms  of  representation  adequate  to 
embody  the  spirit  or  to  interest  the  sympathies  of  an  age  and  na- 
tion immersed  in  the  turmoil  of  energetic  action. 

Among  the  prose  writings  of  this  period,  two  kinds  of  compo- 
sition employed  a  larger  fund  of  literary  genius  than  any  other, 
and  exercised  a  wider  influence ;  these  were  the  novels  and  ro- 
mances, and  the  reviews  and  other  periodicals.  Novel-writing 
acquired  an  unusually  high  rank  in  the  world  of  letters,  through 
its  greatest  master,  and  was  remarkable  for  the  high  character 
imprinted  on  it.  By  Scott  and  two  or  three  precursors  and 
some  not  unworthy  successors,  the  novel  was  made  for  us  nearly 
all  that  the  drama  in  its  palmy  days  had  been  for  our  fore- 
fathers, imbibing  as  much  of  its  poetic  spirit  as  its  form  and  pur- 
pose allowed,  thoughtful  in  its  views  of  life,  and  presenting  pic- 
tures faithful  to  nature. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  was  founded  the  dy- 
nasty of  the  reviews,  which  now  began  to  be  chosen  as  the  vehi- 
cles of  the  best  prose  writing  and  the  most  energetic  thinking 
that  the  nation  could  command.  Masses  of  valuable  knowledge 
have  been  laid  up,  and  streams  of  eloquence  have  been  poured 
out  in  the  periodicals  of  our  century  by  authors  who  have  often 
left  their  names  to  be  guessed  at.  But  the  best  writers  have 
not  always  escaped  the  dangers  of  this  form  of  writing,  which 
is  unfavorable  to  completeness  and  depth  of  knowledge,  and 
strongly  tempting  to  exaggeration  of  style  and  sentiment.  This 
evil  has  worked  on  the  ranks  of  inferior  contributors  with  a 
force  which  has  seriously  injured  the  purity  of  the  public  taste. 
The  strong  points  of  periodical  writers  are  their  criticism  of  lit- 
erary works  and  their  speculation  in  social  and  political  philoso- 
phy, which  have  nowhere  been  handled  so  skillfully  as  in  the 
Reviews.  After  poetry,  they  are  the  most  valuable  departments 
in  the  literature  of  the  first  age. 

Since  the  Anglo-Saxon  period,  English  literature  has  derived 
much  of  its  materials  and  inspiration  from  the  teaching  of  other 
countries.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  France  furnished  the  models  of 
chivalrous  poetry  and  much  of  the  social  system  ;  the  Augustan 
age  of  French  letters,  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  ruled  the  liter- 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  457 

ary  taste  of  England  from  the  Restoration  to  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century ;  and  from  Germany,  more  than  from  any 
other  foreign  nation,  have  come  the  influences  by  which  the  in- 
tellect of  Great  Britain  has  been  affected,  especially  during  the 
last  thirty  years.  Within  this  time,  the  study  and  translation  of 
German  literature  have  become  fashionable  pursuits,  and  on  the 
whole,  highly  beneficial.  The  philology  of  Germany  and  its 
profound  poetical  criticism  have  taught  much  :  the  philosophical 
tendency  of  German  theology  has  engaged  the  attention  of 
teachers  of  religion,  and  had  its  effect  both  for  good  and  evil, 
and  the  accurate  study  of  the  highest  branches  of  German  phi- 
losophy has  tended  decidedly  to  elevate  the  standard  of  abstract 
speculation. 

The  most  hopeful  symptom  of  English  literature  in  the  last 
thirty  years  is  to  be  found  in  the  zeal  and  success  with  which  its 
teachings  have  been  extended  beyond  the  accustomed  limits. 
Knowledge  has  been  diffused  with  a  zeal  and  rapidity  never  be- 
fore dreamed  of,  and  the  spirit  which  prompted  it  has  been 
worthily  embodied  in  the  enlarged  and  enlightened  temper  with 
which  it  has  been  communicated.  In  the  midst  of  much  error, 
there  are  many  features  prominent  which  presage  the  birth  of  a 
love  of  mankind  more  expansive  and  generous  than  any  that  has 
ever  yet  pervaded  society. 

The  present  age  possesses  no  poetry  comparable  to  that  of  the 
preceding,  and  few  men  who  unite  remarkable  eloquence  with 
power  of  thought.  Among  the  thinkers,  there  is  greater  activ- 
ity of  speculation  in  regard  to  questions  affecting  the  nature  and 
destiny  of  man ;  and  problems  have  been  boldly  propounded, 
but  the  solutions  have  not  been  found,  and  amidst  much  doubt 
and  dimness,  the  present  generation  seems  to  be  struggling  to- 
ward a  new  organization  of  social  and  intellectual  life. 

The  literature  of  England  may  be  divided  into  three  periods  : 
the  first,  extending  from  the  departure  of  the  Romans  to  the 
Norman  Conquest  (448—1066),  comprises  the  literature  in  the 
Celtic,  Latin,  and  Anglo-Saxon  tongues. 

The  second  period,  extending  from  the  Norman  Conquest  to 
the  accession  of  Henry  VIII.  (1066-1509),  contains  the  liter- 
ature of  the  Norman  period  from  1066  to  1307,  in  the  Latin, 
Norman-French,  and  Anglo-Saxon  tongues,  the  transition  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  into  English,  and  the  literature  of  the  fourteenth 
and  fifteenth  centuries. 

The  third  period,  extending  from  1509  to  1884,  includes  the 
literature  of  the  age  of  the  Reformation,  that  of  the  age  of 
Spenser,  Shakspeare,  Bacon,  and  Milton,  of  the  Restoration 
and  Revolution,  and  of  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries. 

2.  THE  LANGUAGE.  —  The  English  language  is  directly  de- 


458       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

scended  from  the  Anglo-Saxon,  but  derives  much  from  the  Nor- 
man-French, and  from  the  Latin.  Although  the  Celtic  in  its 
branches  of  Cymric  and  Gaelic  still  continues  to  be  the  speech 
of  a  portion  of  the  inhabitants  of  Great  Britain,  it  has  never  ex- 
ercised any  influence  on  the  language  of  the  nation. 

The  origin  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  tongue  is  involved  in  obscurity. 
It  most  nearly  resembles  the  Frisic,  a  Low  German  dialect  once 
spoken  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Elbe,  and  which  is  the  parent 
of  modern  Dutch. 

Before  the  battle  of  Hastings,  the  Anglo-Saxon  tongue  had 
been  spoken  in  England  for  at  least  six  hundred  years,  during 
which  time  it  must  have  undergone  many  changes  and  dialectic 
variations.  On  the  subjugation  of  the  conflicting  states  by  the 
kings  of  Wessex,  the  language  of  the  West  Saxons  came  to  be 
the  ruling  one,  and  its  use  was  extended  and  confirmed  by  the 
example  of  Alfred,  himself  a  native  of  Berks.  But  it  does  not 
necessarily  follow  that  this  dialect  is  the  parent  of  the  English 
language.  We  must  look  for  the  probable  ground-work  of  this 
in  the  gradual  coalescence  of  the  leading  dialects. 

The  changes  by  which  the  Anglo-Saxon  passed  into  the  mod- 
ern English  assumed  in  succession  two  distinct  types,  marking 
two  eras  quite  dissimilar.  First  came  the  Semi-Saxon,  or  tran- 
sition period,  throughout  which  the  old  language  was  suffering 
disorganization  and  decay,  a  period  of  confusion,  perplexing 
alike  to  those  who  then  used  the  tongue,  and  to  those  who  now 
endeavor  to  trace  its  vicissitudes.  This  chaotic  state  came  to 
an  end  about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  after  a  dura- 
tion of  nearly  two  hundred  years.  The  second  era,  or  period 
of  reconstruction,  follows,  during  which  the  language  may  be  de- 
scribed as  English. 

A  late  critic  divides  the  Old  English  Period,  extending  from 
1250  to  1500,  into  the  Early  English  (1250-1330)  and  the 
Middle  English  (1330-1500).  The  latter  was  used  by  Chaucer 
and  Wickliffe,  and  is  in  all  essentials  so  like  the  modern  tongue, 
except  in  the  spelling,  that  a  tolerable  English  scholar  may  easily 
understand  it.  A  great  change  was  effected  in  the  vocabulary 
by  the  introduction  and  naturalization  of  words  from  the  French. 
The  poems  of  Chaucer  and  Gower  are  studded  with  them,  and 
the  style  of  these  favorite  writers  exercised  a  commanding  in- 
fluence ever  after. 

The  grammar  of  the  English  language,  in  all  points  of  impor- 
tance, is  a  simplification  of  the  grammar  of  the  Anglo-Saxon. 
In  considering  the  sources  of  the  English  vocabulary,  we  find 
that  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  are  derived  first,  almost  all  those 
words  which  import  relations  ;  secondly,  not  only  all  the  adjec- 
tives, but  all  the  other  words,  nouns,  and  verbs  which  gramma- 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  459 

rians  call  irregular ;  thirdly,  the  Saxon  gives  us  in  most  in- 
stances our  only  names,  and  in  all  instances  those  which  suggest 
themselves  most  readily  for  the  objects  perceived  through  the 
senses  ;  fourthly,  all  words,  with  a  few  exceptions,  whose  signifi- 
cation is  specific,  are  Anglo-Saxon.  For  instance,  we  use  a 
foreign,  naturalized  term  when  we  speak  of  color,  or  motion,  in 
general,  but  the  Saxon  in  speaking  of  the  particular  color  or  mo- 
tion, and  the  style  of  a  writer  becomes  animated  and  suggestive 
in  proportion  to  the  frequency  with  which  he  uses  these  specific 
terms  ;  fifthly,  it  furnishes  a  rich  fund  of  expressions  for  the 
feelings  and  affections,  for  the  persons  who  are  the  earliest  and 
most  natural  objects  of  our  attachment,  and  for  those  inanimate 
things  whose  names  are  figuratively  significant  of  domestic 
union ;  sixthly,  the  Anglo-Saxon  is,  for  the  most  part,  the  lan- 
guage of  business  ;  of  the  counting-house,  the  shop,  the  street, 
the  market,  the  farm.  Among  an  eminently  practical  people  it 
is  eminently  the  organ  of  practical  action,  and  it  retains  this  pre- 
rogative in  defiance  alike  of  the  necessary  innovations  caused  by 
scientific  discovery  and  of  the  corruptions  of  ignorance  and  af- 
fectation. Seventhly,  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  language  of 
invective,  humor,  satire,  and  colloquial  pleasantry  is  Anglo- 
Saxon.  In  short,  the  Teutonic  elements  of  our  vocabulary  are 
equally  valuable  in  enabling  us  to  speak  and  write  perspicuously 
and  with  animation  ;  and  besides  dictating  the  laws  which  con- 
nect our  words,  and  furnishing  the  cement  which  binds  them  to- 
gether, they  yield  all  our  aptest  means  of  describing  imagination, 
feeling,  and  the  every-day  facts  of  life. 

From  the  Latin  the  English  has  borrowed  more  or  less  for 
two  thousand  years,  and  freely  for  more  than  six  centuries  ;  but 
from  the  time  of  the  Conquest  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  words 
of  Latin  origin  from  those  of  French.  The  Latinisms  of  the 
language  have  arisen  chiefly  in  three  epochs.  The  first  was  the 
thirteenth  century,  which  followed  an  age  devoted  to  classical 
studies,  and  its  theological  writers  and  poets  coined  freely  in  the 
Roman  mint.  The  second  was  the  Elizabethan  age,  when,  in 
the  enthusiasm  of  a  new  revival  of  admiration  for  antiquity,  the 
privilege  of  naturalization  was  used  to  an  extent  which  threat- 
ened serious  danger  to  the  purity  and  ease  of  speech.  In  the 
third  epoch,  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  Johnson 
was  the  dictator  of  form  and  style,  and  the  pompous  rotundity 
that  then  prevailed  has  been  permanently  injurious,  although 
our  Latin  words,  on  the  whole,  have  done  much  more  good  than 
harm. 

The  introduction  of  French  words  began  with  the  Conquest, 
when  the  political  condition  of  the  country  made  it  imperative 
that  many  words  should  be  understood.  The  second  stage  be- 


460       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

gan  about  a  century  later,  when  the  few  native  Englishmen  who 
loved  letters  entered  on  the  study  of  French  poetry.  The  third 
era  of  English  Gallicisms  opened  in  the  fourteenth  century,  when 
the  French  tastes  of  the  nobles,  and  the  zeal  with  which  Chaucer 
and  other  men  of  letters  studied  the  poetry  of  France,  greatly 
contributed  to  introduce  that  tide  of  French  diction  which  flowed 
on  to  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages.  By  that  time  the  new 
words  were  so  numerous  and  so  strongly  ingrafted  on  the  native 
stock  that  all  subsequent  additions  are  unimportant.  The  dic- 
tionaries of  modern  English  are  said  to  contain  about  38,000 
words,  of  which  about  23,000  or  five  eighths  of  the  whole  num- 
ber, come  from  the  Anglo-Saxon. 

The  English  language,  by  its  remarkable  combination  of 
strength,  precision,  and  copiousness,  is  worthy  of  being,  as  it 
already  is,  spoken  by  many  millions,  and  these  the  part  of  the 
human  race  that  appear  likely  to  control,  more  than  any  others, 
the  future  destinies  of  the  world. 


PERIOD  FIRST. 

EROM  THE  DEPARTURE  OF  THE  ROMANS  TO  THE  NORMAN  CONQUEST 
(448-1066). 

1.  CELTIC  LITERATURE.  —  During  this  period  four  languages 
were  used  for  literary  communication  in  the  British  Islands ; 
two  Celtic  tongues  spoken  by  nations  of  that  race,  who  still  oc- 
cupied large  portions  of  the  country;  Latin,  as  elsewhere  the 
organ  of  the  church  and  of  learning ;  and  Anglo-Saxon.  The 
first  of  the  Celtic  tongues,  the  Erse  or  Gaelic,  was  common  only 
to  the  Celts  of  Ireland  and  Scotland,  where  it  is  still  spoke*. 
The  second,  that  of  the  Cymrians  or  ancient  Britons,  has  been 
preserved  by  the  Welsh. 

The  literary  remains  of  this  period  in  Ireland  consist  of 
bardic  songs  and  historical  legends,  some  of  which  are  asserted 
to  be  older  than  the  ninth  century,  the  date  of  the  legendary 
collection  called  the  "  Psalter  of  Cashel,"  which  still  survives. 
There  exist,  also,  valuable  prose  chronicles  which  are  believed 
to  contain  the  substance  of  others  of  a  very  early  date,  and 
which  furnish  an  authentic  contemporary  history  of  the  country 
in  the  language  of  the  people  from  the  fifth  century.  No  other 
modern  nation  of  Europe  is  able  to  make  a  similar  boast. 

All  the  earliest  relics  of  the  Scotch  Celts  are  metrical.  The 
poems  which  bear  the  name  of  Ossian  are  professedly  celebra- 
tions by  an  eye-witness  of  events  which  occurred  in  the  third 
century.  They  were  first  presented  to  the  world  in  1762  by 
Macpherson,  a  Scotch  poet,  and  represented  by  him  to  be  trans- 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  461 

lations  from  the  ancient  Gaelic  poetry  handed  down  by  tradition 
through  so  many  centuries  and  still  found  among  the  Highlands. 
The  question  of  their  authenticity  excited  a  fierce  literary  con- 
troversy which  still  remains  unsettled.  By  some  recent  English 
and  German  critics,  however,  Ossian's  poems  are  considered 
genuine.  The  existence  of  bards  among  the  Celtic  nations  is 
well  established,  and  their  songs  were  preserved  with  pride.  The 
name  of  Ossian  is  mentioned  by  Giraldus  Cambrensis  in  the 
twelfth  century,  and  that  of  Fingal,  the  hero  of  the  legends,  was 
so  popular  that  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  many 
bishops  complained  that  their  people  were  more  familiar  with 
Fingal  than  with  the  catechism.  The  Gaelic  original  of  Ossian 
was  published  in  1807. 

The  literature  of  the  Cymric  Celts  is  particularly  interesting, 
as  affording  those  fragments  of  British  poetry  and  history  from 
which  the  magnificent  legends  were  built  up  to  immortalize 
King  Arthur  and  his  Knights  of  the  Round  Table.  In  the 
bardic  songs  and  elsewhere,  frequent  allusion  is  made  to  this 
heroic  prince,  who  with  his  warriors  resisted  the  Saxon  enemies 
of  his  country,  and  who,  we  are  told,  died  by  domestic  treason, 
the  flower  of  the  British  nobles  perishing  with  him.  His  deeds 
were  magnified  among  the  Welsh  Britons,  and  among  those  who 
sought  refuge  on  the  banks  of  the  Loire.  The  chroniclers  wove 
these  traditions  into  a  legendary  history  of  Britain.  From  this 
compilation  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  in  the  twelfth  century,  con- 
structed a  Latin  historical  work  ;  and  the  poets  of  chivalry,  al- 
lured by  the  beauty  and  pathos  of  the  tale,  made  it  for  ages  the 
centre  of  the  most  animated  pictures  of  romance. 

Many  ancient  Welsh  writings  are  extant  which  treat  of  a 
wonderful  variety  of  topics,  both  in  prose  and  verse.  The  sin- 
gular pieces  called  the  Triads  show  a  marked  character  of  primi- 
tive antiquity.  They  are  collections  of  historical  facts,  mytho- 
logical doctrines,  maxims,  traditions,  and  rules  for  the  structure 
of  verse,  expressed  with  extreme  brevity,  and  disposed  in  groups 
of  three.  Among  the  Welsh  metrical  remains,  some  are  plausi- 
bly assigned  to  celebrated  bards  of  the  sixth  century.  There  is 
also  a  considerable  stock  of  old  Welsh  romances,  the  most  re- 
markable of  which  are  contained  in  a  series  called  the  "  Mabi- 
nogi,"  or  Tales  of  Youth,  many  of  which  have  been  translated 
into  English.  Some  of  these  stories  are  very  similar  to  the  older 
Norse  Sagas,  and  must  have  sprung  from  traditions  of  a  very 
rude  and  early  generation. 

2.  LATIX  LITERATURE.  —  The  Latin  learning  of  the  Dark 
Ages  formed  a  point  of  contact  between  instructed  men  of  all 
countries.  At  first  it  was  necessarily  adopted,  —  the  native 
tongues  being  in  their  infancy ;  and  it  was  afterwards  so  tena- 


462       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

ciously  adhered  to,  that  the  Latin  literature  of  the  Middle  Ages 
far  exceeds  in  amount  all  other.  Its  cultivation  in  England 
arose  out  of  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  and  its  most  valued 
uses  related  to  the  church. 

Almost  all  who  cultivated  Latin  learning  were  ecclesiastics, 
and  by  far  the  larger  number  of  those  who  became  eminent  in 
it  were  natives  of  Ireland.  Amidst  the  convulsions  which  fol- 
lowed the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  Ireland  was  a  place  of  rest 
and  safety  to  fugitives  from  England  and  the  Continent,  and  it 
contained  for  some  centuries  a  larger  amount  of  learning  than 
could  have  been  collected  in  all  Europe. 

With  the  introduction  of  the  Christian  faith  each  nation  be- 
came a  member  of  the  ecclesiastical  community,  and  maintained 
its  connection  with  other  nations  and  with  Rome  as  the  common 
centre  ;  thus  communication  between  different  countries  received 
a  new  impulse.  The  churches  and  schools  of  England  received 
nany  distinguished  foreigners,  and  many  of  the  native  church- 
men lived  abroad.  Of  the  three  scholars  who  held  the  highest 
place  in  the  literature  of  this  period  —  Bede  (d.  735),  Alcuin 
(d.  804),  and  Erigena  (d.  884),  (celebrated  for  his  original 
views  in  philosophy)  —  the  two  last  gave  the  benefit  of  their 
talents  to  France.  The  writings  of  the  Venerable  Bede,  as  he  is 
called,  exhibit  an  extent  of  classical  scholarship  surprising  for 
his  time,  and  his  "  Ecclesiastical  History  of  England  "  is  to  this 
day  a  leading  authority  not  only  for  church  annals,  but  for  all 
public  events  that  occurred  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  Saxon 
period. 

3.  LITERATURE  IN  THE  ANGLO-SAXON  TONGUE.  —  The  re- 
mains of  Anglo-Saxon  literature,  both  in  prose  and  verse,  differ 
essentially  from  the  specimens  of  a  similar  age  which  come  down 
to  us  from  other  nations.  The  ancestral  legends,  which  were  at 
once  the  poetry  and  history  of  their  contemporaries,  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  entirely  neglected ;  they  even  avoided  the  choice  of 
national  themes  for  their  poetry,  which  consisted  of  ethical  re- 
flections and  religious  doctrines  or  narratives.  They  eschewed 
all  expression  of  impassioned  fancy,  and  embodied  in  rough  but 
lucid  phrases  practical  information  and  every-day  shrewdness. 

Among  the  Anglo-Saxon  metrical  monuments  three  historical 
poems  are  still  preserved,  which  embody  recollections  of  the  Con- 
tinent, and  must  have  been  composed  long  before  the  emigra- 
tions to  England ;  of  these  the  most  important  is  the  tale  of 
"  Beowulf,"  consisting  of  six  thousand  lines,  which  is  essentially 
a  Norse  Saga. 

After  the  introduction  of  Christianity  there  appeared  many 
hymns,  metrical  lives  of  the  saints,  and  religious  and  reflective 
poems.  The  most  remarkable  relics  of  this  period  are  the  works 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  463 

attributed  to  Caedmon  (d.  680),  whose  narrative  poems  on  scrip- 
tural events  are  inspired  by  a  noble  tone  of  solemn  imagination. 

The  melody  of  the  Saxon  verse  was  regulated  by  syllabic  ac- 
cent or  emphasis,  and  not  by  quantity,  like  the  classical  metres. 
Alliteration,  or  the  use  of  several  syllables  in  the  same  stanza 
beginning  with  the  same  letter,  takes  the  place  of  rhyme.  The 
alliterative  metres  and  the  strained  and  figurative  diction  com- 
mon to  the  Anglo-Saxon  poets  was  common  to  the  Northmen, 
and  seems  to  have  been  derived  from  them. 

Anglo-Saxon  prose  was  remarkable  for  its  straightforward  and 
perspicuous  simplicity,  and,  especially  after  the  time  of  Alfred, 
it  had  a  marked  preference  over  the  Latin.  Translations  were 
early  made  from  the  Latin,  particularly  versions  of  parts  of  the 
Scriptures,  which  come  next,  in  point  of  date,  to  the  Moeso-Gothic 
translation  of  Ulphilas,  and  preceded  by  several  generations  all 
similar  attempts  in  any  of  the  new  languages  of  Europe. 

The  most  important  monument  of  Saxon  prose  literature  is  the 
series  of  historical  records  arranged  together  under  the  name 
of  "  The  Saxon  Chronicle,"  which  is  made  up  from  records  kept 
in  the  monasteries,  probably  from  the  time  of  Alfred,  and  brought 
down  to  the  year  1154. 

The  illustrious  name  of  Alfred  (849-900)  closes  the  record  of 
Anglo-Saxon  literature.  From  him  went  forth  a  spirit  of  moral 
strength  and  a  thirst  for  enlightenment  which  worked  marvels 
among  an  ignorant  and  half-barbarous  people.  Besides  his  trans- 
lations from  the  Scriptures,  he  made  selections  from  St.  Augus- 
tine, Bede,  and  other  writers  ;  he  translated  "  The  Consolations 
of  Philosophy,"  by  Boethius,  and  he  incorporates  his  own  reflec- 
tions with  all  these  authors.  It  is  impossible,  at  this  time,  to 
estimate  justly  the  labors  of  Alfred,  since  the  obstacles  which  in 
his  time  impeded  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  cannot  even  now 
be  conceived.  "  I  have  wished  to  live  worthily,"  said  he,  "  while 
I  lived,  and  after  my  life,  to  leave  to  the  men  who  should  come 
after  me,  my  remembrance  in  good  works." 

PERIOD  SECOND. 

FROM  THE   NORMAN  CONQUEST  TO  THE'  ACCESSION  OF   HENRY  VIII. 

(1066-1509). 

1.  LITERATURE  IN  THE  LATEST  TONGUE.  —  The  Norman  Con- 
quest introduced  into  England  a  foreign  race  of  kings  and  barons, 
with  their  military  vassals,  and  churchmen,  who  followed  the 
conqueror  and  his  successors.  The  generation  succeeding  the 
Conquest  gave  birth  to  little  that  was  remarkable,  but  the  twelfth 
century  was  particularly  distinguished  for  its  classical  scholarship, 
and  Norman-French  poetry  began  to  find  English  imitators. 


464       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

The  thirteenth  century  was  a  decisive  epoch  in  the  constitu- 
tional as  well  as  in  the  intellectual  history  of  England.  The 
Great  Charter  was  extorted  from  John  ;  the  representation  of 
the  commons  from  his  successors  ;  the  universities  were  founded 
or  organized ;  the  romantic  poetry  of  France  began  to  be  trans- 
fused into  a  language  intelligible  throughout  England  ;  and  above 
all,  the  Anglo-Saxon  tongue  was  in  this  century  finally  trans- 
formed into  English.  Three  of  the  Crusades  had  already  taken 
place  ;  the  other  four  fell  within  the  next  century  ;  and  these 
wars  diffused  knowledge,  and  kindled  a  flame  of  zeal  and  devo- 
tion to  the  church. 

The  only  names  which  adorned  the  annals  of  erudition  in 
England  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eleventh  century  were  those 
of  two  Lombard  priests  —  Lanfranc  (d.  1089)  and  Anselm  (d. 
1109).  They  prepared  the  means  for  diffusing  classical  learning 
among  the  ecclesiastics,  and  both  acquired  high  celebrity  as  the- 
ological writers.  Their  influence  was  visible  on  the  two  most 
learned  men  whom  the  country  produced  in  the  next  century  — 
John  of  Salisbury  (d.  1181),  befriended  by  Thomas  a  Becket, 
and  Peter  of  Blois,  the  king's  secretary,  and  an  active  states- 
man. 

In  the  thirteenth  century,  when  the  teachings  of  Abelard  and 
Rosellinus  had  made  philosophy  the  favorite  pursuit  of  the  schol- 
ars of  Europe,  England  possessed  many  names  which,  in  this 
field,  stood  higher  than  any  others  —  among  them  Alexander  do 
Hales,  called  "  the  Irrefragable  Doctor,"  and  Johannes  Duns 
Scotus,  one  of  the  most  acute  of  thinkers.  In  the  same  age, 
while  Scotland  sent  Michael  Scott  into  Germany,  where  he  prose- 
cuted his  studies  with  a  success  that  earned  for  him  the  fame 
of  a  sorcerer,  a  similar  character  was  acquired  by  Roger  Bacon 
(d.  1292),  a  Franciscan  friar,  who  made  many  curious  con- 
jectures on  the  possibility  of  discoveries  which  have  since  been 
made. 

Very  few  of  the  historical  works  of  this  period  possess  any 
merit,  except  as  curious  records  of  fact.  Chronicles  were  kept 
in  the  various  monasteries,  which  furnish  a  series  extending 
through  the  greater  part  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Among  these  his- 
torians are  William  of  Malmesbury,  who  belonged  properly  to 
the  twelfth  century  ;  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  who  preserved  for 
us  the  stories  of  Arthur,  of  Lear,  and  Cymbeline  ;  Gerald  de 
Barri,  or  Giraldns  Cambrensis  ;  Matthew  Paris,  a  Benedictine 
monk,  of  St.  Albans  ;  Henry  of  Huntingdon  ;  Gervase  of  Til- 
bury ;  and  Roger  de  Hoveden. 

The  spirit  of  resistance  to  secular  and  ecclesiastical  tyranny, 
which  now  began  to  show  itself  among  the  English  people,  found 
also  a  medium  of  expression  in  the  Latin  tongue.  The  most 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  465 

biting  satires  against  the  church,  and  the  most  lively  political 
pasquinades,  were  thus  expressed,  and  written  almost  always  hy 
churchmen.  To  give  these  satires  a  wider  circulation,  the  Nor- 
jnan-French  came  to  be  frequently  used,  but  at  the  close  of  the 
period  the  English  dialect  was  almost  the  only  organ  of  this 
satirical  minstrelsy. 

The  Latin  tongue  also  became  the  means  of  preserving  and 
transmitting  an  immense  stock  of  tales,  by  which  the  later  poetry 
of  Europe  profited  largely.  One  of  these  legends,  narrated  by 
Gervase  of  Tilbury,  suggested  to  Scott  the  combat  of  Marmion 
with  the  spectre  knight. 

A  series  of  fictions  called  the  "  Gesta  Romanorum  "  attained 
great  celebrity.  It  is  composed  of  fables,  traditions,  and  familiar 
pictures  of  society,  varying  with  the  different  countries  it  passed 
through.  The  romance  of  Apollonius,  in  the  Gesta,  furnished 
the  plot  of  two  or  three  of  Chaucer's  tales,  and  of  Gower's  most 
celebrated  poem,  which  again  gave  the  ground-work  of  Pericles, 
Prince  of  Tyre.  The  Merchant  of  Venice,  the  Three  Black 
Crows,  and  Parnell's  Hermit,  are  indebted  also  to  the  Gesta 
Romanorum. 

4.  LITERATURE  IN"  NORMAL-FRENCH.  —  From  the  prefer- 
ence of  the  Norman  kings  of  England  for  the  poets  of  their  own 
country,  the  distinguished  literary  names  of  the  first  two  centu- 
ries-after the  Conquest  are  those  of  Norman  poets.  One  of  the 
chief  of  these  is  Wace  (fl.  1160),  who  composed  in  French  his 
"  Brut  d'Angleterre  "  (Brutus  of  England),  the  mythical  son  of 
jJEneas  and  founder  of  Britain.  The  Britons  settled  in  Cornwall, 
Wales,  and  Bretagne  had  long  been  distinguished  for  their  tra- 
ditionary legends,  which  were  at  length  collected  by  Geoffrey 
of  Monmouth  (fl.  1138),  and  gravely  related  by  him  in  Latin  as 
serious  history.  This  production,  composed  of  incredible  stories, 
furnished  the  ground-work  for  Wace's  poem,  and  proved  an 
unfailing  resource  for  writers  of  romantic  narration  for  two  cen- 
turies ;  at  a  later  period  Shakspeare  drew  from  it  the  story  of 
Lear ;  Sackville  that  of  Ferrex  and  Porrex  ;  Drayton  repro- 
duced it  in  his  Poly-Olbion,  and  Milton  and  other  poets  frequently 
draw  allusions  from  it.  The  Romances  of  chivalry,  drawn  from 
the  same  source,  were  composed  for  the  English  court  and  nobles, 
and  the  translation  of  them  was  the  most  frequent  use  to  which 
the  infant  English  was  applied.  They  imprinted  on  English 
poetry  characteristics  which  it  did  not  lose  for  centuries,  if  it 
can  be  said  to  have  lost  them  at  all. 

A  poetess  known  as  Marie  of  France  made  copious  use  of 
British  materials,  and  addressed  herself  to  a  king,  supposed  to 
have  been  Henry  VI.  Her  twelve  lays,  which  celebrate  the 
marvels  of  the  Round  Table,  are  among  the  most  beautiful  relics 

30 


466       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  were  freely  used  by  Chaucer  and  other 
English  poets. 

The  romances  are,  many  of  them,  in  parts  at  least,  delightf  ully 
imaginative,  spirited,  or  pathetic,  and  their  history  is  important 
as  illustrating  mediaeval  manners  and  customs,  and  for  their  con- 
nection with  early  English  literature.  Among  the  oldest  of 
these  romances  is  "  Havelok,"  relating  to  the  early  Norse  settle- 
ment in  England,  the  "  Gest  of  King  Horn,"  and  "  Guy  of  War- 
wick." 

But  of  all  the  French  romances,  the  most  interesting  by  far 
are  those  that  celebrate  the  glory  and  fall  of  King  Arthur  and 
the  Knights  of  the  Round  Table.  The  order  in  which  they  were 
composed  seems  to  have  been  the  same  with  that  of  the  events 
narrated. 

First  comes  the  romance  of  '"  The  Saint  Graal,"  relating  the 
history  of  this  sacred  relic  which  was  carried  by  Joseph  of  Ari- 
mathea  or  his  descendants  into  Britain,  where  it  vanished  for 
ages  from  the  eyes  of  sinful  men. 

Second,  the  romance  of  "  Merlin,"  which  derives  its  name 
from  the  fiend-born  prophet  and  magician,  celebrates  the  birth 
and  exploits  of  Arthur,  and  the  gathering  round  him  of  the 
Knights  of  the  Round  Table.  The  historic  origin  of  this  story 
is  from  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  though  it  is  disguised  by  its 
supernatural  and  chivalrous  features. 

In  the  third  romance,  that  of  Launcelot,  the  hero  nurtured 
by  the  Lady  of  the  Lake  in  her  fairy  realm  beneath  the  waters, 
grows  up  the  bravest  champion  of  chivalry,  admired  for  all  its 
virtues,  although  guilty  of  treachery  to  Arthur,  and  from  his  guilt 
is  to  ensue  the  destruction  of  the  land. 

Fourth,  the  "  Quest  of  the  Saint  Graal "  relates  the  solitary 
wanderings  of  the  knights  in  this  search,  and  how  the  adventure 
is  at  last  achieved  by  Sir  Gallahad,  who,  while  the  vision  passes 
before  him,  prays  that  he  may  no  longer  live,  and  is  immediately 
taken  away  from  a  world  of  calamity  and  sin. 

Fifth,  "  The  Mort  Artus,"  or  Death  of  Arthur,  winds  up  with 
supernatural  horrors  the  tale  into  which  the  fall  of  the  ancient 
Britons  had  been  thus  transformed.  Arthur,  wounded  and  dying, 
is  carried  by  the  fairy  of  the  lake  to  the  enchanted  island  of 
Avalon,  there  to  dream  away  the  ages  that  must  elapse  before 
his  return  to  reign  over  the  perfected  world  of  chivalry. 

Sixth,  "  The  Adventures  of  Tristram,"  or  Tristan,  is  a  repe- 
tition of  those  which  had  been  attributed  to  Launcelot  of  the 
Lake. 

These  six  romances  of  the  British  cycle,  the  originals  of  all 
others,  were  written  in  the  latter  half  of  the  twelfth  century  for 
the  English  court  and  nobles,  some  of  them  at  the  suggestion  of 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  467 

king  Henry  II.  Although  composed  in  French,  the  authors 
were  Englishmen,  and  from  these  prose  romances  the  poets  of 
France  constructed  many  metrical  romances  which  in  the  fif- 
teenth century  reappeared  as  English  metrical  romances. 

5.  SAXOX  ENGLISH. —  The  Saxon  tongue  of  England  decayed, 
but  like   the  healthy  seed  in  the  ground  it  germinated  again. 
The  Saxon  Chronicle  which  had  been  kept  in  the  monasteries 
ceased  abruptly  on  the  accession  of  Henry  II.,  1154,  and  at  the 
same  period  the  Saxon  language  began  to  take  a  form  in  which 
the  beginning  of  the  present  English  is  apparent. 

During  the  thirteenth  century  appeared  a  series  of  rhyming 
chroniclers,  the  chief  of  whom  were  Layamon  and  Robert  of 
Gloucester.  All  the  remains  of  the  English  tongue,  in  its  tran- 
sition state,  are  chiefly  in  verse ;  among  them  are  the  "  Ormu- 
lum  "  (so  called  from  the  name  of  the  author,  Ormin),  which  is 
a  metrical  harmony  of  passages  from  the  gospels  contained  in 
the  service  of  the  mass,  and  the  long  fable  of  "The  Owl  and  the 
Nightingale,"  one  of  the  most  pleasing  of  these  early  relics. 
"  The  Land  of  Cockayne,"  a  satirical  poem,  said  to  have  been 
written  by  Michael  of  Kildare,  belongs  also  to  the  thirteenth 
century,  as  well  as  many  anonymous  poems,  both  amatory  and 
religious. 

The  old  English  drama  was  almost  contemporaneous  with  the 
formation  of  the  Old  English  language  ;  but  all  dramatic  efforts 
previous  to  the  sixteenth  century  were  so  rude  as  to  deserve  little 
notice. 

6.  LITERATURE  IN  THE  FOURTEENTH  CENTURY.  —  The  four- 
teenth and  fifteenth  centuries,  the  afternoon  and  evening  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  are  the  picturesque  period  in  English  history.     In 
the  contemporary  chronicle  of   Froissart,  the  reign  of  Edward 
III.  shines  with  a  long  array  of  knightly  pageants,  and  a  loftier 
cast  of   imaginative   adornment  is  imparted  by  the  historical 
dramas  of  Shakspeare  to  the  troubled  rule  of  the  house  of  Lan- 
caster and  the  crimes  and  fall  of  the  brief  dynasty  of  York. 

The  reign  of  Edward  II.  was  as  inglorious  in  literature  as  in 
the  history  of  the  nation.  That  of  his  son  was  not  more  remark- 
able for  the  victories  of  Poictiers  and  Cressy  than  for  the  tri- 
umphs in  poetry  and  thought.  The  Black  Prince,  the  model  of 
historic  chivalry,  and  Occam,  the  last  and  greatest  of  the  English 
scholastic  philosophers,  lived  in  the  same  century  with  Chaucer, 
the  father  of  English  poetry,  and  Wickliffe,  the  herald  of  the 
Reformation. 

The  earlier  half  of  the  fourteenth  century,  in  its  literary  as- 
pects, may  be  regarded  as  a  separate  period  from  the  later.  The 
genius  of  the  nation  seemed  to  sleep.  England,  indeed,  was  the 
birth-place  of  Occam  (1300-1347),  but  he  neither  remained  in 


468       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

his  own  country,  nor  imparted  any  strong  impulse  to  his  coun- 
trymen. Educated  abroad,  he  lived  chiefly  in  France,  and  died 
in  Munich.  While  the  writings  of  his  master,  Duns  Scotus  (d. 
1308),  were  the  chief  authorities  of  the  metaphysical  sect  called 
Realists,  Occam  himself  was  the  ablest  and  one  of  the  earliest 
writers  among  the  Nominalists.  While  the  former  of  these 
sects  was  held  especially  favorable  to  the  Romish  Church,  the 
latter  was  discouraged  as  heretical,  and  Occam  was  persecuted 
for  enunciating  those  opinions  which  are  now  held  in  one  form 
or  another  by  almost  all  metaphysicians.  No  eminent  names  ap- 
pear in  the  ecclesiastical  literature  of  this  period,  nor  in  that  of 
the  spoken  tongue ;  but  the  dawn  of  English  literature  was  close 
at  hand. 

The  latter  half  of  this  century  was  a  remarkable  era  in  the 
ecclesiastical  and  intellectual  progress  of  England.  Many  col- 
leges were  founded,  and  learning  had  munificent  patrons.  The 
increase  of  papal  power  led  to  claims  which  were  resisted  by  the 
clergy  as  well  as  by  the  parliament.  Foremost  among  those  who 
called  for  reform  was  the  celebrated  John  Wickliffe  (1324-1384). 
A  priest  of  high  fame  for  his  knowledge  and  logical  dexterity, 
he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  several  of  the  colleges  of  Oxford, 
and  there,  and  from  the  country  parsonages  to  which  he  was 
afterwards  compelled  to  retreat,  he  thundered  forth  his  denunci- 
ations against  the  abuses  of  the  church,  attacked  the  papal  su- 
premacy, and  set  forth  doctrinal  views  of  his  own  nearly  ap- 
proaching to  Calvinism.  Although  repeatedly  called  to  account 
for  his  opinions  he  was  never  even  imprisoned,  and  he  enjoyed 
his  church-livings  to  the  last.  But  the  church  was  weakened  by 
the  Great  Schism,  and  he  was  protected  by  powerful  nobles. 
Soon  after  his  death,  however,  a  storm  of  persecution  burst  on 
his  disciples,  which  crushed  dissent  till  the  sixteenth  century. 
We  owe  to  Wickliffe  the  earliest  version  of  the  Scriptures  into 
English,  which  is  among  the  first  prose  writings  in  the  old 
tongue. 

The  very  oldest  book  in  English  prose,  however,  is  the  account 
given  by  Sir  John  Mandeville  of  his  thirty-three  years'  travel  in 
the  East,  from  which  he  returned  about  1355.  "It  is  an  odd  and 
amusing  compound  of  facts  and  marvelous  stories.  But  the  best 
specimens  of  English  prose  of  this  period  are  Chaucer's  transla- 
tion of  Boethius,  his  "  Testament  of  Love,"  and  two  of  his  Can- 
terbury Tales. 

In  poetical  literature,  "  The  Vision  of  Piers  Plowman,"  writ- 
ten (1362)  by  a  priest  named  Robert  Langland,  is  one  of  the 
highest  works  in  point  of  genius  and  one  of  the  most  curious  as 
illustrating  manners  and  opinions.  The  poet  supposes  himself 
falling  asleep  on  Malvern  Hills,  and  in  his  vision  he  describes 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  469 

the  vices  of  the  times  in  an  allegorical  form,  which  has  been 
compared  to  "  The  Pilgrim's  Progress."  The  poetical  vigor  of 
many  passages  is  extraordinary. 

John  Gower  (d.  1408),  a  contemporary  and  friend  of  Chaucer, 
is  chiefly  remembered  for  his  "  Confessio  Amantis,"  or  Lover's 
Confession,  a  long  English  poem,  containing  physical,  metaphys- 
ical, and  ethical  reflections  and  stories  taken  from  the  common 
repertories  of  the  Middle  Ages.  It  is  tedious,  and  often  feeble, 
but  it  has  many  excellences  of  language  and  description. 

Geoffrey  Chaucer  (1328-1400)  was  born  in  London.  He  was 
early  thrown  into  public  life  and  intimacy  with  men  of  high 
rank.  John  of  Gaunt  was  his  chief  patron,  and  he  was  several 
times  employed  in  embassies  to  France  and  Italy.  A  very  large 
proportion  of  Chaucer's  writings  consists  of  free  versions  from 
the  Latin  and  French,  and  perhaps  also  from  the  Italian  ;  but 
in  some  of  these  he  has  incorporated  so  much  that  is  his  own  as 
to  make  them  the  most  celebrated  and  valuable  of  his  works. 
His  originals  were  not  the  chivalrous  romances,  but  the  comic 
Fabliaux,  and  the  allegorical  poetry  cultivated  by  the  Trouveres 
and  Troubadours.  Three  of  his  largest  minor  works  are  thus 
borrowed  ;  the  "  Romance  of  the  Rose,"  from  one  of  the  most 
popular  French  poems  of  the  preceding  century  ;  "  Troilus  and 
Cressida,"  a  free  translation,  probably,  from  Boccaccio  ;  and  the 
"  Legend  of  Good  Women,"  founded  on  Ovid's  Epistles.  The 
poetical  immortality  of  Chaucer  rests  on  his  "  Canterbury  Tales," 
a  series  of  stories  linked  together  by  an  ingenious  device.  A 
party  of  about  thirty  persons,  the  poet  being  one,  are  bound  on 
a  pilgrimage  to  the  tomb  of  Thomas  a  Becket,  at  Canterbury ; 
each  person  is  to  tell  two  tales,  one  in  going,  and  the  other  in 
returning.  Twenty-four  only  of  the  stories  are  related,  but  they 
extend  to  more  than  17,000  lines.  In  the  prologue,  itself  a  poem 
of  great  merit,  the  poet  draws  up  the  curtain  from  a  scene  of  life 
and  manners  which  has  not  been  surpassed  in  subsequent  litera- 
ture, a  picture  whose  figures  have  been  studied  with  the  truest 
observation,  and  are  outlined  with  the  firmest,  yet  most  delicate 
pencil.  The  vein  of  sentiment  in  these  tales  is  always  unaffected, 
cheerful,  and  manly,  the  most  touching  seriousness  varying  with 
the  keenest  humor.  In  some  the  tone  rises  to  the  highest  flight 
of  heroic,  reflective,  and  even  religious  poetry;  while  in  others  it 
sinks  below  coarseness  into  positive  licentiousness  of  thought  and 
sentiment. 

LITERATURE  IN  THE  FIFTEENTH  CEXTTTRY.  —  The  fifteenth 
century,  usually  marked  in  continental  history  as  the  epoch  of 
the  Revival  of  Classical  Learning,  was  not  in  England  a  period 
of  erudition  or  of  original  invention.  The  unwise  and  unjust 
wars  with  France,  the  revolts  of  the  populace,  and  the  furious 


470       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

struggles  between  the  partisans  of  the  rival  houses  desolated  the 
country,  and  blighted  and  dwarfed  all  intellectual  growth.  For 
more  than  a  hundred  years  after  the  death  of  Chaucer,  scarcely 
any  names  of  mark  distinguish  the  literary  annals  of  England, 
and  the  poetical  compositions  of  this  period  are  principally  valu- 
able as  specimens  of  the  rapid  transition  of  the  language  into 
modern  English.  Almost  all  the  literary  productions  previous 
to  the  time  of  Chaucer  were  designed  only  for  a  limited  audi- 
ence. Neither  comprehensive  observation  of  society  nor  a  wish 
to  instruct  or  please  a  wide  circle  of  readers  was  observable  be- 
fore this  period.  Chaucer  was  indeed  a  national  poet,  an  active 
and  enlightened  teacher  of  all  classes  of  men  who  were  suscepti- 
ble of  literary  instruction. 

John  Lydgate  (d.  1430),  a  Benedictine  monk,  the  best  and 
most  popular  poet  of  the  fifteenth  century,  began  to  write  before 
the  death  of  Chaucer,  but  in  passing  from  the  works  of  the  latter 
to  those  of  Lydgate,  we  seem  to  be  turning  from  the  open  high- 
way into  the  dark,  echoing  cloisters.  If  he  was  the  pupil  of 
Chaucer  in  manner  and  style,  his  masters  in  opinion  and  senti- 
ment were  the  compilers  of  the  "  Gesta  Romanorum." 

Stephen  Hawes,  who  wrote  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.,  is  the 
author  of  "  The  Pastime  of  Pleasure,"  an  allegorical  poem  in  the 
same  taste  as  the  "  Romance  of  the  Rose."  This  allegorical 
school  of  poetry,  so  widely  spread  through  the  Middle  Ages,  re- 
appears in  the  Elizabethan  age,  where  the  same  turn  of  thought 
is  seen  in  the  immortal  "  Faerie  Queene." 

In  leaving  this  period  we  bid  adieu  to  metrical  romances, 
which,  introduced  into  English  in  the  latter  half  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  continued  to  be  composed  until  the  middle  of  the  fif- 
teenth century,  and  were  to  the  last  almost  always  translations 
or  imitations.  Chivalrous  stories  next  began  to  be  related  in 
prose.  The  most  famous  of  these,  one  of  the  best  specimens  of 
Old  English,  and  the  most  delightful  of  all  repositories  of  ro- 
mantic fiction  is  the  "  Mort  Arthur,"  in  which  Sir  Thomas  Mai- 
lory,  a  priest  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.,  combined  into  one 
narrative  the  leading  adventures  of  the  Round  Table. 

As  the  romances  ceased  to  be  produced,  the  ballads  gradually 
took  their  place,  many  of  which  indeed  are  either  fragments  or 
abridgments  of  them.  The  ballad-poetry  was  to  the  popular 
audience  what  the  recital  of  the  romances  had  been  among"  the 
nobles.  The  latter  half  of  the  fifteenth  century  appears  to  have 
been  fertile  in  minstrels  and  minstrelsy.  "  Chevy  Chase,"  of 
which  Sir  Philip  Sidney  said  it  would  move  him  like  the  blast 
of  a  trumpet,  is  one  of  the  most  ancient ;  but,  according  to 
Hallam,  it  relates  to  a  totally  fictitious  event.  The  ballad  of 
"  Robin  Hood  "  had  probably  as  little  origin  in  fact. 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  471 

Towards  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  a  mighty  revolu- 
tion took  place.  William  Caxton,  a  merchant  of  London  resid- 
ing abroad,  became  acquainted  with  the  recently  invented  art  of 
printing,  and  embraced  it  as  a  profession.  He  introduced  it 
into  England  about  1474,  and  practiced  it  for  nearly  twenty 
years.  He  printed  sixty-four  works  in  all,  and  the  low  state  of 
taste  and  information  in  the  public  for  which  they  were  desig- 
nated is  indicated  by  the  selection.  But  the  enterprise  and  pa- 
tience of  Caxton  hastened  the  time  when  this  mighty  discovery 
became  available  in  England,  and  his  name  deserves  to  stand 
with  honor  at  the  close  of  the  survey  of  English  literature  in  the 
Middle  Ages.  Thenceforth  literary  works  were  to  undergo  a 
total  change  of  character,  brought  about  by  many  causes,  but 
none  more  active  than  the  substitution  of  the  printed  book  for 
the  manuscript. 

6.  THE  FOURTEENTH  AND  FIFTEENTH  CENTURIES  IN  SCOT- 
LAND. —  From  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  there  might 
be  collected  the  names  of  a  few  scholastic  theologians  of  Scottish 
birth,  whose  works  have  survived  ;  but  they  spent  their  lives 
mostly  on  the  continent,  as  was  the  case  with  Michael  Scott,  who 
gained  his  fame  as  a  wizard  at  the  court  of  the  Emperor  Fred- 
eric II.  His  extant  writings  are  wholly  inferior  to  those  of 
Friar  Bacon,  his  contemporary. 

Two  metrical  romances  of  note  belong  to  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, the  "  Original  Cronykil "  of  Andrew  Wyntoun  (d.  1420), 
a  long  history  of  Scotland,  and  of  the  world  at  large  ;  and  "  The 
Bruce  "  of  John  Barbour  (d.  1396),  a  narrative  of  the  adven- 
tures of  King  Robert  in  more  than  thirteen  thousand  rhymed 
lines.  Dramatic  vigor  and  occasional  breadth  of  sentiment  en- 
title this  poem  to  a  high  rank.  Sir  Walter  Scott,  in  his  "  Lord 
of  the  Isles,"  owes  much  to  "  The  Bruce." 

The  earliest  Scottish  poem  of  the  fifteenth  century,  "  The 
King's  Quair,"  or  Book,  in  which  James  I.  (d.  1437)  celebrates 
the  lady  whom  he  afterwards  married,  presents  no  traces  of  a 
distinct  Scottish  dialect.  But  James  was  educated  in  England, 
and  probably  wrote  there,  and  his  pleasing  poem  exhibits  the 
influence  of  those  English  writers  whom  he  acknowledges  as 
his  masters.  From  this  time,  however,  the  development  of  the 
language  of  Scotland  into  a  dialect  went  rapidly  on.  The 
'•  Vv  allace  "  of  Henry  the  Minstrel,  or  Blind  Harry,  rivaled  the 
"  Bruce  "  in  popularity,  on  account  of  the  more  picturesque  char- 
acter of  the  incidents,  its  passionate  fervor,  and  the  wildness  of 
fancy  by  which  it  is  distinguished. 

Towards  the  close  of  this  century,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the 
next,  Scottish  poetry,  now  couched  in  a  dialect  decidedly  pecul- 
iar, was  cultivated  by  men  of  high  genius.  Robert  Henryson 


472       HANDBOOK   OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

(d.  1400)  wrote  "  The  Testament  of  the  Faire  Cresside,"  a  con- 
tinuation of  Chaucer's  poem,  and  "  Robin  and  Makyne,"  a  beau- 
tiful pastoral,  preserved  in  Percy's  "  Reliques." 

More  vigorous  in  thought  and  fancy,  though  inferior  in  skill 
and  expression,  was  Gavin  Douglas,  Bishop  of  Dunkeld  (d. 
1522).  His  "  King  Hart  "  and  "  Palace  of  Honor  "  are  com- 
plex allegories  ;  and  his  translation  of  the  .ZEneid  is  the  earliest 
attempt  to  render  classical  poetry  into  the  living  language  of  the 
country. 

William  Dunbar  (d.  1520),  the  best  British  poet  of  his  age, 
exhibits  a  versatility  of  talent  which  has  rarely  been  equaled ; 
but  in  his  comic  and  familiar  pieces,  the  grossness  of  language 
and  sentiment  destroys  the  effect  of  their  force  and  humor. 
Allegory,  is  his  favorite  field.  In  his  "  Golden  Terge,"  the  tar- 
get is  Reason,  a  protection  against  the  assaults  of  love.  "  The 
Dance  of  the  Seven  .Deadly  Sins  "  is  wonderfully  striking ;  but 
the  design  even  of  this  remarkable  poem  could  not  be  decorously 
described. 

While  Scotland  thus  redeemed  the  poetical  character  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  her  living  tongue  was  used  only  in  versified 
compositions.  Scottish  prose  does  not  appear  in  any  literary 
shape  until  the  first  decade  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

PEEIOD   THIRD. 

FROM  THE  ACCESSION  or  HENRY  VIII.  TO   THE   PRESENT  TIME 
(1509-1884). 

1.  AGE  OF  THE  REFORMATION.  —  In  the  early  part  of  the 
sixteenth  century  human  intellect  began  to  be  stirred  by  im- 
pulses altogether  new,  while  others,  which  had  as  yet  been  held 
in  check,  were  allowed,  one  after  another,  to  work  freely.  But 
there  was  no  sudden  or  universal  metamorphosis  in  literature,  or 
in  those  phenomena  by  which  its  form  and  spirit  were  deter- 
mined. It  was  not  until  1568,  when  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  was 
within  thirty  years  of  its  close,  that  English  literature  assumed  a 
character  separating  it  decisively  from  that  of  the  ages  which 
had  gone  before,  and  took  its  station  as  the  worthy  organ  of  a 
new  epoch  in  the  history  of  civilization.  But  the  literary  poverty 
of  the  age  of  the  Reformation  was  the  poverty  which  the  settler 
in  a  new  country  experiences,  while  he  fells  the  woods  and  sows 
his  half-tilled  fields  ;  a  poverty,  in  the  bosom  of  which  lay  rich 
abundance. 

The  students  of  classical  learning  profited  at  first  more  than 
others  by  the  diffusion  of  the  art  of  printing,  from  the  greater 
number  of  classical  works  which  were  given  to  the  press.  For. 
eign  men  of  letters  visited  England  ;  Erasmus,  especially,  gave 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  473 

a  strong  impulse  to  study,  and  Greek  and  Latin  were  learned 
with  an  accuracy  never  before  attained.  Among  the  scholars  of 
the  time  were  Cardinals  Pole  and  Wolsey,  Ridley,  Ascham,  and 
Sir  Thomas  More,  the  author  of  the  "  Utopia,"  a  romance  in  the 
scholastic  garb.  It  describes  an  imaginary  commonwealth,  the 
chief  feature  of  which  is  a  community  of  propei-ty,  on  an  imag- 
inary island,  from  which  the  book  takes  its  name.  The  epithet 
"  Utopian  "  is  still  used  as  descriptive  of  chimerical  schemes. 

The  most  important  works  in  the  living  tongue  were  those  de- 
voted to  theology,  and  first  among  them  were  the  translations 
of  the  Scriptures  into  English,  none  of  which  had  been  publicly 
attempted  since  that  of  Wickliffe.  In  1526,  William  Tyndale 
(afterwards  strangled  and  burnt  for  heresy,  at  Antwerp),  trans- 
lated the  New  Testament,  and  the  five  books  of  Moses.  In 
1537,  after  the  final  breach  of  Henry  VIII.  with  Rome,  there 
was  published  the  first  complete  translation  of  the  Bible,  by 
Miles  Coverdale.  Many  others  followed  until  the  accession  of 
Mary,  when  the  circulation  of  the  translation  was  made  in 
secrecy  and  fear.  The  theological  writers  of  this  period  are 
chiefly  controversial.  Among  them  are  Ridley,  famous  as  a 
preacher ;  Cranmer,  remarkable  for  his  patronage  of  theologi- 
cal learning,  and  Latimer  (d.  1555),  whose  sermons  and  letters 
are  highly  instructive  and  interesting.  The  "  Book  of  Martyrs," 
by  John  Fox  (d.  1527),  was  printed  towards  the  close  of  this 
period. 

The  miscellaneous  writings  of  this  age  in  prose  are  most  valu- 
able as  specimens  of  the  language  in  its  earliest  maturity.  None 
of  them  are  entitled  to  high  rank  as  monuments  of  English  liter- 
ature. The  style  of  Sir  Thomas  More  (1480-1535)  had  great 
excellence  ;  but  his  works  were  only  the  recreation  of  an  accom- 
plished man  in  a  learned  age.  The  writings  of  the  learned 
Ascham  (1515—1565)  have  a  value  not  to  be  measured  by  their 
inconsiderable  bulk.  Their  language  is  pure,  idiomatic,  vigorous 
English ;  and  they  exhibit  a  great  variety  of  knowledge,  re- 
markable sagacity,  and  sound  common  sense.  His  most  cele- 
brated work,  the  "  Schoolmaster,"  proposes  improvements  in 
education  for  which  there  is  still  both  room  and  need.  Thomas 
Wilson,  who  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  "  Art  of  Logic "  and 
"  Rhetoric,"  may  be  considered  the  first  critical  writer  in  the 
living  tongue. 

The  poetry  of  England  during  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.  and 
his  immediate  successors  is  like  the  prose,  valuable  for  its  rela- 
tion to  other  things,  rather  than  for  its  own  merit.  Yet  it  occu- 
pies a  higher  place  than  the  prose ;  it  exhibits  a  decided  con- 
trast to  that  of  the  times  past,  and  in  many  points  bears  a  close 
resemblance  to  the  poetry  of  the  energetic  age  that  was  soon  to 
open. 


474       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

The  names  of  the  poets  of  this  age  may  be  arrayed  in  three 
groups,  headed  by  Skelton,  Surrey,  and  Sackville.  The  poems 
of  Skelton  (d.  1529)  are  singularly  though  coarsely  energetic. 
He  was  the  tutor  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  during  the  greater  part 
of  the  reign  of  his  pupil  he  continued  to  satirize  social  and 
ecclesiastical  abuses.  His  poems  are  exceedingly  curious  and 
grotesque,  and  the  volubility  with  which  he  vents  his  acrid 
humors  is  truly  surprising.  Henry  Howard,  Earl  of  Surrey 
(1516—1547),  opened  a  new  era  in  English  poetry,  and  by  his 
foreign  studies,  and  his  refinement  of  taste  and  feeling,  was  en- 
abled to  turn  poetical  literature  into  a  path  as  yet  untrodden, 
although  in  vigor  and  originality  this  ill-fated  poet  was  inferior 
to  others  who  have  been  long  forgotten.  His  works  consist  of 
sonnets  and  poems  of  a  lyrical  and  amatory  cast,  and  a  transla- 
tion of  the  .^Eneid.  He  first  introduced  the  sonnet,  and  the  re- 
fined and  sentimental  turn  of  thought  borrowed  from  Petrarch 
and  the  other  Italian  masters.  In  his  ^Eneid  he  introduced 
blank  verse,  a  form  of  versification  in  which  the  noblest  English 
poetry  has  since  been  couched.  This  was  also  taken  from  Italy, 
where  it  had  appeared  only  in  the  century.  Surrey's  versions  of 
some  of  the  Psalms,  and  those  of  his  contemporary,  Sir  Thomas 
Wyatt,  are  the  most  polished  of  the  many  similar  attempts  made 
at  that  time,  among  which  was  the  collection  of  Sternhold  and 
Hopkins. 

Thomas  Sackville,  Lord  Buckhurst  (1686—1608)  wrote  those 
portions  most  worthy  of  notice,  of  the  "  Mirror  for  Magis- 
trates," a  collection  of  poems  celebrating  illustrious  but  unfor- 
tunate personages  who  figure  in  the  history  of  England.  From 
his  "  Induction,"  or  preparatory  poem,  later  writers  have  drawn 
many  suggestions. 

The  dramatic  exhibitions  of  the  Middle  Ages,  which  origi- 
nated in  the  church,  or  were  soon  appropriated  by  the  clergy, 
were  of  a  religious  cast,  often  composed  by  priests  and  monks 
who  were  frequently  the  performers  of  them  in  the  convents.  All 
the  old  religious  plays  called  Mysteries  were  divided  into  Mira- 
cles, or  Miracle  plays,  founded  on  Bible  narratives  or  legends 
of  the  saints ;  and  Moralities  or  Moral  plays,  which  arose  out  of 
the  former  by  the  introduction  of  imaginary  features  and  alle- 
gorical personages,  the  story  being  so  constructed  as  to  convey 
an  ethical  or  religious  lesson.  They  became  common  in  England 
about  the  time  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  (1422-1461).  Some 
of  the  Miracle  plays  treated  of  all  the  events  of  Bible  history, 
from  the  Creation  to  the  Day  of  Judgment ;  they  were  acted  on 
festivals,  and  the  performance  often  lasted  more  than  one  day. 
The  most  sacred  things  are  here  treated  with  undue  freedom, 
and  the  broadest  and  coarsest  mirth  is  introduced  to  keep  the 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  475 

attention  of  the  rude  audience.  Many  of  them  had  a  character 
called  Iniquity,  whose  avowed  function  was  that  of  buffoonery. 
The  Mysteries  were  not  entirely  overthrown  by  the  Reforma- 
tion, the  Protestant  Bishop  Bale  having  composed  several,  in- 
tended to  instruct  the  people  in  the  errors  of  popery.  After  the 
time  of  Henry  VIII.  these  plays  are  known  by  the  name  of 
Interludes,  the  most  celebrated  of  which  are  those  by  John 
Heywood  (the  epigrammatist).  They  deal  largely  in  satire,  and 
are- not  devoid  of  spirit  and  humor.  But  they  have  little  skill 
in  character-painting,  and  little  interest  in  the  story. 

About  the  middle  of  the  century  (sixteenth)  the  drama  extri- 
cated itself  completely  from  its  ancient  fetters,  and  both  comedy 
and  tragedy  began  to  exist  in  a  rude  reality.  The  oldest  known 
comedy  was  written  by  Nicholas  Udall  (d.  1556) ;  it  has  the 
title  of  "  Ralph  Roister  Doister,"  a  personage  whose  misadven- 
tures are  represented  with  much  comic  force. 

Ten  years  later  the  earliest  tragedy,  known  by  two  names, 
"  Gorboduc  "  and  "  Ferrex  and  Porrex,"  was  publicly  played  in 
the  Lower  Temple.  It  is  founded  on  the  traditions  of  fabulous 
British  history,  and  is  believed  to  have  been  written  by  Thomas 
Norton  and  Lord  Buckhurst.  The  chief  merit  of  this  earliest 
English  tragedy  lies  in  its  stately  language  and  solemnly  reflec- 
tive tone  of  sentiment. 

2.  THE  AGE  OF  SPENSER,  SHAKSPEARE,  BACON,  AND  MILTON 
(1558-1660). — The  prose  of  this  illustrious  period  is  vast  in 
amount  and  various  in  range.  The  study  of  the  Oriental  lan- 
guages and  other  pursuits  bearing  on  theology  were  prosecuted 
with  success,  and  many  of  the  philosophical  and  polemical  writ- 
ings were  composed  in  Latin.  A  second  series  of  translations 
of  the  Scriptures  were  among  the  most  important  works  of  the 
time.  The  first  of  the  three  versions  which  now  appeared 
(1560),  came  from  a  knot  of  English  and  Scotch  exiles  who 
sought  refuge  in  Geneva,  and  their  work,  known  as  the  Geneva 
Bible,  though  not  adopted  by  the  Church  of  England,  long  con- 
tinued in  favor  with  the  English  Puritans  and  Scotch  Presbyte- 
rians. Cranmer's  version  was  next  revised  (1568)  under  the 
superintendence  of  Matthew  Parker,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
eminent  among  the  fathers  of  the  English  church,  and  called 
the  Bishops'  Bible,  a  majority  of  fifteen  translators  having  been 
selected  from  the  bench.  The  Catholic  version,  known  as  the 
Douay  Bible,  appeared  in  1610.  Our  current  translation,  which 
also  appeared  in  1610,  during  the  reign  of  James  I.,  occupied 
forty-seven  learned  men,  assisted  by  other  eminent  scholars,  for 
a  period  of  three  years. 

Among  theological  writings,  the  "  Ecclesiastical  Polity "  of 
Hooker  (1553-1600)  is  a  striking  effort  of  philosophical  think- 


476       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

ing,  and  in  point  of  eloquence  one  of  the  noblest  monuments  of 
the  language.  More  than  Ciceronian  in  its  fullness  and  dignity 
of  style,  it  wears  with  all  its  richness  a  sober  majesty  which  is 
equally  admirable  and  rare.  The  sermons  of  Bishop  Andrews 
(1565-1626),  though  corrupt  as  models  of  style,  made  an  ex- 
traordinary impression,  and  contain  more  than  any  other  works 
of  the  kind  the  inwrought  materials  of  oratory.  The  sermons  of 
Donne  (1573—1631),  while  they  are  superior  in  style,  are  some- 
times fantastic,  like  his  poetry,  but  they  are  never  coarse,  and 
they  derive  a  touching  interest  from  his  history. 

But  the  most  eloquent  of  all  the  old  English  divines  are  the 
two  celebrated  prelates  of  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  Joseph  Hall 
(1574-1656)  and  Jeremy  Taylor  (1613-1671),  alike  eminent 
for  Christian  piety  and  conscientious  zeal.  Besides  his  pulpit  dis- 
courses, Bishop  Hall  has  left  a  series  of  "  Contemplations  "  on 
passages  of  the  Bible,  and  "  Meditations,"  which  are  particu- 
larly rich  in  beautiful  descriptions.  Among  the  most  practical 
and  popular  of  Taylor's  works  are  his  "  Holy  Living "  and 
"  Holy  Dying,"  while  his  sermons  distinguish  him  as  one  of  the 
great  ornaments  of  the  English  pulpit.  The  chief  theologian  of 
the  close  of  the  period  was  Richard  Baxter  (1615-1691).  His 
works  have  great  value  for  their  originality  and  acuteness  of 
thought,  and  for  their  vigorous  and  passionate  though  unpolished 
eloquence.  His  "  Call  to  the  Unconverted  "  and  "  The  Saint's 
Everlasting  Rest  "  deserve  their  wide  popularity.  Among  the 
semi-theological  writers  of  the  time  are  Fuller,  Cudworth,  and 
Henry  More.  Fuller  (1608-1661)  is  most  widely  known  through 
his  "  Worthies  of  England,"  a  book  of  lively  and  observant  gos- 
sip. Cudworth  and  More,  his  contemporaries,  deviated  in  their 
philosophical  writings  from  the  tendencies  cf  Bacon  and  the 
sensualistic  doctrines  of  Hobbes,  and  regarded  existence  rather 
from  the  spiritual  point  of  view  of  Plato ;  in  the  preceding  gen- 
eration, the  skepticism  of  Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury  taught  a 
different  lesson  from  theirs. 

In  this  period  we  encounter  in  the  philosophical  field  two  of 
the  strongest  thinkers  who  have  appeared  in  modern  Europe, 
Bacon  and  Hobbes.  Bacon  (1561-1620)  aimed  at  the  solution 
of  two  great  problems,  the  answers  to  which  were  intended  to 
constitute  the  "  Instauratio  Magna,"  the  great  Restoration  of 
Philosophy,  that  colossal  work,  towards  which  the  chief  writings 
of  this  illustrous  author  were  contributions.  The  first  problem 
was  an  Analytic  Classification  of  all  departments  of  Human 
Knowledge,  which  occupies  a  portion  of  his  treatise  "On  the 
Advancement  of  Learning."  Imperfect  and  erroneous  as  his 
scheme  may  be  allowed  to  be,  D'Alembert  and  his  coadjutors  in 
the  last  century  were  able  to  do  no  more  than  to  copy  and  dis- 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  477 

tort  it.  In  his  "  Novum  Organum  "  he  undertakes  to  supply 
certain  deficiencies  of  the  Aristotelian  system  of  logic,  and  ex- 
pounds his  mode  of  philosophizing ;  he  was  the  first  to  unfold 
the  inductive  method,  which  he  did  in  so  masterly  a  way,  that  he 
has  earned,  with  posterity,  the  title  of  the  father  of  experimental 
science.  His  "  Essays,"  from  the  excellence  of  their  style  and 
the  interesting  nature  of  the  subjects,  are  the  most  generally 
read  of  all  the  author's  productions.  No  English  writer  sur- 
passes Bacon  in  fervor  and  brilliancy  of  style,  in  force  of  expres- 
sion, or  in  richness  and  significance  of  imagery.  His  writings, 
though  they  received  during  his  lifetime  the  neglect  for  which 
he  had  proudly  prepared  himself,  gave  a  mighty  impulse  to  sci- 
entific thought  for  at  least  a  century  after  his  time.  In  his  will, 
the  following  strikingly  prophetic  passage  is  found :  "  My  name 
and  memory  I  leave  to  foreign  nations,  and  to  mine  own  coun- 
try, after  some  time  is  passed  over." 

The  influence  of  Hobbes  on  philosophy  in  England  has  been 
greater  than  that  of  Bacon.  In  politics,  his  theory  is  that  of 
uncontrolled  absolutism,  subjecting  religion  and  morality  to  the 
will  of  the  sovereign ;  in  ethics  he  resolves  all  our  impulses  re- 
garding right  and  wrong  into  self-love.  His  reasoning  is  close 
and  consistent,  and  if  his  premises  are  granted,  it  is  hardly  pos- 
sible to  avoid  his  conclusions.  Other  departments  in  the  prose 
literature  of  this  period  were  amply  filled  and  richly  adorned. 
Speculations  upon  the  Theory  of  Society  and  Civil  Polity  were 
frequent.  Among  them  are  the  Latin  works  of  Bellenden  "  On 
the  State,"  the  "  New  Atlantis,"  a  romance  by  Lord  Bacon,  the 
"  Oceana  "  of  Harrington,  and  the  "  Leviathan  "  of  Hobbes. 

In  the  collection  of  materials  fo?  natio/ial  history  the  period 
was  exceedingly  active.  Camden  and  Selden  stand  at  the  head 
of  the  band  of  antiquaries.  Hobbes  wrote  in  his  old  age  "  Be- 
hemoth, or  a  History  of  the  Civil  Wars,"  and  the  "  Turkish  His- 
tory "  of  Knolles  has  been  pronounced  one  of  the  most  spirited 
narratives  in  the  language. 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh  (1552-1618),  while  lying  in  the  Tower 
under  sentence  of  death,  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  World,"  from 
the  Creation  to  the  Republic  of  Rome.  The  narrative  is  spirited 
and  pervaded  by  a  tone  of  devout  sentiment. 

The  accomplished  Sir  Philip  Sidney  (1554-1586),  in  his 
"  Defense  of  Poesy,"  pays  an  eloquent  tribute  to  the  value  of 
the  most  powerful  of  all  the  literary  arts.  His  "  Arcadia  "  is  a 
ponderous  combination  of  romantic  and  pastoral  incidents,  the 
unripe  production  of  a  young  poet,  but  it  abounds  in  isolated 
passages  beautiful  alike  in  sentiment  and  language. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  period,  Milton  manifested  extraordi- 
nary power  in  prose  writing ;  his  defense  of  the  "  Liberty  of 


478       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

Unlicensed  Printing "  is  one  of  the  most  impressive  pieces  ol 
eloquence  in  the  English  tongue.  His  style  is  more  Latinized 
than  that  of  most  of  his  contemporaries,  and  this  exotic  infection 
pervades  both  his  terms  and  his  arrangement ;  yet  he  has  passages 
marvelously  sweet,  and  others  in  which  the  grand  sweep  of  his 
sentences  emulates  the  cathedral  music  of  Hooker. 

The  press  now  began  to  pour  forth  shoals  of  short  novels, 
romances,  and  essays,  and  pamphlets  on  various  subjects. 
Among  other  productions  is  Burton's  "  Anatomy  of  Melan- 
choly," a  storehouse  of  odd  learning  and  quaintly-original  ideas ; 
it  is  deficient,  however,  in  style  and  power  of  consecutive  rea- 
soning. Far  above  Burton  in  eloquence  and  strength  of  thought 
is  Sir  Thomas  Browne  (1605-1682),  whose  writings  have  all 
the  characteristics  of  the  age  in  a  state  of  extravagant  exaggera- 
tion. The  thoughtful  melancholy,  the  singular  mixture  of  skep- 
ticism and  credulity,  and  the  brilliancy  of  imaginative  illustra- 
tion, give  his  essays  a  peculiarity  of  character  that  renders  them 
exceedingly  fascinating.  The  poet  Cowley,  in  his  prose  writings, 
is  distinguished  for  his  undeviating  simplicity  and  perspicuity, 
and  for  smoothness  and  ease,  of  which  hardly  another  instance 
could  be  produced  from  any  other  book  written  before  the  Res- 
toration. 

The  English  drama  has  been  called  Irregular  in  contrast  to 
the  Regular  drama  of  Greece  and  that  of  modern  France, 
founded  upon  the  Greek,  by  the  French  critics  of  the  age  of 
Louis  XIV.  The  principal  law  of  this  system,  as  we  have  seen, 
prescribed  obedience  to  the  Three  Unities,  of  Time,  of  Place, 
and  of  Action ;  the  two  first  being  founded  on  the  desire  to  imi- 
tate in  the  drama  the  series  of  events  which  it  represents,  the 
time  of  action  was  allowed  to  extend  to  twenty-four  hours,  and 
the  scene  to  change  from  place  to  place  in  the  same  city.  But 
by  Shakspeare  and  his  contemporaries  no  fixed  limits  were  ac- 
knowledged in  regard  either  of  time  or  place,  the  action  stretch- 
ing through  many  years,  and  the  scene  changing  to  very  wide 
distances.  The  rule  prescribing  unity  of  action,  that  everything 
shall  be  subordinate  to  the  series  of  events  which  is  taken  as  the 
guiding-thread,  is  a  much  more  sound  one  ;  and  in  most  of  Shak- 
speare's  works,  as  well  as  those  of  his  contemporaries,  this  unity 
of  impression,  as  it  has  been  called,  is  fully  preserved. 

Before  the  year  1585  no  perceptible  advance  had  been  made 
in  the  drama,  and  for  the  period  of  sixty  years,  from  that  date 
to  the  closing  of  the  theatres  in  1645,  on  the  breaking  out  of 
the  Civil  War,  the  history  of  Shakspeare's  works  forms  the  lead- 
ing thread.  Men  of  eminent  genius  lived  around  and  after  him, 
but  there  were  none  who  do  not  derive  much  of  their  importance 
from  the  relation  in  which  they  stand  to  him,  and  hardly  any 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  479 

whose  works  do  not  owe  much  of  their  excellence  to  the  influ- 
ence of  his. 

Thus  considered,  the  stages  through  which  the  drama  now 
passed  may  be  said  to  have  been  four,  three  of  which  occurred 
chiefly  during  the  life  of  the  poet,  the  fourth  after  his  death. 
The  first  of  these  periods  witnessed  the  early  manhood  of  Shak- 
speare,  and  closes  about  1593.  Among  his  immediate  prede- 
cessors and  coadjutors  were  Marlowe  and  Greene.  The  plays 
of  Marlowe  (1562-1593)  are  stately  tragedies,  serious  in  pur- 
pose, energetic  and  often  extravagant  in  passion  and  in  language, 
and  richly  and  pompously  imaginative.  His  "  Tragical  History 
of  Doctor  Faustus  "  is  one  of  the  finest  poems  in  the  language. 
The  productions  of  Greene  are  loose,  legendary  plays  of  a  form 
exemplified  in  Cymbeline. 

To  the  first  period  of  the  dramatic  life  of  Shakspeare  (1564- 
1616)  belong  the  "  Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona,"  the  "  Comedy 
of  Errors,"  and  "  Love's  Labor  's  Lost,"  which  show  that  the 
mighty  master,  even  in  these  juvenile  essays,  had  taken  a  wide 
step  beyond  the  dramas  of  the  time.  Pure  comedy  had  no  ex- 
istence in  England  until  he  created  it,  and  in  these  comedies  it 
is  evident  that  everything  is  juvenile,  unripe,  and  marvelously 
unlike  the  grand  pictures  of  life  which  he  soon  afterwards  began 
to  paint.  But  if  he  was  more  than  a  student  in  this  first  stage 
of  his  progress,  he  was  a  teacher  and  model  ever  after.  The 
second  period  for  Shakspeare  and  the  drama  closes  with  the 
year  1600.  During  this  most  active  part  of  his  literary  life,  he 
produced  eight  comedies,  and  re-wrote  "  Romeo  and  Juliet." 
But  the  most  elevated  works  of  these  six  years  were  his  magnif- 
icent series  of  historical  plays.  The  series  after  1600  began 
with  the  great  tragedies,  Othello,  Hamlet  (recomposed),  Mac- 
beth, and  Lear,  followed  by  Henry  VIII.,  the  three  tragedies 
on  Roman  subjects,  and  the  three  singular  pieces,  "  Timon  of 
Athens,"  "  Troilns  and  Cressida,"  and  "  Measure  for  Measure," 
apparently  of  the  same  date.  "  Cymbeline  "  and  the  "  Winter's 
Tale  "  were  probably  composed  after  he  had  retired  from  the 
turmoil  of  his  profession  to  the  repose  of  his  early  home.  In 
the  "  Tempest,"  doubtless  his  last  work,  he  peopled  his  haunted 
island  with  a  group  of  beings  whose  conception  indicates  a  greater 
variety  of  imagination,  and  in  some  points  a  greater  depth  of 
thought  than  any  others  which  he  has  bequeathed  to  us. 

The  name  of  Shakspeare  is  the  greatest  in  all  literatui'e.  No 
man  ever  came  near  him  in  creative  power  — ^no  man  had  ever 
such  strength  combined  with  such  variety  of  imagination.  Of 
all  authors,  he  is  the  most  natural  in  his  style,  and  yet  there  is 
none  whose  words  are  so  musical  in  arrangement,  so  striking 
and  picturesque  in  themselves,  or  contain  so  many  thoughts. 


480       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

Every  page  furnishes  instances  of  that  intensifying  of  expres- 
sion, where  some  happy  word  conveys  a  whole  train  of  ideas 
condensed  into  a  single  luminous  point  —  words  so  new,  so  full 
of  meaning,  yet  so  unforced  and  natural,  that  the  rudest  mind 
intuitively  perceives  their  meaning,  and  yet  which  no  study 
could  improve  or  imitate.  This  constitutes  the  most  striking 
peculiarity  of  the  Shakspearean  language,  and  while  it  justifies 
the  almost  idolatrous  veneration  of  his  countrymen,  renders  him, 
of  all  writers,  the  most  untranslatable.  Of  all  authors,  Shak- 
speare  has  least  imitated  or  repeated  himself.  While  he  gives 
us,  in  many  places,  portraits  of  the  same  passion,  the  delinea- 
tions are  as  distinct  and  dissimilar  as  they  are  in  nature ;  all  his 
personages  involuntarily,  and  in  spite  of  themselves,  express 
their  own  characters.  From  his  works  may  be  gleaned  a  com- 
plete collection  of  precepts  adapted  to  every  condition  of  life 
and  every  conceivable  circumstance  of  human  affairs.  His  wit 
is  unbounded,  his  passion  inimitable,  and  over  all  he  has  thrown 
a  halo  of  human  sympathy  no  less  tender  than  his  genius  was 
immeasurable  and  profound. 

The  effect  of  Shakspeare's  influence  on  his  contemporaries 
was  predominating  in  everything  but  the  moral  aspect  of  his 
plays.  The  licentiousness,  begun  in  the  earlier  years  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century,  increased  with  accelerated  speed  down  to  the 
closing  of  the  theatres  by  the  Civil  War. 

Highest  by  far,  in  poetical  and  dramatic  value,  stand  the  works 
of  Beaumont  (1586-1615)  and  Fletcher  (1576-1625).  Many 
of.  them  are  said  to  have  been  written  by  the  two  jointly,  a  few 
by  the  former  alone,  and  a  large  number  by  the  latter  after  he 
had  lost  his  friend  ;  such  alliances  in  dramatic  poetry  were  com- 
mon in  England  at  this  period.  But  the  looseness  of  fancy  which 
deformed  the  drama,  and  which  degenerated  at  last  into  delib- 
erate licentiousness,  is  nowhere  so  glaring  as  in  these  finest  and 
most  imaginative  productions  of  their  day,  and  which  are  poet- 
ically superior  to  all  of  the  kind  in  the  language,  except  those  of 
Shakspeare. 

The  classical  model  was  closely  approached  by  Ben  Jonson 
(1574-1637)  in  both  tragedy  and  comedy,  and  he  deserves  im- 
mortality for  other  reasons  than  his  comparative  purity  of  mor- 
als. He  was  the  one  man  of  his  time  besides  Shakspeare  who 
deserves  to  be  called  a  reflective  artist,  who  perceived  the  rules 
of  art  and  worked  in  obedience  to  them.  His  tragedies  are 
stately,  eloquent,  and  poetical ;  his  comedies  are  more  faithful 
poetic  portraits  of  contemporary  English  life  than  those  of  any 
other  dramatist,  Shakspeare  excepted. 

Jonson  wrote  for  men  of  sense  and  knowledge  ;  Beaumont 
and  Fletcher  for  men  of  fashion  and  the  world.  A  similar  au- 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  481 

dience  to  that  of  Jonson  may  have  been  aimed  at  in  the  stately 
tragedies  of  Chapman,  and  the  othor  class  would  have  relished 
the  plays  of  Middleton  and  Webster. 

Among  the  dramatists  of  the  commonalty  may  be  named 
Thomas  Heywood,  one  of  the  most  moral  play  writers  of  his 
time,  who  has  sometimes  been  called  the  prose  Shakspeare,  and 
Decker,  a  voluminous  writer,  who  cooperated  in  several  plays  of 
more  celebrated  men,  especially  those  of  Massinger. 

The  closing  period  of  the  old  English  drama  is  represented  by 
Massinger,  Ford,  and  Shirley.  Massinger  (1584-1640)  is  by 
some  critics  ranked  next  to  Shakspeare.  The  theatres  have  re- 
tained unaltered  his  "  New  Way  to  Pay  Old  Debts,"  and  his 
"  Fatal  Dowry  "  is  preserved  in  Rowe's  plagiarism  from  it,  in 
the  "  Fair  Penitent.''  But  the  low  moral  tone  of  the  time  is  in- 
dicated in  all  these  works,  in  which  heroic  sentiments,  rising 
often  even  to  religious  rapture,  are  mingled  with  scenes  of  the 
grossest  ribaldry. 

By  Ford,  incidents  of  the  most  revolting  kind  are  laid  down 
as  the  foundation  of  his  plots,  upon  which  he  wastes  a  pathos 
and  tenderness  deeper  than  is  elsewhere  found  in  the  drama ; 
and  with  Shirley  vice  is  no  longer  held  up  as  a  mere  picture, 
but  it  is  indicated,  and  sometimes  directly  recommended,  as  a 
fit  example.  When  the  drama  was  at  length  suppressed,  the 
act  destroyed  a  moral  nuisance. 

Spenser  (1553-1599),  among  the  English  poets,  stands  lower 
only  than  Shakspeare,  Chaucer,  and  Milton.  His  works  unite 
rare  genius  with  moral  purity,  exquisite  sweetness  of  language, 
luxuriant  beauty  of  imagination,  and  a  tenderness  of  feeling 
rarely  surpassed,  and  never  elsewhere  conjoined  with  an  imagi- 
nation so  vivid.  His  magnificent  poem,  the  "  Faerie  Qneene," 
though  it  contains  many  thousand  lines,  is  yet  incomplete,  no 
more  than  half  of  the  original  design  being  executed.  The  dic- 
tion is  studded  purposely  with  forms  of  expression  already  be- 
come antiquated,  and  many  peculiarities  are  forced  upon  the 
author  from  the  difficulties  of  the  complex  measure  which  he 
was  the  first  to  adopt,  and  which  still  bears  his  name. 

The  Fairy  Land  of  Spenser  is  rather  the  Land  of  Chivalry 
than  the  region  we  are  accustomed  to  understand  by  that  term ; 
a  scene  in  which  heroic  daring  and  ideal  purity  are  the  objects 
chiefly  presented  to  our  imagination,  in  which  the  principal  per- 
sonages are  knights  achieving  perilous  adventures,  ladies  rescued 
from  frightful  miseries,  and  good  and  evil  enchanters,  whose 
spells  affect  the  destiny  of  those  human  persons.  Spenser  would 
probably  not  have  written  precisely  as  he  did,  if  Ariosto  had  not 
written  before  him,  nor  is  it  unlikely  that  he  was  also  guided  by 
the  later  example  of  Tasso ;  but  his  design  was  in  many  features 
31 


482       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

nobler  and  more  arduous  than  that  of  either.  His  deep  serious- 
ness is  unlike  the  mocking  tone  of  the  "  Orlando  Furioso,"  and 
in  his  moral  enthusiasm  he  rises  higher  than  the  "  Jerusalem  ; " 
although  the  poetic  effect  of  his  work  is  marred  by  his  design 
of  producing  a  series  of  ethical  allegories. 

The  hero  is  the  chivalrous  Arthur  of  the  British  legends,  but 
wrapt  in  a  cloud  of  symbols.  Gloriana,  the  Faerie  Queene,  who 
was  to  be  the  object  of  the  prince's  warmest  love,  was  herself 
an  emblem  of  Virtuous  Renown,  and  designed  also  to  represent 
the  poet's  queen,  Elizabeth.  All  the  incidents  are  significant -©f 
moral  truth,  and  all  the  personages  are  allegorical.  The  adven- 
tures of  the  characters,  connected  by  no  tie,  except  the  occasional 
interposition  of  Arthur,  form  really  six  independent  poetic  tales. 
The  First  Book,  by  far  the  finest  of  all,  relates  the  Legend  of 
the  Red  Cross  Knight,  who  is  a  type  of  Holiness,  and  who  shad- 
ows forth  the  history  of  the  Church  of  England.  In  the  second, 
which  abounds  in  exquisite  painting  of  picturesque  landscapes, 
we  have  the  Legend  of  Sir  Guyon,  illustrating  the  virtue  of 
Temperance.  The  theme  of  the  Third  Book  is  the  Legend  of 
Britomart,  or  of  Chastity,  in  which  we  are  introduced  to  Bel- 
phoebe  and  Amoret,  two  of  those  beautiful  female  characters 
which  the  poet  takes  such  pleasure  in  delineating.  Next  comes 
the  Legend  of  Friendship,  personified  in  the  knights  Cambel  and 
Triamond.  In  the  Fifth  Book,  containing  the  Legends  of  Sir 
Artegal,  the  emblem  of  Justice,  there  is  a  perceptible  falling  off. 
The  Sixth  Book,  the  Legend  of  Sir  Calidore,  or  Courtesy,  though 
it  lacks  unity,  is  in  some  scenes  inspired  with  the  warmest  glow 
of  fancy. 

The  mind  of  Spenser  embraced  a  vast  range  of  imaginary  cre- 
ation, but  the  interest  of  real  life  is  wanting.  His  world  is  ideal, 
abstract,  and  remote,  yet  affording  in  its  multiplied  scenes  ample 
scope  for  those  nobler  feelings  and  heroic  virtues  which  we  love 
to  see  even  in  transient  connection  with  human  nature. 

The  non-dramatic  poets  of  this  time  begin  with  Spenser  and 
end  with  Milton,  and  between  these  two  there  were  writers  of 
great  excellence.  The  vice  of  the  age  was  a  laboring  after  con- 
ceits or  novel  turns  of  thought,  usually  false,  and  resting  upon 
some  equivocation  of  language  or  remote  analogy.  No  poet  of 
the  time  was  free  from  it ;  Shakspeare  indulged  in  it  occasionally, 
others  incessantly,  holding  its  manifestations  to  be  their  finest 
strokes  of  art. 

The  poetical  works  of  this  age  were  metrical  translations  from 
the  classics  —  narrative,  historical,  descriptive,  didactic,  pastoral, 
and  lyrical  poems.  One  of  the  most  beautiful  religious  poems  in 
any  language  is  "  Christ's  Victory  and  Triumph,"  by  Giles 
Fletcher  (d.  1623) ;  it  is  animated  in  narrative,  lively  in  fancy, 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  483 

and  touching  in  feeling.  Drayton  (d.  1631)  was  the  author  of 
the  "  Poly-Olbion,"  a  topographical  description  of  England,  and 
a  signal  instance  of  fine  fancy  and  great  command  of  language, 
almost  thrown  away  from  its  prosaic  design.  Fulke  Greville 
(Lord  Brooke),  the  friend  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  exhibits  great 
powers  of  philosophical  thought,  in  pointed  and  energetic  diction, 
in  his  poem  on  "  Human  Learning."  Among  the  religious  poets 
are  "Holy  George  Herbert"  (d.  1632),  who,  by  his  life  and 
writings,  presented  the  belief  and  offices  of  the  church  in  their 
most  amiable  aspect,  and  Quarles  (d.  1644),  best  known  by  his 
"  Divine  Emblems,"  which  abound  in  quaint  and  grotesque  illus- 
trations. 

The  lyrical  poems  of  the  time  were  numerous,  and  were  writ- 
ten by  almost  all  the  poets  eminent  in  other  departments.  In 
those  of  Donne,  in  spite  of  their  conceits  and  affectations,  are 
many  passages  wonderfully  fine.  Those  of  Herrick  (b.  1591), 
in  graceful  fancy  and  delicate  expression,  are  many  of  them  un- 
surpassed ;  in  subject  and  tone  they  vary  from  grossly  licentious 
expression  to  the  utmost  warmth  of  devout  aspiration.  Cowley 
(1618-1667),  the  latest  and  most  celebrated  of  the  lyric  poets, 
was  gifted  with  extraordinary  poetic  sensibility  and  fancy,  but  he 
was  prone  to  strained  analogies  and  unreal  refinements.  Among 
the  minor  lyrical  poets  are  Carew,  Ayton,  Habington,  Suckling, 
and  Lovelace.  Denham  (1615-1668)  and  Waller  (1605-1687) 
form  a  sort  of  link  between  the  time  before  the  Restoration  and 
that  Avhich  followed.  The  "  Cooper's  Hill "  of  the  first  is  a  re- 
flective and  descriptive  poem  in  heroic  verse,  and  the  diversified 
poems  of  the  last  were  remarkable  advances  in  ease  and  correct- 
ness of  diction  and  versification. 

The  poetry  of  that  imaginative  period  which  began  with  Spen- 
ser closes  yet  more  nobly  with  Milton  (1608-1674).  He,  stand- 
ing in  some  respects  apart  from  his  stern  contemporaries  of  the 
Commonwealth  as  from  those  who  debased  literature  in  the  age 
of  the  Restoration,  yet  belongs  rather  to  the  older  than  the  newer 
period.  In  the  midst  of  evil  men  and  the  gloom  of  evil  days  the 
brooding  thought  of  a  great  poetical  work  was  at  length  matured, 
and  the  Christian  epic,  chanted  at  first  when  there  were  few  dis- 
posed to  hear,  became  an  enduring  monument  of  genius,  learning, 
and  art.  His  early  poems  alone  would  indicate  his  superiority 
to  all  the  poets  of  the  period,  except  Shakspeare  and  Spenser. 
The  most  popular  of  them,  "  L' Allegro  "  and  "  II  Penseroso," 
are  the  best  of  their  kind  in  any  language.  In  the  "  Comus  " 
there  are  passages  exquisite  for  imagination,  for  sentiment,  and 
for  the  musical  flow  of  the  rhythm,  in  which  the  majestic  swell 
of  the  poet's  later  blank  verse  begins  to  be  heard.  The  "  Para- 
dise Regained "  abounds  with  passages  in  themselves  beautiful, 


484       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

but  the  plan  is  poorly  conceived,  and  the  didactic  tendency  pre- 
vails to  weariness  as  the  work  proceeds.  The  theme  of  the  u  Par- 
adise Lost "  is  the  noblest  of  any  ever  chosen.  The  stately 
march  of  its  diction ;  the  organ  peal  with  which  its  versification 
rolls  on  ;  the  continual  overflowing  of  beautiful  illustrations  ;  the 
brightly-colored  pictures  of  human  happiness  and  innocence  ;  the 
melancholy  grandeur  with  which  angelic  natures  are  clothed  in 
their  fall,  are  features  which  give  the  mind  images  and  feelings 
not  soon  or  easily  effaced. 

3.  THK  AGE  OF  THE  RESTORATION  AND  THE  REVOLUTION 
(1660-1702).  —  Among  the  able  churchmen  who  passed  from 
the  troubles  of  the  Commonwealth  and  Protectorate  to  the  Res- 
toration were  Jeremy  Taylor,  Archbishop  Leighton,  and  others 
of  eminence.  South,  Tillotson,  and  Barrow  were  more  able  the- 
ologians, but  their  writings  lack  the  charm  of  sentiment  which 
Leighton's  warmth  of  heart  diffuses  over  all  his  works.  South 
(d.  1716)  was  a  man  of  remarkable  oratorical  endowments,  sar- 
castic, intolerant,  and  fierce  in  polemical  attacks.  The  writings 
of  Tillotson  (d.  1694)  are  pervaded  by  a  higher  and  better  spirit, 
and  the  sermons  of  Barrow  (d.  1677)  combine  comprehensive- 
ness, sagacity,  and  clearness.  Other  divines,  such  as  Stillingfleet, 
Pearson,  Burnet,  Bull,  hold  a  more  prominent  place  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  church  than  in  that  of  letters.  But  all  the  writers  of 
this  age  are  wanting  in  that  impressiveness  and  force  of  undisci- 
plined eloquence  which  distinguished  the  first  half  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  Among  the  nonconformist  clergy,  Howe  (d. 
1715)  wrote  the  "  Living  Temple,"  which  is  ranked  among  the 
religious  classics. 

The  great  though  untrained  genius  of  John  Bunyan  (1628— 
1688)  produced  the  "  Pilgrim's  Progress,"  which  holds  a  distin- 
guished place  in  permanent  English  literature. 

John  Locke  (1632-1704)  may  be  taken  as  the  representative 
of  the  English  Philosophy  of  the  time,  and  his  influence  on  the 
speculative  opinions  of  his  day  was  second  only  to  that  of  Hobbes. 
His  "  Essay  on  the  Understanding  "  contains  the  germ  of  utter 
skepticism  and  was  the  ground  on  which  Berkeley  denied  the  ex- 
istence of  the  material  world,  and  Hume  involved  all  human 
knowledge  in  doubt. 

In  classical  learning  the  greatest  of  the  scholars  of  this  period 
was  Bentley  (1662-1742). 

In  history  Lord  Clarendon  (1608-1774)  wrote  the  "  History 
of  the  Rebellion,"  and  Burnet  (1643-1715)  his  "  History  of  the 
Reformation,"  one  of  the  most  thoroughly  digested  works  of  the 
century.  His  "  History  of  his  own  Times  "  is  valuable  for  its 
facts,  and  for  the  shrewdness  with  which  he  describes  the  state 
of  things  around  him. 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  485 

In  miscellaneous  prose,  John  Evelyn  wrote  several  useful  and 
tasteful  works,  and  Izaak  Walton  (1593-1688),  a  London  trades- 
man, wrote  his  interesting  Biographies  and  the  quaint  treatise 
"  On  Angling."  Both  in  diction  and  sentiment  these  works  re- 
mind us  of  the  preceding  age ;  and  Walton,  surviving  Milton, 
closes  the  series  of  old  English  prose  writers. 

Samuel  Butler  (1612-1680),  the  unfortunate,  ill-requited  lau- 
reate of  the  Royalists,  who  satirized  the  Puritans  and  Republi- 
cans in  his  celebrated  "  Hudibras,"  left  some  exceedingly  witty 
and  vigorous  prose  writings  ;  and  Andrew  Marvell  (1620-1678), 
the  friend  and  protector  of  Milton,  was  most  successful  in  sarcas- 
tic irony,  and  in  his  attacks  on  the  High  Church  opinions  and 
doings. 

John  Dryden  (1631-1700)  was  the  literary  chief  of  the  inter- 
val between  Cromwell  and  Queen  Anne.  His  prose  writings, 
besides  comedies,  are  few,  but  in  these  he  taught  principles  of 
poetical  art  previously  unknown  to  his  countrymen,  and  showed 
the  capabilities  of  the  tongue  in  a  new  light.  Inferior  to  Dryden 
in  vigor  of  thought  was  Sir  William  Temple  (1628-1698),  who 
may  yet  share  with  him  the  merit  of  having  founded  regular  Eng- 
lish prose.  His  literary  character  rests  chiefly  on  his  "  Miscella- 
neous Essays." 

The  symmetrical  structure  and  artificial  polish  of  contempora- 
neous French  literature,  while  it  was  not  without  some  good  in- 
fluence on  English  prose,  was  less  beneficial  to  poetry,  and  its 
worst  effect  was  on  the  drama,  which  soon  ceased  to  be  pictures 
of  human  beings  in  action  and  became  only  descriptive  of  such 
pictures.  In  this  walk  as  in  others  Dryden  was  the  literary  chief, 
and  of  his  plays  it  can  truly  be  said  that  the  serious  ones  contain 
many  striking  and  poetical  pieces  of  declamation,  finely  versified. 
His  comedies  are  bad  morally,  and  as  dramas  even  worse  than 
those  of  his  rival  Shadwell.  Lee  was  only  a  poor  likeness  of 
Dryden. 

In  the  "  Orphan  "  and  "  Venice  Preserved  "  of  Otway  we  have 
something  of  the  revival  of  the  ancient  strength  of  feeling  though 
alloyed  by  false  sentiment  and  poetic  poverty. 

Congreve  showed  great  power  of  language  in  tragedy,  and 
Southerne  not  a  little  nature  and  pathos. 

In  comedy  the  fame  of  these  writers  was  eclipsed  by  a  knot 
of  dramatists  who  adopted  prose,  but  whose  works  are  the  foul- 
est that  ever  disgraced  the  literature  of  a  nation.  They  are  ex- 
cellent specimens  of  that  which  has  been  called  the  comedy  of 
manners ;  vice  is  inextricably  interwoven  in  the  texture  of  all 
alike,  in  the  broad  humor  of  Wycherly  (the  most  vigorous  of 
the  set),  in  the  wit  of  Congreve,  in  the  character  painting  of 
Vanbrugh,  and  the  lively  invention  of  Farquliar. 


486        HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

In  other  kinds  of  poetry  we  find  similar  changes  of  taste 
which  affected  the  art  injuriously,  although  the  increased  atten- 
tion paid  to  correctness  and  refinement  was  a  step  in  improve- 
ment. These  mischievous  changes  related  both  to  the  themes 
and  forms  of  poetry,  and  in  neither  can  the  true  functions  of 
art  be  forgotten  without  injury  to  the  work.  An  age  must  be 
held  unpoetical,  and  cannot  produce  great  poetical  works,  if  its 
poetry  chooses  insufficient  topics ;  and  the  aims  of  the  age  of 
the  Restoration  were  low,  producing  only  a  constant  crop  of 
poems  celebrating  contemporary  events  or  incidents  in  the  lives 
of  individuals.  The  dramatic  and  narrative  forms  of  poetry  are 
undoubtedly  those  in  which  that  imaginative  excitement  of  pleas- 
ing emotion,  which  is  the  immediate  and  characteristic  end  of 
the  art,  may  be  most  powerfully  worked  out,  and  to  one  of  these 
forms  all  the  greatest  poems  have  belonged.  But  in  the  age  of 
the  Restoration  the  drama  had  lost  its  elevation  and  poetic  sig- 
nificance, and  original  narrative  poetry  was  hardly  known. 
Almost  all  the  poems  of  the  day  were  didactic,  and  the  preva- 
lence of  this  style  of  poetry  is  a  palpable  symptom  of  an  un- 
poetical age.  The  verse-making  of  these  forty  years,  after  set- 
ting aside  a  very  few  works,  maintains  a  dead  level.  Among 
the  dwarfish  rhymers  of  the  day  there  lingered  some  of  the 
august  shapes  of  a  former  age.  Milton  still  walked  his  solitary 
course,  and  Waller  wrote  his  occasional  odes  and  verses,  but  of 
names  not  already  given  there  are  no  more  than  two  or  three 
that  require  commemoration.  One  of  the  famous  poems  of  the 
day  was  an  "  Essay  on  Translated  Verse,"  by  Lord  Roscom- 
mon ;  and  the  smaller  poems  of  Marvell  are  felicitous  in  feeling 
and  diction ;  both  writers  are  distinguished  for  their  moral 
purity. 

The  "  Hudibras  "  of  Butler,  which  properly  belongs  to  the  age 
before,  is  a  phenomenon  in  the  history  of  English  literature. 
His  pungent  wit,  his  extraordinary  ingenuity,  and  his  command 
of  words  are  rare  endowments,  but  he  has  no  poetic  vein  that 
yields  jewels  of  the  first  water,  and  his  place  is  not  a  high  one 
in  the  path  which  leads  upward  to  the  ethereal  regions  of  the 
imagination. 

Pryor  (1661-1721)  in  his  lighter  pieces  shows  wit  of  a  less 
manly  kind.  His  serious  poems  have  great  facility  of  phrase 
and  melody. 

Dryden  was  a  man  of  high  endowments  as  a  poet  and  thinker, 
condemned  to  labor  for  a  corrupt  generation,  and  he  has  received 
from  posterity  no  higher  fame  than  that  of  having  improved 
English  prose  style  and  versification.  His  poems  are  rather  es- 
says couched  in  vigorous  verse,  with  here  and  there  passages  of 
great  poetical  beauty.  His  "  Annus  MirabiHs,"  celebrating  with 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  487 

great  animation  the  year  1666,  is  an  effusion  of  historical  pan- 
egyric. The  "Absalom  and  Achitophel "  is  a  satire  on  the 
unfortunate  Duke  of  Monmouth  and  his  adviser  Shaftesbury. 
"The  Hind  and  Panther,"  full  of  poetical  and  satirical  force, 
was  an  argument  to  justify  the  author's  recent  change  of  relig- 
ion. One  of  the  most  thoroughly  sustained  poems  is  the  "  Ode 
on  Alexander  's  Feast."  His  translation  of  the  JEneid,  as  im- 
perfect a  picture  of  the  original  as  Pope's  translation  of  the 
Iliad,  is  yet  full  of  vigor  and  one  of  his  best  specimens  of  the 
heroic  couplet,  a  measure  never  so  well  written  in  English  as  by 
Dryden. 

4.  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY.  —  The  influence  of  the 
eighteenth  century  on  prose  style  has  been  great  and  perma- 
nent, and  the  two  dissimilar  manners  of  writing  which  were 
then  formed,  have  contributed  to  all  that  is  distinctive  in  our 
modern  form  of  expression.  The  earlier  of  these  is  found  in  the 
language  of  Addison  and  Swift,  the  later  in  that  of  Johnson. 
The  style  of  Addison  and  his  friends  reproduced  those  genuine 
idiomatic  peculiarities  of  our  speech  which  had  been  received 
into  the  conversation  of  intelligent  men.  The  style  of  which 
Johnson  was  the  characteristic  example  abandons  in  part  the 
native  and  familiar  characteristics  of  the  Saxon  for  those  expres- 
sions and  forms  common  to  the  modern  European  tongues.  Large 
use  was  made  of  words  derived  from  the  Latin,  which,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  effect  of  novelty,  gave  greater  impressiveness  and 
pomp  to  the  style. 

In  the  First  Generation,  named  from  Queen  Anne,  but  in- 
cluding also  the  reign  of  George  I.  (d.  1727),  the  drama  scarcely 
deserves  more  than  a  parenthesis.  Although  the  moral  tone 
had  improved,  it  was  still  not  high,  when  Gray's  "  Beggar's 
Opera  "  and  Gibber's  "  Careless  Husband  "  were  the  most  fa- 
mous works.  The  "  Fair  Penitent  "  has  been  noticed  as  a  clever 
plagiarism  from  Massinger ;  in  Addison's  "  Cato "  the  strict 
rules  of  the  French  stage  were  preserved,  but  its  stately  and  im- 
pressive speeches  cannot  be  called  dramatic.  The  "  Revenge  " 
of  Young  had  more  of  tragic  passion  ;  but  it  wanted  the  force  of 
characterization  which  seemed  to  have  been  buried  with  the  old 
dramatists. 

The  heroic  measure,  as  it  was  now  used,  aimed  at  smoothness 
of  melody  and  pointedness  of  expression,  and  in  this  the  great 
master  was  Pope. 

In  the  poems  of  Pope  (1688-1744),  we  find  passages  beauti- 
fully poetical,  exquisite  thoughts,  vigorous  portraits  of  character, 
shrewd  observation,  and  reflective  good  sense,  but  we  are  wafted 
into  no  bright  world  of  imagination,  rapt  in  no  dream  of  strong 
passion,  and  seldom  raised  into  any  high  region  of  moral  thought. 


488       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

Like  all  the  poets  of  his  day,  he  set  a  higher  value  on  skill  of 
execution  than  on  originality  of  conception,  and  systematically 
abstained  from  all  attempts  to  excite  imagination  or  feeling. 
The  taste  of  the  poet  and  of  his  times  is  most  clearly  shown  in 
his  "  Essay  on  Criticism,"  published  before  his  twenty-first  year. 
None  of  his  works  unites  more  happily,  regularity  of  plan, 
shrewdness  of  thought,  and  beauty  of  verse.  His  most  success- 
ful effort,  the  "  Rape  of  the  Lock,"  assumed  its  complete  shape 
in  his  twenty-sixth  year,  and  is  the  best  of  all  mock-heroic  poems. 
The  sharpest  wit,  the  keenest  dissection  of  the  follies  of  fashion- 
able life,  the  finest  grace  of  diction,  and  the  softest  flow  of  mel- 
ody, come  appropriately  to  adorn  a  tale  in  which  we  learn  how 
a  fine  gentleman  stole  a  lock  of  a  lady's  hair.  In  the  "  Epistle 
of  Eloisa  to  Abelard,"  and  in  the  "  Elegy  on  an  Unfortunate 
Lady,"  he  attempted  the  pathetic  not  altogether  in  vain.  The 
last  work  of  his  best  years  was  his  "  Translation  of  the  Iliad  ;  " 
of  the  Odyssey  he  translated  only  half.  Both  misrepresent  the 
natural  and  simple  majesty  of  manner  which  the  ancient  poet 
never  lost ;  yet  if  we  could  forget  Homer,  we  might  be  proud  of 
them.  In  the  "  Dunciad  "  he  threw  away  an  infinity  of  wit 
upon  writers  who  would  not  otherwise  have  been  remembered. 
His  "  Essay  on  Man "  contains  much  exquisite  poetry  and 
finely  solemn  thought ;  it  abounds  in  striking  passages  which, 
by  their  felicities  of  fancy,  good  sense,  music,  and  extraordinary 
terseness  of  diction,  have  gained  a  place  in  the  memory  of  every 
one. 

Among  the  philosophical  writers  none  holds  so  prominent  a 
place  as  Bishop  Berkeley  (1684-1753),  whose  refinement  of  style 
and  subtlety  of  thought  have  seldom  been  equaled.  His  philo- 
sophical Idealism  exercised  much  influence  on  the  course  of  met- 
aphysical inquiry. 

Lord  Shaftesbury's  brilliant  but  indistinct  treatises  have  also 
been  the  germ  of  many  discussions  in  ethics. 

Bolingbroke  wrote  with  great  liveliness,  but  with  equal  shal- 
lowness  of  thought  and  knowledge. 

Daniel  Defoe  (1661-1731)  is  not  likely  to  be  forgotten  on 
account  of  one  of  his  many  novels,  "  Robinson  Crusoe."  His 
idiomatic  English  style  is  not  one  of  the  least  of  his  merits. 

Among  the  prose  writings  of  Swift  (1667-1745)  there  is  none 
that  is  not  a  masterpiece  of  strong  Saxon-English,  and  none 
quite  destitute  of  his  keen  wit  or  cutting  sarcasm.  His  satirical 
romances  are  most  pungent  when  human  nature  is  his  victim,  as 
in  "  Gulliver's  Travels  ;  "  and  not  less  amusing  in  "  The  Battle 
of  the  Books,"  or  where  he  treats  of  church  disputes  in  the 
"  Tale  of  a  Tub."  The  burlesque  memoir  of  "  Martinus  Scrib- 
lerus  "  was  the  joint  production  of  Swift,  Pope,  and  Arbuthnot 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  489 

It  contains  more  good  criticism  than  any  of  the  serious  writ- 
ings of  the  generation,  and  it  abounds  in  the  most  biting  strokes 
of  wit.  Arbuthnot  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  sole  author  of 
the  whimsical,  national  satire  called  the  "  History  of  John 
Bull,"  the  best  work  of  the  class  produced  in  that  day.  The 
"  Letters  of  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montagu  "  belong  to  this  age. 

Of  all  the  popular  writers,  however,  that  adorned  the  reign 
of  Queen  Anne  and  her  successor,  those  whose  influence  has 
been  the  greatest  and  most  salutary  are  the  Essayists,  among 
whom  Joseph  Addison  and  Richard  Steele  are  preeminently  dis- 
tinguished. 

"  The  Tatler,"  begun  in  Ireland  by  Steele,  aided  first  by 
Swift,  and  afterwards  by  Addison,  appeared  three  times  a  week 
from  1709  to  1711 ;  "  The  Spectator,"  in  which  Addison  took 
the  lead,  from  1711  to  1712  ;  and  "  The  Guardian,"  a  part  of 
the  next  year.  Steele  (1676-1729)  had  his  merits  somewhat 
unfairly  clouded  by  the  fame  of  his  coadjutor.  The  extraordi- 
nary popularity  of  those  periodicals,  especially  "  The  Spectator," 
was  creditable  to  the  reading  persons  of  the  community,  then 
much  fewer  than  now.  The  writers  discarded  from  their  papers 
all  party-spirit,  and  designed  to  make  them  the  vehicle  of  judi- 
cious teaching  in  morals,  manners,  and  literary  criticism.  Thus 
they  widened  the  circle  of  readers,  and  raised  the  standard  of 
taste  and  thinking. 

Of  some  of  the  more  serious  papers  of  the  "  Spectator,"  those 
of  Addison  (1672-1719)  on  the  "  Immortality  of  the  Soul"  and 
the  "  Pleasures  of  the  Imagination  "  may  be  cited. 

Among  the  theological  writers  of  the  Second  Generation  of 
the  eighteenth  century  (the  reign  of  George  II.,  1726-1760)7 
one  of  the  most  famous  in  his  day,  though  not  the  most  merito- 
rious, was  Bishop  Warburton ;  Bishop  Butler  (d.  1752),  wrote 
his  "Analogy  of  Religion,  Natural  and  Revealed,  to  the  Consti- 
tution and  Course  of  Nature,"  a  work  of  extraordinary  force  of 
thought ;  and  there  is  much  literary  merit  in  the  writings  of  the 
pious  Watts  and  the  devout  Doddridge.  The  increasing  zeal 
both  in  the  Church  of  England  and  among  the  Dissenters,  and 
the  more  cordial  recognition  of  the  importance  of  religion, 
greatly  affected  the  literature  of  the  times. 

Philosophy  had  also  its  distinguished  votaries.  The  philo- 
sophical works  of  Hume  (1711-1776)  are  allowed  by  those  who 
dissent  most  strenuously  from  their  results  to  have  constituted 
an  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  science.  In  accepting  the  princi- 
ples which  had  been  received  before  him,  and  showing  that  they 
led  to  no  conclusion  but  universal  doubt,  he  laid  bare  the  flaws 
in  the  system,  and  prepared  the  way  for  the  subtle  speculations 
of  Kant  and  the  more  cautious  systems  of  Reid  and  the  Scottish 
school. 


490       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

The  miscellaneous  literature  of  this,  the  age  of  Johnson,  can- 
not stand  comparison  with  that  of  the  preceding,  which  was 
headed  by  Addison. 

Samuel  Johnson  (1709-1784),  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of 
the  professional  authors  of  the  eighteenth  century,  however,  be- 
longs to  this  period.  Compelled  by  poverty  to  leave  his  educa- 
tion uncompleted,  he  sought  the  means  of  living  in  London, 
where,  for  a  long  time,  unpatronized  and  obscure,  he  labored 
with  dogged  perseverance,  until  at  length  he  won  a  fame  which 
must  have  satisfied  the  most  grasping  ambition,  but  when,  as  he 
says,  "most  of  those  whom  he  had  wished  to  please  had  sunk 
into  the  grave,  and  he  had  little  to  fear  from  censure  or  praise." 
That  the  reputation  of  his  writings  was  above  their  deserts,  cannot 
be  denied,  though  it  must  also  be  admitted  that  the  literature  of 
our  time  is  deficient  in  many  of  their  excellences,  both  of  thought 
and  expression.  They  are  the  fruit  of  a  strong  and  original 
mind,  working  with  imperfect  knowledge  and  an  inadequate 
scope  for  activity.  The  language  of  Johnson  is  superior  to  his 
matter ;  he  has  striking  force  of  diction,  and  many  of  his  sen- 
tences roll  on  the  ear  like  the  sound  of  the  distant  sea,  while  the 
thoughts  they  convey  impress  us  so  vividly  that  we  are  slow  to 
scrutinize  them.  His  great  merit  lies  in  the  two  departments  of 
morals  and  criticism,  but  everywhere  he  is  inconsistent  and  un- 
equal. His  Dictionary  occupied  him  for  eight  years,  but  it  is  of 
little  value  now  to  the  student  of  language,  being  poor  and  in- 
correct in  etymology  and  unsatisfactory  though  acute  in  defini- 
tion. His  poems,  which  are  of  Pope's  school,  would  scarcely 
have  preserved  his  name.  The  "  Rambler,"  and  '"  Rasselas," 
are  characteristic  of  his  merits  and  defects.  The  "  Tour  to  the 
Hebrides  "  is  one  of  the  most  pleasant  and  easy  of  his  writings. 
His  "  Lives  of  the  Poets  "  is  admirable  for  its  skill  of  narration, 
but  it  is  alternately  enlightened  and  unsound  in  criticism,  and 
frequently  marred  by  political  prejudices  and  personal  jeal- 
ousies. 

Of  the  novels  of  the  time,  the  series  begun  by  Richardson's 
(1689-1761)  "  Pamela,"  "  Clarissa  Harlowe,"  and  "  Sir  Charles 
Grandison  "  have  a  virtuous  aim,  but  they  err  by  the  plainness 
with  which  they  describe  vice.  The  tediousness  and  over- 
wrought sentimentality  of  these  works  go  far  towards  disquali- 
fying the  reader  from  appreciating  their  extraordinary  skill  in 
invention  and  in  the  portraiture  of  character. 

Fielding  (1707.-1757)  unites  these  qualities  with  greater  knowl- 
edge of  the  world,  pungent  wit,  and  idiomatic  strength  of  style. 
His  mastery  in  the  art  of  fictitious  narrative  has  never  been  ex- 
celled ;  but  his  living  pictures  of  familiar  life,  as  well  as  the 
whimsical  caricatures  of  Smollett  and  the  humorous  fantasies  of 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  491 

Sterne,  are  disfigured  by  faults  of  which  the  very  smallest  are 
coarseness  of  language  and  bareness  of  licentious  description,  in 
which  they  outdid  Richardson.  Not  only  is  their  standard  of 
morality  low,  but  they  display  indifference  to  the  essential  dis- 
tinctions of  right  and  wrong,  in  regard  to  some  of  the  cardinal 
relations  of  society. 

The  drama  of  the  period  has  little  literary  importance.  In 
non-dramatic  poetry,  several  men  of  distinguished  genius  ap- 
peared, and  changes  occurred  which  indicated  more  just  and 
comprehensive  views  of  the  art  than  those  that  had  been  preva- 
lent in  the  last  generation. 

Young  (1681-1765),  in  his  "Night  Thoughts,"  produced  a 
work  eloquent  rather  than  poetical,  dissertative  when  true  po- 
etry would  have  been  imaginative,  but  suggesting  much  of  im- 
agery and  feeling  as  well  as  religious  reflection. 

Resembling  it  in  some  points,  but  with  more  force  of  imag- 
ination, is  the  train  of  gloomy  scenes  which  appears  in  Blair's 
"  Grave."  In  Akenside's  "  Pleasures  of  Imagination,"  a  vivid 
fancy  and  an  alluring  pomp  of  language  are  lavished  on  a  series 
of  pictures  illustrating  the  feelings  of  beauty  and  sublimity  ;  but, 
theorizing  and  poetizing  by  turns,  the  poet  loses  his  hold  of  the 
reader. 

The  more  direct  and  effective  forms  of  poetry  now  came 
again  into  favor,  such  as  the  Scottish  pastoral  drama  of  Ramsay, 
and  Falconer's  "  Shipwreck."  But  the  most  decisive  instance 
of  the  growing  insight  into  the  true  functions  of  poetry  is  fur- 
nished by  Thomson's  (1700—1748)  "  Seasons."  No  poet  has  ever 
been  more  inspired  by  the  love  of  external  nature,  or  felt  with 
more  keenness  and  delicacy  those  analogies  between  the  mind 
and  the  things  it  looks  upon,  which  are  the  fountains  of  poetic 
feeling.  The  faults  of  Thomson  are  triteness  of  thought  when 
he  becomes  argumentative  and  a  prevalent  pomposity  and  ped- 
antry of  diction ;  though  his  later  work,  "  The  Castle  of  Indo- 
lence," is  surprisingly  free  from  these  blemishes. 

But  the  age  was  an  unpoetical  one,  and  two  of  the  finest  poet- 
ical minds  of  the  nation  were  so  dwarfed  and  weakened  by  the 
ungenial  atmosphere  as  to  bequeath  to  posterity  nothing  more 
than  a  few  lyrical  fragments.  In  the  age  which  admired  the 
smooth  feebleness  of  Shenstone's  pastorals  and  elegies,  and 
which  closed  when  the  libels  of  Churchill  were  held  to  be  good 
examples  of  poetical  satire,  Gray  turned  aside  from  the  unre- 
quited labors  of  verse  to  idle  in  his  study,  and  Collins  lived  and 
died  almost  unknown.  Gray  (1716-1771)  was  as  consummate 
a  poetical  artist  as  Pope.  His  fancy  was  less  lively,  but  his 
sympathies  were  warmer  and  more  expanded,  though  the  pol- 
ished aptness  of  language  and  symmetry  of  construction  which 


492       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

give  so  classical  an  aspect  to  his  Odes  bring  with  them  a  tinge 
of  classical  coldness.  The  "  Ode  on  Eton  College  "  is  more  gen- 
uinely lyrical  than  "  The  Bards,"  and  the  "  Elegy  in  a  Country 
Churchyard  "  is  perhaps  faultless. 

The  Odes  of  Collins  (1720-1759)  have  more  of  the  fine  and 
spontaneous  enthusiasm  of  genius  than  any  other  poems  ever 
written  by  one  who  wrote  so  little.  We  close  his  tiny  volume 
with  the  same  disappointed  surprise  which  overcomes  us  when  a 
harmonious  piece  of  music  suddenly  ceases  unfinished.  His 
range  of  tones  is  very  wide,  and  the  delicacy  of  gradation  with 
which  he  passes  from  thought  to  thought  has  an  indescribable 
charm.  His  most  popular  poem,  "  The  Passions,"  conveys  no 
adequate  idea  of  some  of  his  most  marked  characteristics.  All 
can  understand  the  beauty  and  simplicity  of  his  odes  "  To  Pity," 
"  To  Simplicity,"  "  To  Mercy ; "  and  the  finely  woven  harmo- 
nies and  the  sweetly  romantic  pictures  in  the  "  Ode  to  Evening  " 
recall  the  youthful  poems  of  Milton. 

Between  the  period  just  reviewed  and  the  reign  of  George 
III.,  or  the  Third  Generation  of  the  eighteenth  century,  there 
were  several  connecting  links,  one  of  which  was  formed  by  a 
group  of  historians  whose  works  are  classical  monuments  of 
English  literature.  The  publication  of  Hume's  "  History  of 
England  "  began  in  1754.  Robertson's  "  History  of  Scotland  " 
appeared  in  1759,  followed  by  his  "  Reign  of  Charles  V."  and 
his  "  History  of  America ;  "  Gibbon's  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire "  was  completed  in  twelve  years  from  1776. 
The  narrative  of  Hume  is  told  with  great  clearness,  good  sense, 
and  quiet  force  of  representation,  and  if  his  matter  had  been  as 
carefully  studied  as  his  manner,  if  his  social  and  religious  theo- 
ries had  been  as  sound  as  his  theory  of  literary  art,  his  history 
would  still  hold  a  place  from  which  no  rival  could  hope  to  de- 
grade it. 

The  style  of  Robertson  and  Gibbon  is  totally  unlike  that  of 
Hume.  They  want  his  seemingly  unconscious  ease,  his  delicate 
tact,  and  his  calm  yet  lively  simplicity.  Hume  tells  his  tale  to 
us  as  a  friend  to  friends  ;  his  successors  always  seem  to  hold 
that  they  are  teachers  and  we  pupils.  This  change  of  tone  had 
long  been  coming  on,  and  was  now  very  general  in  all  depart- 
ments of  prose.  Very  few  writers  of  the  last  thirty  years  of 
Johnson's  life  escaped  this  epidemic  desire  of  dictatorship. 
Robertson  (1722-1793)  is  an  excellent  story-teller,  perspicuous, 
lively,  and  interesting.  His  opinions  are  wisely  formed  and 
temperately  expressed,  his  disquisitions  able  and  instructive,  and 
his  research  so  accurate  that  he  is  still  a  valuable  historical  au- 
thority. 

The  learning  of  Gibbon  (1737-1794),  though  not  always  ex- 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  493 

act,  was  remarkably  extensive,  and  sufficient  to  make  him  a 
trustworthy  guide,  unless  in  those  points  where  he  was  inclined 
to  lead  astray.  There  is  a  patrician  haughtiness  in  the  stately 
march  of  his  narrative  and  in  the  air  of  careless  superiority  with 
which  he  treats  his  heroes  and  his  audience.  He  is  a  master  in 
the  art  of  painting  and  narration,  nor  is  he  less  skillful  in  indi- 
rect insinuation,  which  is,  indeed,  his  favorite  mode  of  commu- 
nicating his  own  opinions,  but  he  is  most  striking  in  those  pas- 
sages in  his  history  of  the  church,  where  he  covertly  attacks  a 
religion  which  he  neither  believed  nor  understood. 

Other  historians  produced  works  useful  in  their  day,  but  now, 
for  the  most  part,  superseded ;  and  in  various  other  departments 
men  of  letters  actively  exerted  themselves. 

Johnson,  seated  at  last  in  his  easy-chair,  talked  for  twenty 
years,  the  oracle  of  the  literary  world,  and  Boswell,  soon  after 
his  death,  gave  to  the  world  the  clever  record  of  these  conversa- 
tions, which  has  aided  to  secure  the  place  in  literature  he  had 
obtained  by  his  writings.  Goldsmith  (1728-1774),  had  he  never 
written  poems,  would  stand  among  the  classic  writers  of  English 
prose  from  the  few  trifles  on  which  he  was  able,  in  the  intervals 
of  literary  drudgery,  to  exercise  his  powers  of  observation  and 
invention,  and  to  exhibit  his  warm  affections  and  purity  of  moral 
sentiment.  Such  is  his  inimitable  little  novel,  "  The  Vicar  of 
Wakefield,"  and  that  good-natured  satire  on  society,  the  "  Citi- 
zen of  the  World." 

Among  the  novelists,  Mackenzie  (1745-1831)  wrote  his 
"  Man  of  Feeling,"  not  unworthy  of  the  companionship  of  Gold- 
smith's masterpiece  ;  and  among  later  novelists,  Walpole,  Moore, 
Cumberland,  Mrs.  Inchbald,  and  Charlotte  Smith,  Miss  Burney 
and  Mrs  Radcliffe  may  also  be  named. 

In  literary  criticism,  the  authoritative  book  of  the  day  was 
Johnson's  "  Lives  of  the  Poets."  Percy's  "  Reliques  of  Ancient 
English  Poetry "  (1765)  was  a  delightful  compilation,  which, 
after  being  quite  neglected  for  many  years,  became  the  poetical 
text-book  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  and  the  poets  of  his  time.  A  more 
scientific  and  ambitious  effort  was  Warton's  (1729-1790)  "  His- 
tory of  English  Poetry,"  which  has  so  much  of  antiquarian  learn- 
ing, poetical  taste,  and  spirited  writing,  that  it  is  not  only  an 
indispensable  and  valuable  authority,  but  an  interesting  book  to 
the  mere  amateur.  With  many  errors  and  deficiencies,  it  has 
yet  little  chance  of  being  ever  entirely  superseded. 

In  parliamentary  eloquence,  before  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  we  have  the  commanding  addresses  of  the  elder  Pitt 
(Lord  Chatham),  and  at  the  close,  still  leading  the  senate,  are 
the  younger  Pitt,  Fox,  Sheridan,  and  Burke.  Burke  (1730- 
1797)  must  be  remembered  not  only  for  his  speeches  but  for  his 


494       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

writing  on  political  and  social  questions,  as  a  great  thinker  of 
comprehensive  and  versatile  intellect,  and  extraordinary  power 
of  eloquence. 

The  letters  of  "  Junius,"  a  remarkable  series  of  papers,  the 
authorship  of  which  is  still  involved  in  mystery,  appeared  in  a 
London  daily  journal  from  1769  to  1772.  They  were  remark- 
able for  the  audacity  of  their  attacks  upon  the  government,  the 
court,  and  persons  high  in  power,  and  from  their  extraordi- 
nary ability  and  point  they  produced  an  indelible  impression  on 
the  public  mind.  The  "Letters"  of  Walpole  are  poignantly 
satirical ;  those  of  Cowper  are  models  of  easy  writing,  and  les- 
sons of  rare  dignity  and  purity  of  sentiment. 

In  the  history  of  philosophy,  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury was  a  very  important  epoch ;  before  the  close  of  the  century, 
almost  all  of  those  works  had  appeared  which  have  had  the 
greatest  influence  on  more  recent  thinking.  These  words  may 
be  divided  into  four  classes.  Under  the  first,  Philosophical 
Criticism,  may  be  classed  Burke's  treatise  "On  the  Sublime  and 
Beautiful,"  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds's  "  Discourse  on  Painting," 
Campbell's  "  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,"  Kames's  "  Elements  of 
Criticism,"  Blair's  "  Lectures  on  Rhetoric  and  Belles  Lettres," 
and  Home  Tooke's  "  Philosophy  of  Language." 

In  the  second  department,  Political  Economy,  Adam  Smith's 
great  work,  "  The  Wealth  of  Nations,"  stands  alone,  and  is  still 
acknowledged  as  the  standard  text-book  of  this  science. 

In  the  third  department,  Ethics,  are  Smith's  "Theory  of  Moral 
Sentiment,"  Tucker's  "  Light  of  Nature,"  and  Paley's  "  Moral 
and  Political  Philosophy." 

In  the  fourth  or  Metaphysical  department,  we  have  only  to 
note  the  rise  of  the  Scottish  School,  under  Thomas  Reid  (1710- 
1796),  who  combats  each  of  the  three  schools,  the  Sensualistic 
evolved  from  Locke,  holding  that  our  ideas  are  aU  derived  from 
sensation  ;  the  Idealistic,  as  proposed  by  Berkeley,  which,  allow- 
ing the  existence  of  mind,  denies  that  of  matter  ;  and  the  Skep- 
tical, headed  by  Hume,  which  denies  that  we  can  know  any- 
thing at  all.  Reid  is  a  bold,  dry,  but  very  clear  and  logical 
writer,  a  sincere  lover  of  truth,  and  a  candid  and  honorable  dis- 
putant ;  his  system  is  original  and  important  in  the  history  of 
philosophy. 

In  the  theological  literature  of  this  time  are  found  Campbell's 
"  Essay  on  Miracles,"  Paley's  "  Evidences  of  Christianity  "  and 
"Natural  Theology,"  and  Bishop  Watson's  "Apology  for  Chris- 
tianity." 

Among  the  devout  teachers  of  religion  was  John  Newton  of 
Olney,  the  spiritual  guide  of  Cowper ;  and  of  the  moral  writers, 
Hannah  More  and  Wilberforce  may  be  mentioned. 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  495 

The  only  tragedy  that  has  survived  from  these  last  forty  years 
of  the  eighteenth  century  is  the  "  Douglas "  of  Home,  whose 
melody  and  romantic  pathos  lose  much  of  their  effect  from  its 
monotony  of  tone  and  feebleness  in  the  representation  of  charac- 
ter. Comedy  was  oftener  successful.  There  was  little  merit  in 
the  plays  of  the  elder  Colman  or  those  of  Mrs.  Cowley,  or  of 
Cumberland.  The  comedies  of  Goldsmith  abound  in  humor  and 
gayety,  and  those  of  Sheridan  have  an  unintermitted  fire  of  epi- 
grams, a  keen  insight  into  the  follies  and  weaknesses  of  society, 
and  great  ingenuity  in  inventing  whimsical  situations.  Of  the 
verse-writers  in  the  time  of  Johnson's  old  age,  Goldsmith  has 
alone  achieved  immortality.  "  The  Traveller  "  and  "  The  De- 
serted Village  "  cannot  be  forgotten  while  the  English  tongue  is 
remembered. 

The  foundations  of  a  new  school  of  poetry  were  already  laid. 
Percy's  "  Reliques  "  and  Macpherson's  "'  Fingal  "  attracted 
great  attention,  and  many  minor  poets  followed. 

The  short  career  of  the  unhappy  Chatterton  (1752-1770)  held 
out  wonderful  promise  of  genius. 

Darwin,  in  his  "  Botanic  Garden,"  went  back  to  the  mazes  of 
didactic  verse/  Beattie's  (1735-1803)  "  Minstrel"  is  the  out- 
pouring of  a  mind  exquisitely  poetical  in  feeling ;  it  is  a  kind  of 
autobiography  or  analytic  narrative  of  the  early  growth  of  a 
poet's  mind  and  heart,  and  is  one  of  the  most  delightful  poems 
in  our  language. 

Opening  with  Goldsmith,  our  period  closes  with  Cowper  and 
Burns.  The  unequaled  popularity  of  Cowper's  (1731—1800) 
poems  is  owing,  in  part,  to  the  rarity  of  good  religious  poetry, 
and  also  to  their  genuine  force  and  originality.  He  unhesitat- 
ingly made  poetry  use,  always  when  it  was  convenient,  the  fa- 
miliar forms  of  common  conversation,  and  he  showed  yet  greater 
boldness  by  seeking  to  interest  his  readers  in  the  scenes  of  every- 
day life.  In  spite  of  great  faults,  the  effect  of  his  works  is 
such  as  only  a  genuine  poet  could  have  produced.  His  transla- 
tion of  the  Iliad  has  the  simplicity  of  the  original,  though  want- 
ing its  warlike  fervor,  and  portions  of  the  Odyssey  are  rendered 
with  exceeding  felicity  of  poetic  effect. 

Our  estimate  of  Cowper's  poems  is  heightened  by  our  love 
and  pity  for  the  poet,  writing  not  for  fame  but  for  consolation, 
and  uttering  from  the  depths  of  a  half-broken  heart  his  reverent 
homage  to  the  power  of  religious  truth.  Our  affection  is  not 
colder,  and  our  compassion  is  more  profound,  when  we  con- 
template the  agitated  and  erring  life  of  Robert  Burns  (1759— 
1796),  the  Scottish  peasant,  who  has  given  to  the  literature  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  race  some  of  its  most  precious  jewels,  although 
all  which  this  extraordinary  man  achieved  was  inadequate  to  the 


496       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

power  and  the  vast  variety  of  his  endowments.  It  is  on  his 
songs  that  his  fame  rests  most  firmly,  and  no  lyrics  in  any 
tongue  have  a  more  wonderful  union  of  thrilling  passion,  melt- 
ing tenderness,  concentrated  expressiveness  of  language,  and  apt 
and  natural  poetic  fancy.  But  neither  the  song  nor  the  higher 
kinds  of  lyrical  verse  could  give  scope  to  the  qualities  he  has 
elsewhere  shown ;  his  aptness  in  representing  the  phases  of  hu- 
man character,  his  genial  breadth  and  keenness  of  humor,  and 
his  strength  of  creative  imagination,  indicate  that  if  born  under 
a  more  benignant  star  he  might  have  been  a  second  Chaucer. 

5.  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.  —  In  the  illustrious  band  of 
poets  who  enriched  the  literature  of  England  during  the  first 
generation  of  the  present  century,  there  are  four  who  have  gained 
greater  fame  than  any  others,  and  exercised  greater  influence  on 
their  contemporaries.  These  are  Coleridge,  Wordsworth,  Scott, 
and  Byron,  who,  though  unlike,  yet  in  respect  of  their  ruling 
spirit  and  tendencies  may  be  classed  in  pairs  as  they  have  been 
named  ;  and  all  whose  works  call  for  exact  scrutiny  may  be  dis- 
tributed into  four  groups.  In  the  first  of  them  stand  Thomas 
Campbell  and  Robert  Southey,  dissimilar  to  each  other,  and  dif- 
fering as  widely  from  their  contemporaries.  Campbell  (1777— 
1844)  employed  an  unusually  delicate  taste  in  elaborating  his 
verses  both  in  diction  and  melody.  His  "  Pleasures  of  Hope  " 
was  written  between  youth  and  manhood,  and  "  Gertrude  of 
Wyoming,"  the  latest  of  his  productions  worthy  of  him,  appeared 
soon  after  his  thirtieth  year.  His  mind,  deficient  in  manly  vigor 
of  thought,  had  worked  itself  out  in  the  few  first  bursts  of  youth- 
ful emotion,  but  no  one  has  clothed  with  more  of  romantic 
sweetness  the  feelings  and  fancies  which  people  the  fairy-land  of 
early  dreams,  or  thrown  around  the  enchanted  region  a  purer 
atmosphere  of  moral  contemplation. 

Southey  (1774-1843),  with  an  ethical  tone  higher  and  sterner 
than  Campbell's,  offers  in  other  features  a  marked  contrast  to 
him.  He  is  careless  in  details,  and  indulges  no  poetical  rever- 
ies ;  he  scorns  sentimentalism,  and  throws  off  rapid  sketches 
of  human  action  with  great  pomp  of  imagery,  but  he  seldom 
touches  the  key  of  the  pathetic.  In  much  of  this  he  is  the  man 
of  his  age,  but  in  other  respects  he  is  above  it.  He  is  the  only 
poet  of  his  day  who  strove  to  emulate  the  great  masters  of  epic 
song,  and  to  give  his  works  external  symmetry  of  plan.  He 
alone  attempted  to  give  poetry  internal  union,  by  making  it  the 
representation  of  one  leading  idea ;  a  loftier  theory  of  poetic  art 
than  that  which  ruled  the  irregular  outbursts  of  Scott  and 
Byron.  But  the  aspiration  was  above  the  competency  of  the 
aspirer.  He  wanted  spontaneous  depth  of  sympathy ;  his  emo- 
tion has  the  measured  flow  of  the  artificial  canal,  not  the  leap- 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  497 

ing  gush  of  the  river  in  its  self-worn  channel.  In  two  of  his 
three  best  poems  he  has  founded  the  interest  on  supernatural 
agency  of  a  kind  which  cannot  command  even  momentary  belief, 
and  the  splendid  panoramas  of  "  Thalaba  the  Destroyer "  pass 
away  like  the  shadows  of  a  magic  lantern.  In  the  "  Curse  of 
Kehama,"  he  strives  to  interest  us  in  the  monstrous  fables  of  the 
Hindoo  mythology,  and  in  "  Roderick,  the  Last  of  the  Goths," 
the  story  contains  circumstances  that  deform  the  fairest  proof 
the  author  gave  of  the  practicability  of  his  poetic  theory. 

The  second  group  of  poets,  unless  Moore  find  a  place  in  it,  will 
contain  only  Scott  and  Byron,  who  were  in  succession  the  most 
popular  of  all,  and  owed  their  popularity  mainly  to  characteristics 
which  they  had  in  common.  They  are  distinctively  the  poets  of 
active  life.  They  portray  idealized  resemblances  of  the  scenes  of 
reality,  events  which  arise  out  of  the  universal  relations  of  society, 
hopes,  fears,  and  wishes  which  are  open  to  the  consciousness  of 
all  mankind.  The  originals  of  Scott  were  the  romances  of  chiv- 
alry, and  this  example  was  applied  by  Byron  to  the  construction 
of  narratives  founded  on  a  different  kind  of  sentiment.  Scott, 
wearying  of  the  narrow  round  that  afforded  him  no  scope  for 
some  of  his  best  and  strongest  powers,  turned  aside  to  lavish  them 
on  his  prose  romances,  and  Byron,  as  his  knowledge  grew  and 
his  meditations  became  deeper,  rose  from  Turkish  tales  to  the 
later  cantos  of  "  Childe  Harold." 

Scott  (1771-1832),  in  his  poetical  narratives,  appealed  to  na- 
tional sympathies  through  ennobling  historic  recollections.  He 
painted  the  externals  of  scenery  and  manners  with  unrivaled  pic- 
turesqueness,  and  embellished  all  that  was  generous  and  brave  in 
the  world  of  chivalry  with  an  infectious  enthusiasm.  "  The  Lay  of 
the  Last  Minstrel,"  a  romance  of  border  chivalry,  has  a  more  con- 
sistent unity  than  its  successors,  and  is  more  faithful  to  the  ancient 
models.  "  Marmion  "  seeks  to  combine  the  chivalrous  romance 
with  the  metrical  chronicle.  "  The  Lady  of  the  Lake  "  is  a  kind 
of  romantic  pastoral,  and  u  Rokeby  "  is  a  Waverley  novel  in  verse. 

The  moral  faults  of  the  poetry  of  Byron  (1788-1824)  became 
more  glaring  as  he  grew  older.  Starting  with  the  carelessness  of 
ill-trained  youth  in  regard  to  most  serious  truths,  he  provoked 
censure  without  scruple,  and  was  censured  not  without  caprice  ; 
thus  placed  in  a  dangerous  and  false  position,  he  hardened  him- 
self into  a  contempt  for  the  most  sacred  laws  of  society,  and 
although  the  closing  scenes  of  his  life  give  reason  for  a  belief  that 
purer  and  more  elevated  views  were  beginning  to  dawn  upon  his 
mind,  he  died  before  the  amendment  had  found  its  way  into  his 
writings.  He  endeavored  to  inculcate  lessons  that  are  positively 
bad ;  his  delinquency  did  not  consist  in  choosing  for  representa- 
tion scenes  of  violent  passion  and  guilty  horror,  it  lay  deeper  than 
32 


498       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL   LITERATURE. 

in  his  theatrical  fondness  for  identifying  himself  with  his  misan- 
thropes, pirates,  and  seducers.  He  sinned  more  grievously  still, 
against  morality  as  against  possibility,  by  mixing  up,  in  one  and 
the  same  character,  the  utmost  extremes  of  vice  and  virtue,  gen- 
erosity and  vindictiveness,  of  lofty  heroism  and  actual  grossness. 
But  with  other  and  great  faults,  he  far  excelled  all  the  poets  of 
his  time  in  impassioned  strength,  varying  from  vehemence  to 
pathos.  He  was  excelled  by  few  of  them  in  his  fine  sense  of  the 
beautiful,  and  his  combination  of  ^passion  with  beauty,  standing 
unapproachable  in  his  own  day,  has  hardly  ever  been  surpassed. 

His  tales,  except  "  Parisina  "  and  the  "  Prisoner  of  Chillon," 
rise  less  often  than  his  other  poems  into  that  flow  of  poetic  imag- 
ery, prompted  by  the  loveliness  of  nature,  which  he  had  attempted 
in  the  two  first  cantos  of  "  Childe  Harold,"  and  poured  forth 
with  added  fullness  of  thought  and  emotion  in  the  last  two. 
"  Manfred,"  with  all  its  shortcomings,  shows  perhaps  most  ade- 
quately his  poetic  temperament ;  and  his  tragedies,  though  not 
worthy  of  the  poet,  are  of  all  his  works  those  which  do  most 
honor  to  the  man. 

The  third  section  of  this  honored  file  of  poets  contains  the 
names  of  Coleridge  and  Wordsworth ;  they  are  characteristically 
the  poets  of  imagination,  of  reflection,  and  of  a  tone  of  sentiment 
that  owes  its  attraction  to  its  ideal  elevation.  Admired  and  emu- 
lated by  a  few  zealous  students,  Coleridge  became  the  poetical 
leader  from  the  very  beginning  of  his  age,  and  effects  yet  wider 
have  since  been  worked  by  the  extended  study  of  Wordsworth. 

Coleridge  (1772-1834)  is  the  most  original  of  the  poets  of  his 
very  original  time,  and  among  the  most  original  of  its  thinkers. 
His  most  frequent  tone  of  feeling  is  a  kind  of  romantic  tender- 
ness or  melancholy,  often  solemnized  by  an  intense  access  of  re- 
ligious awe.  This  fine  passion  is  breathed  out  most  finely  when 
it  is  associated  with  some  of  his  airy  glimpses  of  external  nature, 
and  his  power  of  suggestive  sketching  is  not  more  extraordinary 
than  his  immaculate  taste  and  nervous  precision  of  language. 
His  images  may  be  obscure,  from  the  moonlight  haze  in  which 
they  float,  but  they  are  rarely  so  through  faults  of  diction.  It  is 
disappointing  to  remember  that  this  gifted  man  executed  little 
more  than  fragments  ;  his  life  ebbed  away  in  the  contemplation 
of  undertakings  still  to  be  achieved,  the  result  of  weakness  of  will 
rather  than  of  indolence.  The  romance  of  "  Christabel,"  the 
most  powerful  of  all  his  works,  and  the  prompter  of  Scott  and 
Byron,  was  thrown  aside  when  scarce  begun,  and  stands  as  an 
interrupted  vision  of  mysterious  adventures  clothed  in  the  most 
exquisite  fancies.  His  tragedy  of  "  Remorse  "  is  full  of  poetic 
pictures  ;  the  "  Ode  to  the  Departing  Year  "  shows  his  force  of 
thought  and  moral  earnestness ;  "  Khubla  Khan  "  represents  in 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  499 

its  gorgeous  incoherence  his  singular  power  of  lighting  up  land- 
scapes with  thrilling  fancies  ;  and  "  The  Dark  Ladye  "  is  one  of 
the  most  tender  and  romantic  love-poems  ever  written. 

The  most  obvious  feature  of  Wordsworth  (1770-1850)  is  the 
intense  and  unwearied  delight  which  he  takes  in  all  the  shapes 
and  appearances  of  rural  and  mountain  scenery.  He  is  carried 
away  by  an  almost  passionate  rapture  when  he  broods  over  the 
grandeur  and  loveliness  of  the  earth  and  air ;  his  verse  lingers 
with  fond  reluctance  to  depart  on  the  wild  flowers,  the  misty 
lake,  the  sound  of  the  wailing  blast,  or  the  gleam  of  sunshine 
breaking  through  the  passes  among  the  hills,  and  the  thoughts 
and  feelings  these  objects  suggest  flow  forth  with  an  enthusiasm 
of  expression  which  in  a  man  less  pious  and  rational  might  be 
interpreted  as  a  raising  of  the  inanimate  world  to  a  level  with 
human  dignity  and  intelligence.  The  tone  which  prevails  in  his 
contemplation  of  mortal  act  and  suffering  is  a  serene  seriousness, 
on  which  there  never  breaks  in  anything  rightly  to  be  called  pas- 
sion ;  yet  it  often  rises  to  an  intensely  solemn  awe,  and  is  not 
less  often  relieved  by  touches  of  a  quiet  pathos.  Almost  all  his 
poems  may  be  called  poems  of  sentiment  and  reflection,  and  his 
own  ambition  was  that  of  being  worthy  to  be  honored  as  a  phil- 
osophical poet.  His  theory  that  the  poet's  function  is  limited  to 
an  exact  representation  of  the  real  and  the  natural,  a  heresy 
which  his  own  best  poems  triumphantly  refute,  often  led  him  to 
triviality  and  meanness  in  the  choice  both  of  subjects  and  dic- 
tion, and  marred  the  beauty  of  many  otherwise  fine  poems.  A 
fascinating  airiness  and  delicacy  of  conception  prevail  in  these 
poems,  and  the  tender  sweetness  of  expression  is  often  wonder- 
fully touching.  They  were  the  effusions  of  early  manhood,  and 
the  imperfect  embodiments  of  a  strength  which  found  a  freer 
outlet  in  prose.  "  Laodamia  "  and  "  Dion  "  are  classical  gems 
without  a  flaw ;  many  of  the  sonnets  unite  original  thought  and 
poetic  vividness  with  a  perfection  hardly  to  be  surpassed ;  above 
all,  "  The  Excursion  "  rolls  on  its  thousands  of  blank  verse  lines 
with  the  soul-felt  harmony  of  a  divine  hymn  pealed  forth  from  a 
cathedral  organ.  We  forget  the  insignificance  characterizing 
the  plan,  which  embraces  nothing  but  a  three  days'  walk  among 
the  mountains,  and  we  refuse  to  be  aroused  from  our  trance  of 
meditative  pleasure  by  the  occasional  tediousness  of  dissertation. 
*'  The  Excursion "  abounds  in  verses  and  phrases  once  heard 
never  to  be  forgotten,  and  it  contains  trains  of  poetical  musing 
through  which  the  poet  moves  with  a  majestic  fullness  of  reflec- 
tion and  imagination  not  paralleled,  by  very  far,  in  anything  else 
of  which  our  century  can  boast. 

Wilson.  Shelley,  and  Keats  make  up  the  fourth  poetical  group. 

The  principal  poems  of  Professor  Wilson  (1785-1854)  are  the 


500       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

"Isle  of  Palms,"  a  romance  of  shipwreck  and  solitude,  full  of 
rich  pictures  and  delicate  pathos,  and  the  "  City  of  the  Plague," 
a  series  of  dramatic  scenes,  representing  with  great  depth  of 
emotion  a  domestic  tragedy  from  the  plague  of  London. 

Shelley  was  the  pure  apostle  of  a  noble  but  ideal  philanthropy  ; 
yet  it  is  easy  to  separate  his  poetry  from  his  philosophy,  which, 
though  hostile  to  existing  conditions  of  society,  is  so  ethereal,  so 
imbued  with'  love  for  everything  noble,  and  yet  so  abstract  and 
impracticable,  that  it  is  not  likely  to  do  much  harm. 

Keats  poured  forth  with  great  power  the  dreams  of  his  imma- 
ture youth,  and  died  in  the  belief  that  the  radiant  forms  had 
been  seen  in  vain.  In  native  felicity  of  poetic  adornment  these 
two  were  the  first  minds  of  their  tune,  but  the  inadequacy  of 
their  performance  to  their  poetic  faculties  shows  how  needful  to 
the  production  of  effective  poetry  is  a  substratum  of  solid 
thought,  of  practical  sense,  and  of  manly  and  extensive  sympa- 
thy. 

If  we  would  apprehend  the  fullness  and  firmness  of  the  powers 
of  Shelley  (1792—1822)  without  remaining  ignorant  of  his  weak- 
ness, we  might  study  the  lyrical  drama  of  "  Prometheus  Un- 
bound," a  marvelous  galaxy  of  dazzling  images  and  wildly 
touching  sentiments,  or  the  "  Alastor,"  a  scene  in  which  the  mel- 
ancholy quiet  of  solitude  is  visited  but  by  the  despairing  poet 
who  lies  down  to  die.  We  find  here,  instead  of  sympathy  with 
ordinary  and  universal  feelings,  warmth  for  the  abstract  and  un- 
real, or,  when  the  poet's  own  unrest  prompts,  as  in  the  "  Stanzas 
Written  in  Dejection  near  Naples,"  a  strain  of  lamentation  which 
sounds  like  a  passionate  sigh.  Instead  of  clearness  of  thinking, 
we  find  an  indistinctness  which  sometimes  amounts  to  the  unin- 
telligible. In  the  "  Revolt  of  Islam,"  his  most  ambitious  poem, 
it  is  often  difficult  to  apprehend  even  the  outlines  of  the  story. 

No  youthful  poet  ever  exhibited  more  thorough  possession  of 
those  faculties  that  are  the  foundation  of  genius  than  Keats 
(1796-1820),  and  it  is  impossible  to  say  what  he  might  have 
been  had  he  lived  to  become  acquainted  with  himself  and  with 
mankind.  It  was  said  of  his  "  Endymion  "  most  truly,  that  no 
book  could  be  more  aptly  used  as  a  test  to  determine  whether  a 
reader  has  a  genuine  love  for  poetry.  His  works  have  no  inter- 
est of  story,  no  insight  into  human  nature,  no  clear  sequence  of 
thought ;  they  are  the  rapturous  voice  of  youthful  fancy,  luxuri- 
ating in  a  world  of  beautiful  unrealities. 

It  may  be  questioned  whether  Crabbe  and  Moore  are  entitled 
to  rank  with  the  poets  already  reviewed. 

Crabbe's  (1754-1832)  "Metrical  Tales,"  describing  every- 
day life,  are  striking,  natural,  and  sometimes  very  touching,  but 
they  are  warmed  by  no  kindly  thoughts  and  elevated  by  nothing 
of  ideality. 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  501 

Moore  (1780-1851),  one  of  the  most  popular  of  English  po- 
ets, will  long  be  remembered  for  his  songs,  so  melodious  and  so 
elegant  in  phrase.  His  fund  of  imagery  is  inexhaustible,  but 
oftener  ingenious  than  poetical.  His  Eastern  romances  in  "  Lalla 
Rookh,"  with  all  their  occasional  felicities,  are  not  powerful  po- 
etic narratives.  He  was  nowhere  so  successful  as  in  his  satirical 
effusions  of  comic  rhyme,  in  which  his  fanciful  ideas  are  prompted 
by  a  wit  so  gayly  sharp,  and  expressed  with  a  neatness  and 
pointedness  so  unusual,  that  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  these  pieces 
should  be  condemned  to  speedy  forgetfulness,  as  they  must  be, 
from  the  temporary  interest  of  their  topics. 

Among  the  works  of  the  numerous  minor  poets,  the  tragedies 
of  Joanna  Baillie,  with  ah1  their  faults  as  plays,  are  noble  addi- 
tions to  the  literature,  and  the  closest  approach  made  in  recent 
times  to  the  merit  of  the  old  English  drama.  After  these  may 
be  named  the  stately  and  imposing  dramatic  poems  of  Milman, 
JVIaturin's  impassioned  "  Bertram,"  and  the  finely-conceived 
"Julian"  of  Miss  Mitford. 

Rogers  and  Bowles  have  given  us  much  of  pleasing  and  re- 
flective sentiment,  accompanied  with  great  refinement  of  taste. 

To  another  and  more  modern  school  belong  Procter  (Barry 
Cornwall)  and  Leigh  Hunt;  the  former  the  purer  in  taste,  the 
latter  the  more  original  and  inventive. 

Some  of  the  lyrical  and  meditative  poems  of  Walter  Savage 
Landor  are  very  beautiful ;  his  longer  poems  sometimes  delight 
but  oftener  puzzle  us  by  their  obscurity  of  thought  and  want  of 
constructive  skill. 

The  poems  of  Mrs.  Hemans  breathe  a  singularly  attractive 
tone  of  romantic  and  melancholy  sweetness,  and  many  of  the 
ballads  and  songs  of  Hogg  and  Cunningham  will  not  soon  be 
forgotten. 

The  poems  of  Kirke  White  are  more  pleasing  than  original. 
Montgomery  has  written,  besides  many  other  poems,  not  a  few 
meditative  and  devotional  pieces  among  the  best  in  the  language. 
Pollok's  "Course  of  Tune  "  is  the  immature  work  of  a  man  of 
genius  who  possessed  very  imperfect  cultivation.  It  is  clumsy 
in  plan  and  tediously  dissertative,  but  it  has  passages  of  genuine 
poetry.  The  pleasing  verses  of  Bishop  Heber  and  the  more  re- 
cent effusions  of  Keble  may  also  be  named. 

Of  the  Scotch  poets,  James  Hogg  (d.  1835)  is  distinguished 
for  the  beauty  and  creative  power  of  his  fairy  tales,  and  Allan 
Cunningham  (d.  1842)  for  the  fervor,  simplicity,  and  natural 
grace  of  his  songs. 

Edward  Lytton  Bulwer  (Lord  Lytton)  deserves  honorable 
mention  for  his  high  sense  of  the  functions  of  poetic  art ;  for 
the  skill  with  which  his  dramas  are  constructed,  and  for  the 


502       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

overflowing  picturesqueness  which  fills  his  "  Bang  Arthur." 
Elliott,  the  Corn-Law  Rhymer,  is  vigorous  in  conception,  and 
Hood  has  a  remarkable  union  of  grotesque  humor  with  depth 
of  serious  feeling. 

Henry  Taylor  (b.  1800)  deserves  notice  for  the  fine  medita- 
tiveness  and  well-balanced  judgment  shown  in  his  dramas  and 
prose  essays.  "  Philip  Van  Artevelde  "  is  his  masterpiece. 

The  poems  of  Arthur  Hugh  Clough  (d.  1861)  are  worthy  of 
attention,  although  it  may  be  doubted  if  his  genius  reached  its 
full  development ;  in  those  of  Milnes  (Lord  Houghton,  b.  1809), 
emotion  and  intellect  are  harmoniously  blended.  R.  H.  Home 
(d.  1884)  is  the  author  of  some  noble  poems  ;  Aytoun  (d.  1865), 
of  many  ballads  of  note ;  and  in  Kingsley  (d.  1875)  the  poetic 
faculty  finds  its  best  expression  in  his  popular  lyrics. 

Alfred  Tennyson  (b.  1810)  is  by  eminence  the  representative 
poet  of  his  era.  The  central  idea  of  his  poetry  is  that  of  the 
dignity  and  efficiency  of  law  in  its  widest  sense  and  of  the  prog- 
ress of  the  race.  The  elements  which  form  his  ideal  of  human 
character  are  self-reverence,  self-knowledge,  self-control,  the  rec- 
ognition of  a  divine  order,  of  one's  own  place  in  that  order,  and 
a  faithful  adhesion  to  the  law  of  one's  highest  life.  "  In  Me- 
moriam  "  is  his  most  characteristic  work,  distinctly  a  poem  of 
this  century,  the  great  threnody  of  our  language.  The  "  Idylls  of 
the  King  "  present  in  epic  form  the  Christian  ideal  of  chivalry. 

In  Browning  (b.  1812)  the  greatness  and  glory  of  man  lie  not 
in  submission  to  law,  but  in  infinite  aspiration  towards  something 
higher  than  himself.  He  must  perpetually  grasp  at  things  attain- 
able by  his  highest  striving,  and,  finding  them  unsatisfactory,  he 
is  urged  on  by  an  endless  series  of  aspirations  and  endeavors. 
In  his  poetry  strength  of  thought  struggles  through  obscurity  of 
expresssion,  and  he  is  at  once  the  most  original  and  unequal  of 
living  poets. 

Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning  (d.  1861)  may  be  regarded  as 
the  representative  of  her  sex  in  the  present  age.  The  instinct 
of  worship,  the  religion  of  humanity,  and  a  spiritual  unity  of  zeal, 
love,  and  worship  preside  over  her  work. 

To  this  period  belong  the  writings  of  Mrs.  Norton,  Mrs. 
Blackwood,  Mrs.  Crosland,  Mary  Howitt,  and  Eliza  Cook. 

FICTION.  —  Previous  to  the  appearance  of  Scott's  novels  the 
department  of  prose  writing  had  undergone  an  elevating  process 
in  the  hands  of  Godwin,  Miss  Austen,  Miss  Porter,  and  Miss 
Edgeworth.  "  Waverley "  appeared  in  1814,  and  the  series 
which  followed  with  surprising  rapidity  obtained  universal  and 
unexampled  popularity.  The  Waverley  Novels  are  not  merely 
love  stories,  but  pictures  of  human  life  animated  by  sentiments 
which  are  cheerful  and  correct,  and  they  exhibit  history  in  a 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  503 

most  effective  light  without  degrading  facts  or  falsifying  them 
beyond  the  lawful  stretch  of  poetical  embellishment.  These 
novels  stand  in  literary  value  as  far  above  all  other  prose  works 
of  fiction  as  those  of  Fielding  stand  above  all  others  in  the  lan- 
guage except  these. 

The  novels  of  Lockhart  are  strong  in  the  representation  of 
tragic  passion.  Wilson,  in  his  "  Lights  and  Shadows  of  Scot- 
tish Life,"  shows  the  visionary  loveliness  and  pathos  which  ap- 
pear in  his  poems,  though  they  give  no  scope  to  those  powers 
of  sarcasm  and  humor  which  found  expression  elsewhere.  Ex- 
tremes in  the  tone  of  thought  and  feeling  are  shown  in  the  de- 
spondent imagination  of  Mrs.  Shelley  and  the  coarse  and  shrewd 
humor  of  Gait.  To  this  time  belong  Hope's  "  Anastasius," 
which  unites  reflectiveness  with  pathos,  and  the  delightful  scenes 
which  Miss  Mitford  has  constructed  by  embellishing  the  facts  of 
English  rural  life. 

Among  the  earlier  novels  of  the  time,  those  of  Bulwer  had 
more  decidedly  than  the  others  the  stamp  of  native  genius. 
Though  not  always  morally  instructive,  they  have  great  force 
of  serious  passion,  and  show  unusual  skill  of  design.  In  some 
of  his  later  works  he  rises  into  a  much  higher  sphere  of  ethical 
contemplation.  The  novels  of  Theodore  Hook,  sparkling  as 
they  are,  have  no  substance  to  endure  long  continuance,  nor  is 
there  much  promise  of  life  in  the  showy  and  fluent  tales  of 
James,  the  sea-stories  of  Marryat,  or  the  gay  scenes  of  Lever. 
The  novels  and  sketches  of  Mrs.  Marsh  and  Mrs.  Hall  are 
pleasing  and  tasteful  ;  Mrs.  Trollope's  portraits  of  character  are 
rough  and  clever  caricatures.  In  describing  the  lower  depart- 
ments of  Irish  life,  Banim  is  the  most  original,  Griffin  weaker, 
and  Carleton  better  than  either.  The  novels  of  Disraeli  are 
remarkable  for  their  brilliant  sketches  of  English  life  and  their 
embodiment  of  political  and  social  theories.  Miss  Martineau's 
stories  are  full  of  the  writer's  clearness  and  sagacity.  Kings- 
ley,  the  head  of  the  Christian  socialistic  school,  is  the  author  of 
many  romances,  and  the  eloquent  preacher  of  a  more  earnest 
and  practical  Christianity.  The  narrative  sketches  of  Douglas 
Jerrold  deserve  a  place  among  the  speculative  fictions  of  the 
day. 

Charlotte  Bronte  (1816-1855)  had  consummate  mastery  of 
expression,  and  a  perception  of  the  depth  of  human  nature  that 
is  only  revealed  through  suffering  experience.  The  works  of 
her  sister  Emily  show  a  powerful  imagination,  regulated  by  no 
consideration  of  beauty  of  proportion,  or  of  artistic  feeling. 

Among  those  writers  who  aim  at  making  the  novel  illustrate 
questions  that  agitate  society  most  powerfully  are  the  founders 
of  a  new  school  of  novelists,  Thackeray  and  Dickens  (1812— 


504       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

1870).  The  former  has  given  his  pictures  of  society  all  that 
character  they  could  receive  from  extraordinary  skill  of  mental 
analysis,  acute  observation,  and  strength  of  sarcastic  irony,  but 
he  has  never  been  able  to  excite  continuous  and  lively  sympathy 
either  by  interesting  incidents  or  by  deep  passion.  Dickens 
has  done  more  than  all  which  Thackeray  has  left  unattempted ; 
while  his  painting  of  character  is  as  vigorous  and  natural,  his 
power  of  exciting  emotion  ranges  with  equal  success  from  hor- 
ror sometimes  too  intense,  to  melting  pathos,  and  thence  to  a 
breadth  of  humor  which  degenerates  into  caricature.  He  cannot 
soar  into  the  higher  worlds  of  imagination,  but  he  becomes  strong, 
inventive,  and  affecting  the  moment  his  foot  touches  the  firm 
ground  of  reality,  and  nowhere  is  he  more  at  ease,  more  sharply 
observant,  or  more  warmly  sympathetic,  than  in  scenes  whose 
meanness  might  have  disgusted,  or  whose  moral  foulness  might 
have  appalled.  Of  the  later  novelists,  the  names  of  Mrs.  Craik 
(Miss  Muloch)  and  Charles  Reade  (d.  1884)  may  be  mentioned 
as  having  acquired  a  wide  popularity. 

HISTORY.  —  In  history  Niebuhr's  masterly  researches  have 
communicated  their  spirit  to  the  "  Roman  History  "  of  Arnold ; 
the  history  of  Greece  has  assumed  a  new  aspect  in  the  hands  of 
Thirlwall  and  Grote ;  and  that  of  Grecian  literature  has  been  in 
part  excellently  related  by  Muir  (d.  1860).  Modern  history 
has  likewise  been  cultivated  with  great  assiduity,  and  several 
works  of  great  literary  merit  have  appeared  which  are  valuable 
as  storehouses  of  research.  Macaulay,  in  his  great  work,  "  The 
History  of  England,"  showed  that  history  might  be  written  as  it 
had  not  been  before,  telling  the  national  story  with  accuracy  and 
force,  making  it  as  lively  as  a  novel,  through  touches  of  individ- 
ual interest  and  teaching  precious  truths  with  fascinating  elo- 
quence. Alison's  "  History  of  Europe  "  takes  its  place  among 
the  highest  works  of  its  kind.  Carlyle's  "  History  of  the  French 
Revolution  "  and  "  Life  of  Frederic  the  Great "  are  most  pic- 
turesque, attractive,  and  original  works.  The  History  of  the 
Norman  Conquest  of  England  is  the  most  important  work  of 
Freeman.  Buckle  (d.  1862)  in  his  Introduction  to  the  projected 
History  of  Civilization  in  Europe  reiterated  the  theory  that  all 
events  depend  upon  the  action  of  inevitable  law. 

CRITICISM  AND  REVIEWS.  —  In  the  art  of  criticism,  Hallam's 
(d.  1859)  "  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe  in  the  Fif- 
teenth, Sixteenth,  and  Seventeenth  Centuries "  has  taken  its 
place  as  a  classical  standard.  Among  the  fragments  of  criti- 
cism, the  most  valuable  are  those  of  De  Quincey  (d.  1860).  The 
essays  of  Macaulay  (d.  1860)  are  among  the  most  impressive  of 
all  the  periodical  papers  of  our  century. 

In  Carlyle,  a  generous  sentiment  alternates  with  despondent 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  505 

gloom  and  passionate  restlessness  and  inconsistency.  But  it  is 
impossible  to  hear,  without  a  deep  sense  of  original  power,  the 
oracular  voices  that  issue  from  the  cell ;  enigmatical,  like  the 
ancient  responses,  and  like  them  illuminating  doubtful  vaticina- 
tion with  flashes  of  wild  and  half  poetic  fantasy.  His  language 
and  thoughts  alike  set  aside  hereditary  rules,  and  are  com- 
pounded of  elements,  English  and  German,  and  elements  pre- 
dominant over  all,  which  no  name  would  fit  except  that  of  the 
author. 

Among  numerous  other  writers  may  be  mentioned  the  names 
of  William  and  Mary  Howitt,  Isaac  Taylor,  Arthur  Helps,  and 
the  brothers  Hare,  and  in  art-criticism  the  brilliant  and  paradox- 
ical Ruskin  (b.  1819J  and  the  accomplished  Mrs.  Jameson  (d. 
1860). 

The  writings  of  Christopher  North  (Professor  Wilson)  are 
characterized  by  the  quaintest  humor  and  the  most  practical 
shrewdness  combined  with  tender  and  passionate  emotion  (d. 
1854).  Those  of  Charles  Lamb  (d.  1835)  it  is  impossible  to 
describe  intelligibly  to  those  who  have  not  read  them.  Some  of 
his  scenes  are  in  sentiment,  imagery,  and  style  the  most  anoma- 
lous medleys  by  which  readers  were  ever  alternately  perplexed 
and  amused,  moved  and  delighted. 

No  man  of  his  time  influenced  social  science  so  much  as 
Jeremy  Bentham  (1748-1832).  Of  his  immediate  pupils  James 
Mill  is  the  ablest.  Cobbett,  a  vigorous  and  idiomatic  writer 
of  English,  in  the  course  of  his  long  life  advocated  all  varieties 
of  political  principle.  In  political  science  we  have  the  accurate 
McCulloch  ;  Malthus,  known  through  his  Theory  of  Population  ; 
and  Ricardo,  the  most  original  thinker  in  science  since  Adam 
Smith. 

Foster  (1770-1843)  had  originality  and  a  wider  grasp  of 
mind  than  the  other  two.  Hall  (1761—1831)  is  more  eloquent, 
but  in  oratorical  power  Chalmers  (1780-1847)  was  one  of  the 
great  men  of  our  century,  which  has  produced  few  comparable 
to  him  in  original  keenness  of  intuition,  and  who  combined  so 
much  power  of  thought  with  so  much  power  of  impressive  com- 
munication. 

In  philosophy,  Dugald  Stewart  (1753-1828)  is  one  of  the 
most  attractive  writers.  Thomas  Brown  (1778-1820),  his  suc- 
cessor in  the  chair  of  Edinburgh,  exhibited  a  subtlety  of  thought 
hardly  ever  exceeded  in  the  history  of  philosophy ;  probably  no 
writings  on  mental  philosophy  were  ever  so  popular. 

Equally  worthy  of  a  place  in  the  annals  of  their  era  are  those 
dissertations  on  the  History  of  Philosophy  contributed  to  the 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica  by  Playfair,  Leslie,  and  Mackintosh, 
and  a  system  of  Ethics  by  Bentham.  Among  the  speculations 


506      HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

in  mental  philosophy  must  also  be  placed  a  group  of  interesting 
treatises  on  the  "  Theory  of  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful,"  a 
matter  deeply  important  to  poetry  and  the  other  fine  arts,  rep- 
resented by  Alison's  essays  on  Taste,  Jeffrey's  on  Beauty,  and 
by  contributions  from  Stewart,  Thomas  Brown,  and  Payne 
Knight. 

In  political  economy  John  Mill  is  one  of  the  most  powerful 
and  original  minds  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  pure  sci- 
ences of  mind  have  been  enriched  by  important  accessions  ;  logic 
has  been  vigorously  cultivated  in  two  departments ;  on  the  one 
hand  by  Mill  and  Whewell,  the  former  following  the  tendencies 
of  Locke  and  Hobbes,  the  latter  that  of  the  German  school ; 
on  the  other  hand,  Archbishop  Whately  has  expounded  the 
Aristotelian  system  with  clearness  and  sagacity,  and  De  Mor- 
gan has  attempted  to  supply  certain  deficiencies  in  the  old  anal- 
ysis. But  by  far  the  greatest  metaphysician  who  has  appeared 
in  the  British  empire  during  the  present  century  is  Sir  William 
Hamilton.  In  his  union  of  powerful  thinking  with  profound 
and  varied  erudition,  he  stands  higher,  perhaps,  than  any  other 
man  whose  name  is  preserved  in  the  annals  of  modern  specula- 
tion. 

REVIEWS  AND  MAGAZINES.  —  A  most  curious  and  important 
fact  in  the  literary  history  of  the  age  is  the  prominence  ac- 
quired by  the  leading  Reviews  and  Magazines.  Their  high  po- 
sition was  secured  and  their  power  founded  beyond  the  possibil- 
ity of  overturn  by  the  earliest  of  the  series,  the  "  Edinburgh 
Review."  Commenced  in  1802,  it  was  placed  immediately 
under  the  editorship  of  Francis  Jeffrey,  who  conducted  it  till 
1829.  In  the  earlier  part  of  its  history  there  were  not  many 
distinguished  men  of  letters  in  the  empire  who  did  not  furnish 
something  to  its  contents ;  among  others  were  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
Lord  Brougham,  Malthus,  Playfair,  Mackintosh,  and  Sydney 
Smith.  Differences  of  political  opinion  led  to  the  establish- 
ment of  the  "  London  Quarterly,  "which  advocated  Tory  prin- 
ciples, the  Edinburgh  being  the  organ  of  the  Whigs.  Its  editors 
were  first  Gifford  and  then  Lockhart,  and  it  numbered  among 
its  contributors  many  of  the  most  famous  men  of  the  time.  The 
"  Westminster  Review  "  was  established  in  1825  as  the  organ 
of  Jeremy  Bentham  and  his  disciples. 

"  Blackwood's  Magazine,"  begun  1817,  has  contained  articles 
of  the  highest  literary  merit.  It  was  the  unflinching  and  idola- 
trous advocate  of  Wordsworth,  and  some  of  its  writers  were  the 
first  translators  of  'German  poetry  and  the  most  active  intro- 
ducers of  German  taste  and  laws  in  poetical  criticism. 

The  best  efforts  in  literary  criticism  —  the  most  brilliant  de- 
partment of  recent  literature,  have  been  with  few  exceptions 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  507 

essays  in  the  periodicals.  Among  the  essayists  the  name  of 
Francis  Jeffrey  (1773-1850)  stands  highest.  In  his  essays 
selected  for  republication  we  find  hardly  any  branch  of  general 
knowledge  untouched,  and  while  he  treated  none  without  throw- 
ing on  them  some  brilliant  ray  of  light,  he  contributed  to  many 
of  them  truths  alike  valuable  and  original.  His  criticisms  on 
Poetry  are  flowing  and  spirited,  glittering  with  a  gay  wit  and  an 
ever-ready  fancy,  and  often  blossoming  into  exquisite  felicities  of 
diction.  While  Macaulay  uses  poets  and  their  works  as  hints 
for  constructing  picturesque  dissertations  on  man  and  society, 
and  while  poetical  reading  prompts  Wilson  to  enthusiastic  bursts 
of  original  poetry,  Jeffrey,  fervid  in  his  admiration  of  genius,  but 
conscientiously  stern  in  his  respect  for  art,  tries  poetry  by  its 
own  laws,  and  his  writings  are  invaluable  to  those  who  desire  to 
learn  the  principles  of  poetical  criticism.  A  high  place  among 
the  critical  essayists  must  also  be  assigned  to  William  Hazlitt, 
who  in  his  lectures  and  elsewhere  did  manful  service  towards 
reviving  the  study  of  ancient  poetry,  and  who  prompts  to  study 
and  speculation  all  readers,  and  not  the  least  those  who  hesitate 
to  accept  his  critical  opinions. 

PHYSICAL  SCIENCE.  —  The  spirit  of  philosophical  inquiry  and 
discovery  is  increasing  in  England,  and  is  everywhere  accom- 
panied by  a  growing  tendency  to  popularize  all  branches  of 
science,  and  to  bring  them  before  the  general  mind  in  an  attrac- 
tive form. 

The  physical  sciences  have  made  marvelous  advances ;  many 
brilliant  discoveries  have  been  made  during  the  present  and  last 
generation,  and  many  scientific  men  have  brought  much  power 
of  mind  to  bear  on  questions  lying  apart  from  their  principal 
studies ;  among  them  are  Sir  David  Brewster,  Sir  John  Herschel, 
Sir  John  Playfair,  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  Hugh  Miller,  Buckland, 
and  Professor  Whewell. 

SINCE   1860. 

1.  POETRY.  —  Matthew  Arnold  (b.  1822)  has  written  some  of 
the  most  refined  verse  of  our  day,  and  among  critics  holds  the 
first  rank.  Algernon  Swinburne  (b.  1837)  excels  all  living 
poets  in  his  marvelous  gift  of  rhythm  and  command  over  the 
resources  of  the  language.  Dante  Rossetti  (d.  1883)  had  great 
lyrical  power  ;  Robert  Buchanan  has  large  freedom  and  origi- 
nality of  style ;  Edwin  Arnold  has  extraordinary  popularity  in 
the  United  States  for  his  remarkable  poem,  "  The  Light  of 
Asia,"  and  for  other  poems  on  Oriental  subjects ;  Lord  Lytton 
("  Owen  Meredith  ")  has  a  place  of  honor  among  poets  as  the 
author  of  "  Lucile  "  and  other  poems  ;  William  Morris  writes  in 


508       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

the  choicest  fashion  of  romantic  narrative  verse.  Among  other 
poets  of  the  present  generation  whose  writings  are  marked  by 
excellences  of  various  kinds  are  Edmund  Gosse,  Austin  Dobson, 
Cosmo  Monkhouse,  Andrew  Lang,  Philip  Marston,  and  Arthur 
O  Shaughnessy. 

The  poems  of  Jean  Ingelow  have  a  merited  popularity  ;  those 
of  Adelaide  Procter  (d.  1864)  are  pervaded  by  a  beautiful 
spirit  of  faith  and  hope  ;  Christina  Rossetti  shows  great  origi- 
nality and  deep  and  serious  feeling.  The  lyrics  and  dramas  of 
Augusta  Webster  are  marked  by  strength  and  breadth  of 
thought ;  the  ballads,  sonnets,  and  other  poems  of  Mary  Robin- 
son show  that  she  possesses  the  true  gift  of  song. 

2.  FICTION.  —  The  writings  of  Mrs.  Lewes,  "  George  Eliot " 
(1815-1880),  are  the  work  of  a  woman  of  rare  genius,  and  place 
her  among  the  greatest  novelists  England  has  produced.     They 
are  in  sympathy  with  all  the  varieties  of  human  character,  and 
written  in  a  spirit  of  humanity  that  is  allied  with  every  honest 
aspiration. 

Anthony  Trollope  (d.  1884)  has  produced  many  works  re- 
markable for  their  accurate  pictures  of  English  life  and  char- 
acter. George  Macdonald  and  Wilkie  Collins  are  novelists  of 
great  merit,  as  are  William  Black,  Richard  Blackmore,  Mrs. 
Oliphant,  Edmund  Yates,  Justin  McCarthy. 

3.  SCIENCE.  —  Herbert  Spencer   (b.  1820)  as  early  as  1852 
advanced  the  theory  of  the  natural  and  gradual  coalition  of  or- 
ganic life  upon  this  globe.     In  1855,  in  his  "  Principles  of  Psy- 
chology," he  gave  a  new  exposition  of  the  laws  of  mind,  based 
upon  this  principle,  and  held  that  it  is  by  experience,  registered 
in  the  slowly  perfecting  nervous  system,  that  the  mental  facul- 
ties have  been  gradually  evolved  through  long  courses  of  descent, 
each  generation  inheriting  all  that  had  been  previously  gained, 
and  adding  its  own  increment  to  the  sum  of  progress ;  that  all 
knowledge,  and  even  the  faculties  of  knowing,  originate  in  ex- 
perience, but  that  the  primary  elements  of  thought  are  a  priori 
intuitions  to  the  individual  derived  from  ancestral  expedience. 
Thus  the  intuitional  and  experience  hypotheses,  over  which  phi- 
losophers had  so  long  disputed,  were  here  for  the  first  time  recon- 
ciled.    This  work,  the  first  permanent  scientific  result  of  the 
application  of  the  law  of  evolution,  formed  a  turning-point  in 
the  thought  of  the  scientific  world.     Spencer's  prospectus  of  a 
philosophical  system,  in  which  the  principles  of  evolution  were 
applied  to  the  subjects  of  life,  mind,  society,  and  morals,  ap- 
peared in  1858,  maturely  elaborated  in  its  scientific  proofs  and 
applications,  thus    preceding   the  works  of    other    evolutionary 
writers,  the  most  distinguished  of  whom,  Charles  Dai-win  (1809- 
1883),  has  been  more  identified  in  the  popular  mind  with  the  the- 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  509 

cries  of  evolution  than  Spencer  himself.  The  writings  of  Dar- 
win have  had  a  wider  influence  and  have  been  the  subject  of 
more  controversy  than  those  of  any  other  contemporary  writer. 
In  his  "  Origin  of  Species  "  he  accounts  for  the  diversities  of  life 
on  our  globe  by  means  of  continuous  development,  without  the 
intervention  of  special  creative  fiats  at  the  origin  of  each  spe- 
cies, and  to  this  organic  evolution  he  added  the  important  prin- 
ciple of  natural  selection.  He  may  be  regarded  as  the  great  re- 
former of  biology  and  the  most  distinguished  naturalist  of  the 
age.  Tyndall  (b.  1810)  has  done  more  than  any  other  writer 
to  popularize  great  scientific  truths.  Huxley  (b.  1825)  stands 
foremost  among  physiologists  and  naturalists. 

Among  numerous  other  writers  distinguished  in  various 
branches  of  science  a  few  only  can  he  here  named.  Walter 
Bagehot  writes  on  Political  Society ;  Alexander  Bain  oil  Mind 
and  Body  ;  Henry  Maudsley  on  Brain  and  Mind ;  Norman 
Lockyer  on  Spectrum  Analysis ;  and  Sir  John  Lubbock  on 
Natural  History. 

4.  MISCELLANEOUS.  —  The  most  distinguished  historian  of 
the  times  is  James  Anthony  Froude  (b.  1818),  who,  in  his 
"  Short  Studies,"  shows  the  same  vigor  of  thought  and  power  of 
description  that  render  his  history  so  fascinating.  The  histories 
of  John  Richard  Green  are  valuable  for  their  original  research, 
and  have  a  wide  celebrity.  Max  M  tiller  has  rendered  important 
services  to  the  sciences  of  Philology  and  Ethnology,  by  his  re- 
searches in  Oriental  languages  and  literatures.  Lecky  is  eminent 
for  his  history  of  "  Rationalism  in  Europe  "  and  "  History  of 
Morals."  Leslie  Stephen,  John  Morley,  and  Addington  Symonds 
are  distinguished  in  various  departments  of  criticism  and  his- 
tory. Justin  McCarthy,  in  his  "  History  of  our  own  Times,"  has 
skillfully  presented  an  intellectual  panorama  of  the  period. 

Hamerton  writes  on  Art  and  on  general  topics  with  keen  and 
critical  observation.  Lewes  (d.  1878)  is  the  able  expounder  of 
the  philosophy  of  Comte.  Frances  Power  Cobbe,  in  her  "  Intui- 
tive Morals  "  and  other  works,  shows  strong  reasoning  powers 
and  great  earnestness  of  purpose.  John  Stuart  Mill  (d.  1873) 
holds  a  high  place  as  a  writer  on  Political  Economy,  Liberty, 
and  on  the  Subjection  of  Women.  The  periodicals  and  news- 
papers of  the  day  show  remarkable  intellectual  ability,  and  rep- 
resent the  best  contemporary  thought  in  England  in  all  depart- 
ments. 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE. 

THE  COLONIAL  PERIOD.  —  1.  The  Seventeenth  Century.  George  Sandys  ;  The  Bay  Psalm 
Book  ;  Auue  Bradstreet,  John  Eliot,  and  Cotton  Mather.  —  2.  From  1700  to  1770  ;  Jona- 
than Edwards,  Benjamin  Franklin,  Cadwallader  Colden. 

FIRST  AMERICAN  PERIOD  FROM  1771  TO  1820.—  1.  Statesmen  and  Political  Writers :  Wash- 
ington, Jefferson,  Hamilton.  The  Federalist :  Jay,  Madison,  Marshall,  Fisher  Ames,  and 
others. — 2.  The  Psets  :  Freneau,  Trumbull,  Hopkinson,  Barlow,  Clifton,  and  Dwight. — 
3.  Writers  in  other  Departments :  Bellamy,  Hopkins,  Dwight,  and  Bishop  White.  Rush, 
McClurg,  Lindley  Murray,  Charles  Brockden  Brown.  Ramsay,  Graydon.  Count  Rum- 
ford,  Wirt,  Ledyard,  Pinkney,  and  Pike. 

SECOND  AMERICAN  PERIOD  PROM  1820  TO  I860.— 1.  History,  Biography,  and  Travels  :  Ban- 
croft, Prescott,  Motley,  Godwin,  Tickuor,  Schoolcraft,  Hildreth,  Sparks,  Irving,  Headley, 
Stephens,  Kane,  Squier,  Perry,  Lynch,  Taylor,  and  others.  —  2.  Oratory  :  Webster,  Clay, 
Calhoun,  Benton,  Everett,  and  others.  —  3.  Fiction  :  Cooper,  Irving,  Willis,  Hawthorne, 
Poe,  Simms,  Mrs.  Stowe,  and  others.  —  4.  Poetry  :  Bryant,  Dana,  Halleck,  Longfellow, 
Willis,  Lowell,  Allston,  Hillhouse,  Drake,  Whittier,  Hoffman,  and  others.— 5.  The  Tran- 
scendental Movement  in  New  England. — G.  Miscellaneous  Writings  :  Whipple,  Tucker- 
man,  Curtis,  Briggs,  Prentice,  and  others. — 7.  Encyclopaedias,  Dictionaries,  and  Educa- 
tional Books.  The  Encyclopaedia  Americana.  The  New  American  Cyclopaedia.  Allibone, 
Griswold,  Duyckinck,  Webster,  Worcester,  Anthou,  Felton,  Barnard,  and  others.  —  8. 
Theology,  Philosophy,  Economy,  and  Jurisprudence :  Stuart,  Robinson,  Wayland,  Barnes, 
Channing,  Parker.  Tappan,  Henry,  Hickok,  Haven.  Carey,  Kent,  Wheaton,  Story,  Liv- 
ingston, Lawrence,  Bouvier. —  9.  Natural  Sciences:  Franklin,  Morse,  Fulton,  Silliman, 
Dana,  Hitchcock,  Rogers,  Bowditch,  Peirce,  Bache,  Holbrook,  Audubon,  Morton,  Glid- 
don,  Maury,  and  others.  —  10.  Foreign  Writers  :  Paine,  Witherspoon,  Rowson,  Priestley. 
Wilson,  Agassiz,  Guyot,  Mrs.  Robinson,  Gurowski.  and  others.  — 11.  Newspapers  and 
Periodicals.  — 12.  Since  1860. 

THE  COLONIAL  PERIOD  (1640-1770). 

1.  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY.  —  Of  all  the  nations  which 
have  sprung  into  existence  through  the  medium  of  European  col- 
onization, since  the  discovery  of  America,  the  United  States  is 
the  only  one  having  a  literature  of  its  own  creation,  and  contain- 
ing original  works  of  a  high  order.  Its  earliest  productions, 
however,  are  of  little  value ;  they  belong  not  to  a  period  of  liter- 
ary leisure,  but  to  one  of  trial  and  danger,  when  the  colonist  was 
forced  to  contend  with  a  savage  enemy,  a  rude  soil,  and  all  the 
privations  of  pioneer  life.  It  was  not  until  the  spirit  of  freedom 
began  to  influence  the  national  character,  that  the  literature  of 
the  colonies  assumed  a  distinctive  form,  although  its  earliest  pro- 
ductions are  not  without  value  as  marking  its  subsequent  devel- 
opment. 

Among  the  bold  spirits  who,  with  Captain  John  Smith,  braved 
the  pestilential  swamps  and  wily  Indians  of  Virginia,  there  were 
some  lovers  of  literature,  the  most  prominent  of  whom  was 
George  Sandys,  who  translated  Ovid's  "  Metamorphoses  "  on  the 
banks  of  James  River.  The  work,  published  in  London  in  1620, 
was  dedicated  to  Charles  I.  and  received  the  commendations  of 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE.  511 

Pope  and  Dryden.  The  Puritans,  too,  carried  a  love  of  letters 
with  them  to  the  shores  of  New  England,  and  their  literary  pro- 
ductions, like  their  colony,  took  a  far  more  lasting  root  than  did 
those  of  their  more  southern  brethren.  The  intellect  of  the  col- 
onies first  developed  itself  in  a  theological  form,  which  was  the 
natural  consequence  of  emigration,  induced  by  difference  of  re- 
ligious opinion,  the  free  scope  afforded  for  discussion,  and  the 
variety  of  creeds  represented  by  the  different  races  who  thus  met 
on  a  common  soil.  The  clergy,  also,  were  the  best  educated  and 
the  most  influential  class,  and  the  colonial  era  therefore  boasted 
chiefly  a  theological  literature,  though  for  the  most  part  contro- 
versial and  fugitive.  While  there  is  no  want  of  learning  or  rea- 
soning power  in  the  tracts  of  many  of  the  theologians  of  that  day, 
they  are  now  chiefly  referred  to  by  the  antiquarian  or  the  curious 
student  of  divinity. 

The  first  book  printed  in  the  colonies  was  the  "  Bay  Psalm 
Book,"  which  appeared  in  1640 ;  it  was  reprinted  in  England, 
where  it  passed  through  seventy  editions,  and  retained  its  popu- 
larity for  more  than  a  century,  although  it  was  not  strictly  orig 
inal,  and  was  devoid  of  literary  merit. 

This  was  followed  by  a  volume  of  original  poems,  by  Mrs. 
Anne  Bradstreet  (d.  1672)  ;  though  not  above  mediocrity,  these 
effusions  are  chaste  in  language  and  not  altogether  insipid  in 
ideas.  A  few  years  later,  John  Eliot  (1604-1690),  the  famous 
Apostle  to  the  Indians,  published  a  version  of  the  Psalms  and  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments  in  the  Indian  tongue,  which  was 
the  first  Bible  printed  in  America.  The  next  production  of  value 
was  a  "  Concordance  of  the  Scriptures,"  by  John  Newman  (d. 
1663),  compiled  by  the  light  of  pine  knots  in  one  of  the  frontier 
settlements  of  New  England ;  the  first  work  of  its  kind,  and  for 
more  than  a  century  the  most  perfect.  Cotton  Mather  (d.  1728) 
was  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  age,  and  one  of  its  rep- 
resentative writers.  His  principal  work  is  the  "  Magnalia  Christi 
Americana,"  an  ecclesiastical  history  of  New  England,  from  1620 
to  1698,  including  the  civil  history  of  the  times,  several  biogra- 
phies, and  an  account  of  the  Indian  wars,  and  of  New  England 
witchcraft.  Eliot  and  Mather  were  the  most  prominent  colonial 
writers  down  to  1700. 

2.  FROM  1700  TO  1770.  —  From  the  year  1700  to  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  Revolution,  it  was  the  custom  of  many  of  the  col- 
onists to  send  their  sons  to  England  to  be  educated.  Yale  Col- 
lege and  other  institutions  of  learning  were  established  at  home, 
from  which  many  eminent  scholars  graduated,  and,  although  it 
was  the  fashion  of  the  day  to  imitate  the  writers  of  the  time  of 
Queen  Anne  and  the  two  Georges,  the  productions  of  this  age 
exhibit  a  manly  vigor  of  thought,  and  mark  a  transition  from  the 


512       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

theological  to  the  more  purely  literary  era  of  American  author- 
ship. 

Jonathan  Edwards  (1703-1785)  was  the  first  native  writer 
who  gave  unequivocal  evidence  of  great  reasoning  power  and 
originality  of  thought ;  he  may  not  unworthily  be  styled  the  first 
man  of  the  world  during  the  second  quarter  of  the  eighteenth 
century  ;  and  as  a  theologian,  Dr.  Chalmers  and  Robert  Hall  de- 
clare him  to  have  been  the  greatest  in  all  Christian  ages.  Of  the 
works  of  Edwards,  consisting  of  diaries,  discourses,  and  treatises, 
that  on  "  The  Will  "  is  the  most  celebrated. 

Benjamin  Franklin  (1706-1790)  was  equally  illustrious  in 
statesmanship  and  philosophy.  The  style  of  his  political  and 
philosophical  writings  is  admirable  for  its  simplicity,  clearness, 
precision,  and  condensation ;  and  that  of  his  letters  and  essays 
has  all  the  wit  and  elegance  that  characterize  the  best  writers  of 
Queen  Anne's  time.  His  autobiography  is  one  of  the  most  pleas- 
ing compositions  in  the  English  language,  and  his  moral  writings 
have  had  a  powerful  influence  on  the  character  of  the  American 
people. 

From  the  early  youth  of  Franklin  until  about  the  year  1770, 
general  literature  received  much  attention,  and  numerous  pro- 
ductions of  merit  both  in  prose  and  verse  appeared,  which,  if  not 
decidedly  great,  were  interesting  for  the  progress  they  displayed. 
Many  practical  minds  devoted  themselves  to  colonial  history,  and 
their  labors  have  been  of  great  value  to  subsequent  historians. 
Among  these  historical  writings,  those  of  Cadwallader  Golden 
(1688-1776)  take  the  first  rank.  As  we  approach  the  exciting 
dawn  of  the  Revolution,  the  growing  independence  of  thought 
becomes  more  and  more  manifest. 

FIRST  AMEKICAN  PERIOD  0770-1820). 

1.  STATESMEN  AND  POLITICAL  WRITERS. — Among  the  causes 
which  rapidly  developed  literature  and  eloquence  in  the  colonies, 
the  most  important  were  the  oppressions  of  the  mother  country, 
at  first  silently  endured,  then  met  with  murmurs  of  dissatisfac- 
tion, and  finally  with  manful  and  boldly-expressed  opposition. 
Speeches  and  pamphlets  were  the  weapons  of  attack,  and  treat- 
ing as  they  did  upon  subjects  affecting  the  individual  liberty  of 
every  citizen,  they  had  a  powerful  influence  on  the  public  mind, 
and  went  far  towards  severing  that  mental  reliance  upon  Europe 
which  American  authorship  is  now  so  rapidly  consummating. 
The  conventionalism  of  European  literature  was  cast  aside,  and 
the  first  fruits  of  native  genius  appeared.  The  public  documents 
of  the  principal  statesmen  of  the  age  of  the  Revolution  were  de- 
clared by  Lord  Chatham  to  equal  the  finest  specimens  of  Greek 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE.  513 

or  Roman  wisdom.  The  historical  correspondence  of  this  period 
constitutes  a  remarkable  portion  of  American  literature,  and  is 
valuable  not  only  for  its  high  qualities  of  wisdom  and  patriotism, 
but  for  its  graces  of  expression  and  felicitous  illustration.  The 
letters  of  Washington,  Adams,  Jefferson,  Franklin,  Jay,  Morris, 
Hamilton,  and  many  of  their  compatriots,  possess  a  permanent 
literary  value  aside  from  that  which  they  derive  from  their  au- 
thorship and  the  gravity  of  their  subjects. 

The  speeches  of  many  of  the  great  orators  of  the  age  of  the 
Revolution  are  not  preserved,  and  are  known  only  by  tradition. 
Of  the  eloquence  of  Otis,  which  was  described  as  %k  flames  of 
fire,"  there  are  but  a  few  meagre  reports ;  the  passionate  appeals 
of  Patrick  Henry  and  of  the  elder  Adams,  which  u  moved  the 
hearers  from  their  seats,"  and  the  resistless  declamation  of  Pink- 
ney  and  Rutledge,  are  preserved  only  in  the  history  of  the  effects 
which  these  orators  produced. 

The  writings  of  Washington  (1732— 1799),  produced  chiefly  in 
the  camp  surrounded  by  the  din  of  arms,  are  remarkable  for 
clearness  of  expression,  force  of  language,  and  a  tone  of  lofty 
patriotism.  They  are  second  to  none  of  similar  character  in  any 
nation,  and  they  display  powers  which,  had  they  been  devoted 
to  literature,  would  have  achieved  a  position  of  no  secondary 
character. 

Jefferson  (1743-1826)  early  published  a  "  Summary  View  of 
the  Rights  of  British  America,"  which  passed  through  several 
editions  in  London,  under  the  supervision  of  Burke.  His  "  Notes 
on  Virginia"  is  still  a  standard  work,  and  his  varied  and  exten- 
sive correspondence  is  a  valuable  contribution  to  American  polit- 
ical history.  * 

Hamilton  (1757-1804)  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men 
of  the  time,  and  to  his  profound  sagacity  the  country  was  chiefly 
indebted  for  a  regulated  currency  and  an  established  credit  after 
the  conclusion  of  the  war.  During  a  life  of  varied  and  absorb- 
ing occupation  as  a  soldier,  lawyer,  and  statesman,  he  found  time 
to  record  his  principles ;  and  his  writings,  full  of  energy  and 
sound  sense,  are  noble  in  tone,  and  deep  in  wisdom  and  insight. 
"  The  Federalist,"  a  joint  production  of  Hamilton,  Madison,  and 
Jay,  exhibits  a  profundity  of  research  and  an  acuteness  of  under- 
standing which  would  do  honor  to  the  most  illustrious  statesmen 
of  any  age.  The  name  of  Madison  (1751-1836)  is  one  of  the 
most  prominent  in  the  history  of  the  country,  and  his  writings, 
chiefly  on  political,  constitutional,  and  historical  subjects,  are  of 
extraordinary  value  to  the  student  in  history  and  political  phi- 
losophy. 

Marshall  (1755-1835)  was  for  thirty-five  years  chief-justice 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  ;  a  court,  the  powers 


514       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

of  which  are  greater  than  were  ever  before  confided  to  a  judicial 
tribunal.  Determining,  without  appeal,  its  own  jurisdiction  arid 
that  of  the  legislative  and  executive  departments,  this  court  is  not 
merely  the  highest  estate  in  the  country,  but  it  settles  and  contin- 
ually moulds  the  constitution  of  the  government.  To  the  dutie3 
of  his  office,  Judge  Marshall  brought  a  quickness  of  conception 
commensurate  with  their  difficulty,  and  the  spirit  and  strength 
of  one  capable  of  ministering  to  the  development  of  a  nation. 
The  vessel  of  state,  it  has  been  said,  was  launched  by  the  pat- 
riotism of  many  ;  the  chart  of  her  course  was  designed  chiefly  by 
Hamilton  ;  but  when  the  voyage  was  begun,  the  eye  that  observed, 
the  head  that  reckoned,  and  the  hand  that  compelled  the  ship  to 
keep  her  course  amid  tempests  without,  and  threats  of  mutiny 
within,  were  those  of  the  great  chief-justice,  whom  posterity  will 
reverence  as  one  of  the  founders  of  the  nation.  Marshall's 
"  Life  of  Washington  "  is  a  faithful  and  conscientious  narrative, 
written  in  a  clear,  unpretending  style,  and  possesses  much  liter- 
ary merit. 

Fisher  Ames  (1758-1808),  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  federal 
party  during  the  administration  of  Washington,  was  equally  ad- 
mired for  his  learning  and  eloquence  ;  although,  owing  to  the 
temporary  interest  of  many  of  the  subjects  on  which  he  wrote, 
his  reputation  has  somewhat  declined. 

Among  other  writers  and  orators  of  the  age  of  the  Revolu- 
tion were  Warren,  Adams,  and  Otis,  Patrick  Henry,  Rutledge, 
Livingston,  Drayton,  Quincy,  Dickinson,  and  numerous  firm  and 
gifted  men,  who,  by  their  logical  and  earnest  appeals  roused  the 
country  to  the  assertion  of  its  rights  and  gave  a  wise  direction 
to  the  power  they  thus  evoked. 

2.  THE  POETS.  —  One  of  the  most  distinguished  poets  of  the 
Age  of  the  Revolution  was  Philip  Freneau  (1752-1832).  Al- 
though many  of  his  compositions  which  had  great  political  effect 
at  the  time  they  were  written  have  little  merit,  or  relate  to  for- 
gotten events,  enough  remains  to  show  that  he  was  not  wanting 
in  genius  and  enthusiasm. 

John  Trumbull  (1750-1831)  was  the  author  of  "McFingal," 
a  humorous  poem  in  the  style  of  Butler's  Hudibras,  the  object  of 
which  was  to  render  ludicrous  the  zeal  and  logic  of  the  tories. 
There  is  no  contemporaneous  record  which  supplies  so  vivid  a 
representation  of  the  manners  of  the  age,  and  the  habits  and 
modes  of  thinking  that  then  prevailed.  The  popularity  of  Mc- 
Fingal was  extraordinary,  and  it  had  an  important  influence  on 
the  great  events  of  the  time.  Trumbull  was  a  tutor  in  Yale  Col- 
lege, and  attempted  to  introduce  an  improved  course  of  study 
and  discipline  into  the  institution,  which  met  with  much  opposi- 
tion. His  most  finished  poem,  "  The  Progress  of  Dullness,"  was 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE.  515 

hardly  less  serviceable  to  the  cause  of  education  than  his  Mc- 
Fingal  was  to  that  of  liberty.  Francis  Hopkinson  (1738-1791), 
another  wit  of  the  Revolution,  may  be  ranked  beside  Trumbull 
for  his  efficiency  in  the  national  cause. 

Joel  Barlow  (1755-1812)  as  an  author  was  among  the  first  of 
his  time.  His  principal  work  is  the  "  Columbiad,"  an  epic  poem 
which,  with  many  faults,  has  occasional  bursts  of  patriotism  and 
true  eloquence,  which  should  preserve  it  from  oblivion.  His 
pleasing  poem  celebrating  "  Hasty  Pudding  "  has  gained  a  more 
extensive  popularity.  The  few  songs  of  William  Clifton  (1772— 
1799),  a  more  original  and  vigorous  poet,  are  imbued  with  the 
true  spirit  of  lyric  poetry. 

Timothy  Dwight  (1752—1819)  was  the  author  of  "  Greenfield 
Hill,"  the  "  Conquest  of  Canaan,"  an  epic  poem,  and  several 
other  productions ;  but  his  fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  merits  as  a 
theologian,  in  which  department  he  had  few  if  any  equals. 
Many  other  names  might  be  cited,  but  none  of  commanding  ex- 
cellence. 

3.  WRITERS  ix  OTHER  DEPARTMENTS.  —  Although  in  the 
period  immediately  succeeding  the  Revolution  there  was  a 
strong  tendency  to  political  discussion,  not  a  few  writers  found 
exercise  in  other  departments.  Theology  had  its  able  expound- 
ers in  Bellamy,  Hopkins,  Dwight,  and  Bishop  White.  Barton 
merits  especial  notice  for  his  work  on  botany,  and  for  his  ethno- 
logical investigations  concerning  the  Indian  race,  and  Drs.  Rush 
and  McClurg  were  eminent  in  various  departments  of  medical 
science.  In  1795,  Lindley  Murray  (1745-1826)  published  his 
English  Grammar,  which  for  a  long  time  held  its  place  as  the 
best  work  of  the  kind  in  the  language. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  during  this  period 
very  few  writers  devoted  themselves  exclusively  to  literature. 
Charles  Brockden  Brown  (1771—1810)  was  the  first  purely  pro- 
fessional author.  His  chief  productions  are  two  works  of  fiction, 
"  Wieland  "  and  ''  Arthur  Mervyn,"  which  from  their  merit, 
and  as  the  first  of  American  creations  in  the  world  of  romance, 
were  favorably  received,  and  early  attracted  attention  in  Eng- 
land. 

One  of  the  earliest  laborers  in  the  field  of  history  was  David 
Ramsay  (1749-1815),  and  his  numerous  works  are  monuments 
of  his  unwearied  research  and  patient  labor  for  the  public  good 
and  the  honor  of  his  country.  Graydon's  (1742—1818)  "  Mem- 
oirs of  his  own  Times,  with  Reminiscences  of  Men  and  Events 
of  the  Revolution,"  illustrates  the  most  interesting  and  important 
period  of  our  history,  and  combines  the  various  excellences  of 
style,  scholarship,  and  impartiality. 

Benjamin  Thompson  (1753-1814),  better  known  by  his  title 


516       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

of  Count  Rumford,  acquired  an  extensive  reputation  in  the  scien- 
tific world  for  his  various  philosophical  improvements  in  private 
and  political  economy.  William  Wirt  was  the  author  of  the 
"  Letters  of  the  British  Spy,"  which  derives  its  interest  from  its 
descriptions  and  notices  of  individuals.  His  "  Life  of  Patrick 
Henry  "  is  a  finished  piece  of  biography,  surpassed  by  few  works 
of  its  kind  in  elegance  of  style  and  force  of  narrative. 

John  Ledyard  (1751-1788),  who  died  in  Egypt  while  prepar- 
ing for  the  exploration  of  Central  Africa,  was  the  first  important 
contributor  to  the  literature  of  travel,  in  America,  and  his  jour- 
nals, abounding  in  pleasing  description  and  truthful  narratives, 
have  become  classic  in  this  department  of  letters.  A  captivat- 
ing book  of  travels  in  France,  by  Lieutenant  Pinkney,  which  ap- 
peared in  1809,  created  such  a  sensation  in  England,  that  Leigh 
Hunt  tells  us  it  set  all  the  idle  world  going  to  France.  Zebulon 
Pike,  under  the  auspices  of  the  government,  published  the  first 
book  ever  written  on  the  country  between  the  Mississippi  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains. 

SECOND  AMERICAN  PERIOD  (1820-1860). 

1.  HISTORY,  BIOGRAPHY,  AND  TRAVELS.  —  From  the  year 
1820,  American  literature  may  be  considered  as  fairly  launched 
upon  its  national  career.  The  early  laborers  in  the  field  had 
immense  difficulties  to  encounter  from  ridicule  abroad  and  want 
of  appreciation  at  home  ;  but  they  at  last  succeeded  in  dispelling 
all  doubts  as  to  the  capability  of  the  American  mind  for  the  ex- 
ercise of  original  power,  and  to  some  extent  diverted  public 
thought  from  Europe  as  an  exclusive  source  of  mental  supplies. 
The  era  we  are  now  to  consider  will  be  found  prolific  in  works 
of  merit,  and  the  expansion  of  mind  will  be  seen  to  have  kept 
pace  with  the  political,  social,  and  commercial  progress  of  the 
nation.  No  subject  of  human  knowledge  has  been  overlooked ; 
many  European  works  have  been  elucidated  by  the  fresh  light 
of  the  American  mind ;  a  new  style  of  thought  has  been  devel- 
oped ;  new  scenes  have  been  opened  to  the  world,  and  Europe  is 
receiving  compensation  in  kind  for  the  intellectual  treasures  she 
has  heretofore  sent  to  America. 

The  marvelous  growth  of  the  United  States,  its  relations  to 
the  past  and  future,  and  to  the  great  problem  of  humanity,  ren- 
der its  history  one  of  the  most  suggestive  episodes  in  the  annals  of 
the  world,  and  give  to  it  a  universal  as  well  as  a  special  dignity. 
Justly  interpreted,  it  is  the  practical  demonstration  of  principles 
which  the  noblest  spirits  of  England  advocated  with  their  pens, 
and  often  sealed  with  their  blood.  The  early  colonists  were  famil- 
iar with  the  responsibilities  and  progressive  tendency  of  liberal 
institutions,  and  in  achieving  the  Revolution  they  only  carried 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE.  517 

out  what  had  long  existed  in  idea,  and  actualized  the  views  of 
Sidney  and  his  illustrious  compeers.  Through  this  intimate  re- 
lation with  the  past  of  the  Old  World,  and  as  initiative  to  its  fu- 
ture self-enfranchisement,  our  history  daily  unfolds  new  meaning 
and  increases  in  importance  and  interest.  It  is  only  within  the 
last  quarter  of  a  century,  however,  that  this  theme  has  found 
any  adequate  illustration.  Before  that  time  the  labors  of  Amer- 
ican historians  had  been  chiefly  confined  to  the  collection  of 
materials,  the  unadorned  record  of  facts  which  rarely  derived 
any  charm  from  the  graces  of  style  or  the  resources  of  philoso- 
phy- 

The  most  successful  attempt  to  reduce  the  chaotic  but  rich 
materials  of  American  history  to  order,  beauty,  and  moral  signifi- 
cance has  been  made  by  Bancroft  (b.  1800),  who  has  brought  to 
the  work  not  only  talent  and  scholarship  of  high  order,  but  an 
earnest  sympathy  with  the  spirit  of  the  age  he  was  to  illustrate. 
In  sentiment  and  principle  his  history  is  thoroughly  American, 
although  in  its  style  and  philosophy  it  has  that  broad  and  eclec- 
tic spirit  appropriate  to  the  general  interest  of  the  subject,  and 
the  enlightened  sympathies  of  the  age.  Unwearied  and  patient 
in  research,  discriminating  and  judicious  in  the  choice  of  author- 
ities, and  possessed  of  all  the  qualities  required  to  fuse  into  a 
vital  unity  the  narrative  thus  carefully  gleaned,  Bancroft  has 
written  the  most  accurate  and  philosophical  account  that  has 
been  given  of  the  United  States. 

The  works  of  Prescott  (1796-1858)  are  among  the  finest 
models  of  historical  composition,  and  they  breathe  freely  the 
spirit  of  our  liberal  institutions.  His  "  History  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella,"  of  the  "  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  and  the  "  Conquest 
of  Peru,"  unite  all  the  fascination  of  romantic  fiction  with  the 
grave  interest  of  authentic  events.  The  picturesque  and  roman- 
tic character  of  his  subjects,  the  harmony  and  beauty  of  his  style, 
the  dramatic  interest  of  his  narrative,  and  the  careful  research 
which  renders  his  works  as  valuable  for  their  accuracy  as  they 
are  attractive  for  their  style,  have  given  Prescott's  histories  a 
brilliant  and  extensive  reputation ;  and  it  is  a  matter  of  deep  re- 
gret that  his  last  and  crowning  work,  "  The  History  of  Philip  II.," 
should  remain  uncompleted.  Another  important  contribution  to 
the  literature  of  the  country  is  Motley's  (1814-1877)  "History 
of  the  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  a  work  distinguished  for  its 
historical  accuracy,  philosophical  breadth  of  treatment,  and 
clearness  and  vigor  of  style.  The  narrative  proceeds  with  a 
steady  and  easy  flow,  and  the  scenes  it  traces  are  portrayed 
with  the  hand  of  a  master ;  while  the  whole  work  is  pervaded 
by  a  spirit  of  humanity  and  a  genuine  sympathy  with  liberty. 
Parke  Godwin's  "  History  of  France  "  is  remarkable  for  its  com- 


518       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

bination  of  deep  research,  picturesqueness  of  style ;  and  John 
Foster  Kirk  is  the  author  of  a  valuable  history  of  Charles  the 
Bold. 

Ticknor's  (1791-1871)  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature,"  as 
an  intellectual  achievement,  ranks  with  the  best  productions  of 
its  kind,  and  is  everywhere  regarded  by  scholars  as  a  standard 
authority.  It  is  thoroughly  penetrated  with  the  true  Castilian 
spirit,  and  is  a  complete  record  of  Spanish  civilization,  both  so- 
cial and  intellectual,  equally  interesting  to  the  general  reader 
and  to  the  student  of  civil  history.  It  has  been  translated  into 
several  languages. 

Henry  R.  Schoolcraft  has  devoted  much  time  to  researches 
among  the  Indian  tribes  of  North  America,  and  embodied  the 
result  of  his  labors  in  many  volumes,  containing  their  traditions, 
and  the  most  interesting  facts  of  their  history.  Catlin's  "  Notes 
on  the  Manners,  Customs,  and  Conditions  of  the  North  American 
Indians,"  though  without  literary  pretensions  or  literary  merit, 
fills  an  important  place  in  ethnological  literature.  Another 
work  of  a  more  historical  character  is  "  The  History  of  the  In- 
dian Tribes  of  North  America,"  the  joint  production  of  Hall 
and  McKinney.  Bradford's  "American  Antiquities  and  Re- 
searches into  the  Origin  of  the  Red  Race  "  is  also  an  able  and 
instructive  work.  In  Hildreth's  "  History  of  the  United  States," 
rhetorical  grace  and  effect  give  way  to  a  plain  narrative  confined 
to  facts  gleaned  with  great  care  and  conscientiousness.  The 
"  Field-Book  of  the  Revolution,"  by  Lossing,  who  has  visited  all 
the  scenes  of  that  memorable  war,  and  delineated  them  with  pen 
and  pencil,  is  a  work  which  finds  its  way  to  all  the  school  libra- 
ries of  the  country.  Cooper's  "Naval  History  of  the  United 
States  "  abounds  in  picturesque  and  thrilling  descriptions  of  na- 
val warfare,  and  is  one  of  the  most  characteristic  histories,  both 
in  regard  to  style  and  subject,  yet  produced  in  America. 

S.  G.  Goodrich  (1793-1860),  who,  under  the  name  of  Peter 
Parley,  has  acquired  an  extensive  popularity  in  England  and 
the  United  States,  was  the  pioneer  in  the  important  reform  of 
rendering  historical  school-books  attractive,  and  his  numerous 
works  occupy  a  prominent  place  in  the  literature  designed  for 
the  young.  Two  other  able  writers  in  this  department  are  John 
S.  C.  and  Jacob  Abbott. 

Among  the  numerous  local  and  special  histories,  valuable  for 
their  correctness  and  literary  merit,  are  Brodhead's  "  History 
of  New  York,"  Palfrey's  and  Elliott's  Histories  of  New  Eng- 
land, Trumbull's  "  History  of  Connecticut,"  Hawks's  "  History 
of  North  Carolina,"  and  Dr.  Francis's  "  Historical  Sketches." 

To  the  department  of  Biography,  Jared  Sparks  has  made 
many  valuable  contributions.  Washington  Irving's  "  Life  and 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE.  519 

Voyages  of  Columbus  "  and  "  Life  of  Washington  "  have  gained 
a  popularity  as  extensive  as  the  fame  of  this  charming  writer. 
Mrs.  Kirkland,  also,  has  written  a  popular  "  Life  of  Washing- 
ton." The  biographies  and  histories  of  J.  T.  Headley  are  re- 
markable for  a  vivacity  and  energy,  which  have  given  them 
great  popularity.  The  '•  Biographical  and  Historical  Studies  " 
of  G.  W.  Greene,  Randall's  "  Life  of  Jefferson,"  Parton's  Biog- 
raphies of  Aaron  Burr  and  other  celebrated  men,  Mrs.  Ellet's 
"  Women  of  the  Revolution  "  and  "  Women  Artists  in  all  Ages," 
and  Mrs.  Bale's  "Sketches  of  Distinguished  Women  in  all 
Ages,"  are  among  the  numerous  works  belonging  to  this  depart- 
ment. 

The  restlessness  of  the  American  character  finds  a  mode  of 
expression  in  the  love  of  travel  and  adventure,  and  within  the 
last  thirty  years  no  nation  has  contributed  to  literature  more 
interesting  books  of  travel  than  the  United  States.  Flint's 
"  Wanderings  in  the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi,"  Schoolcraft's 
"  Discoveries  and  Adventures  in  the  Northwest,"  Irving's  "  As- 
toria," and  Fremont's  Reports  are  instructive  and  entertaining 
accounts  of  the  West.  The  "  Incidents  of  Travel  "  of  John  L. 
Stephens  (1805—1857)  has  had  remarkable  success  in  Europe 
as  well  as  in  this  country.  The  adventurous  Arctic  explorations 
of  E.  K.  Kane  (1822-1857)  have  elicited  universal  admiration 
for  the  interest  of  their  descriptions  and  for  the  heroism  and 
indomitable  energy  of  the  writer.  These  narratives  have  been 
followed  by  those  of  Hayes  in  the  same  field  of  adventure.  The 
scientific  explorations  of  E.  G.  Squier  have  thrown  new  light  on 
the  antiquities  and  ethnology  of  the  aboriginal  tribes  of  Amer- 
ica. Wilkes's  "  Narrative  of  the  United  States  Exploring  Ex- 
pedition "  and  Perry's  "  Narrative  of  an  Expedition  to  Japan  " 
are  full  of  scientific  and  general  information.  Lynch's  "  Explo- 
ration of  the  Dead  Sea  "  and  Herndon's  "  Valley  of  the  Ama- 
zon "  belong  to  the  same  class.  Bartlett's  "  Explorations  in 
Texas  and  New  Mexico  "  is  interesting  from  the  accuracy  of  its 
descriptions  and  the  novelty  of  the  scenes  it  describes.  Among 
the  numerous  other  entertaining  books  of  travel  in  foreign  coun- 
tries are  those  of  Bayard  Taylor,  who  has  left  few  parts  of  the 
world  unvisited ;  Dana's  "  Two  Years  Before  the  Mast ;  "  Cur- 
tis's  "  Nile  Notes ; "  Norman's  "  Cities  of  Yucatan ; "  Dix's  "  Win- 
ter in  Madeira;"  Brace's  "Hungary,"  "  Home  Life  in  Germany," 
and  "  Norse  Folk  ;  "  Olmsted's  "  Travels  in  the  Seaboard  Slave 
States,"  and  other  works ;  Ross  Browne's  "  Notes,"  Prime's 
"Boat"  and  "Tent  Life,"  and  "Letters  of  Iremeus ;  "  Slidell's 
"  Year  in  Spain  ; "  Willis's  "  Pencillings  by  the  Way ; "  Hillard's 
"  Six  Months  in  Italy  "  and  "  Letters ; "  "  Memories  "  and  "  Sou- 
venirs," by  Catherine  M.  Sedgwick,  Sarah  Haight,  Harriet 


520       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

Beecher   Stowe,  Grace    Greenwood,    and   Octavia  Walton    Le 
Vert. 

2.  ORATORY.  —  The  public  speeches  of  a  nation's  chief  legis- 
lators are  shining  landmarks  of  its  policy  and  lucid  developments 
of  the  character  and  genius  of  its  institutions.     Of  the  statesmen 
of  the  present  century,  the  most  eminent  are  Webster,  Clay,  and 
Calhoun.     Daniel  Webster  (1782-1852)  is  acknowledged  to  be 
one  of  the  greatest  men  America  has  produced.     His  speeches 
and  forensic  arguments  constitute  a  characteristic  as  well  as  an 
intrinsically  valuable  and  interesting  portion  of  our  native  litera- 
ture, and  some  of  his  orations  on  particular  occasions  are  every- 
where recognized  as  among  the  greatest  instances  of  genius  in 
this  branch  of  letters  to  be  met  with  in  modern  times.     The 
style  of  Webster  is  remarkable  for  its  clearness  and  impressive- 
ness,  and  rises  occasionally  to  absolute  grandeur.     His  dignity 
of  expression,  breadth  and  force  of  thought  realize  the  ideal  of 
a  republican  statesman ;  his  writings,  independent  of  their  lit- 
erary merit,  are  invaluable  for  the  nationality  of  their  tone  and 
spirit. 

The  speeches  of  Henry  Clay  (1777-1852)  are  distinguished 
by  a  sincerity  and  warmth  which  were  characteristic  of  the  man, 
who  united  the  gentlest  affections  with  the  pride  of  the  haugh- 
tiest manhood.  His  style  of  oratory,  full,  flowing,  and  sensuous, 
was  modulated  by  a  voice  of  sustained  power  and  sweetness  and 
a  heart  of  chivalrous  courtesy,  and  his  eloquence  reached  the 
heart  of  the  whole  nation. 

The  style  of  John  C.  Calhoun  (1782-1850)  was  terse  and  con- 
densed, and  his  eloquence,  though  sometimes  impassioned,  was 
always  severe.  He  had  great  skill  as  a  dialectician  and  remark- 
able power  of  analysis,  and  his  works  will  have  a  permanent  place 
in  American  literature.  The  writings  and  speeches  of  John 
Quincy  Adams  (1769-1848)  are  distinguished  by  universality 
of  knowledge  and  independence  of  judgment,  and  they  are  re- 
positories of  rich  materials  for  the  historian  and  political  phi- 
losopher. Benton's  (1783-1858)  "  Thirty  Years'  View  "  of  the 
working  of  the  American  government  is  a  succession  of  historical 
pictures  which  will  increase  in  value  as  the  scenes  they  portray 
become  more  distant.  Edward  Everett  (1794-1865),  as  an  ora- 
tor, has  few  living  equals,  and  his  occasional  addresses  and  ora- 
tions have  become  permanent  memorials  of  many  important 
occasions  of  public  interest.  Of  the  numerous  other  orators, 
eminent  as  rhetoricians  or  debaters,  a  few  only  can  be  named ; 
among  them  are  Legare,  Randolph,  Choate,  Sumner,  Phillips, 
Preston,  and  Prentiss. 

3.  FICTION.  —  Romantic  fiction  found  its  first  national  de- 
velopment in  the  writings  of  James  Fenimore  Cooper  (1789- 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE.  521 

1851),  and  through  his  wovks  American  literature  first  became 
widely  known  in  Europe.  His  nautical  and  Indian  tales ;  his 
delineations  of  the  American  mind  in  its  adventurous  character, 
and  liis  vivid  pictures  of  the  aborigines,  and  of  forest  and  fron- 
tier life,  from  their  freshness,  power,  and  novelty,  attracted  uni- 
versal attention,  and  were  translated  into  the  principal  European 
languages  as  soon  as  they  appeared.  "  The  Spy,"  "  The  Pio- 
neers," "  The  Last  of  the  Mohicans,"  and  numerous  other  pro- 
ductions of  Cooper,  must  hold  a  lasting  place  in  English  litera- 
ture. 

The  genial  and  refined  humor  of  Washington  Irving  (1783— 
1859),  his  lively  fancy  and  poetic  imagination,  have  made  his 
name  a  favorite  wherever  the  English  language  is  known.  He 
depicts  a  great  variety  of  scenes  and  character  with  singular 
skill  and  felicity,  and  his  style  has  all  the  ease  and  grace,  the 
purity  and  charm,  that  distinguish  that  of  Goldsmith,  with  whom 
he  may  justly  be  compared.  "  The  Sketch-Book  "  and  "  Knick- 
erbocker's History  of  New  York  "  are  among  the  most  admired 
of  his  earlier  writings,  and  his  later  works  have  more  than  sus- 
tained his  early  fame. 

The  tales  and  prose  sketches  of  N.  P.  Willis  are  characterized 
by  genial  wit.  and  a  delicate  rather  than  a  powerful  imagina- 
tion, while  beneath  his  brilliant  audacities  of  phrase  there  is  a 
current  of  original  thought  and  genuine  feeling.  Commanding 
all  the  resources  of  passion,  while  he  is  at  the  same  time  master 
of  ah1  the  effects  of  manner,  in  the  power  of  ingenious  and  subtle 
comment  on  passing  events,  of  sketching  the  lights  and  shadows 
which  flit  over  the  surface  of  society,  of  playful  and  felicitous 
portraiture  of  individual  traits,  and  of  investing  his  descriptions 
with  the  glow  of  vitality,  this  writer  is  unsurpassed. 

Hawthorne  is  remarkable  for  the  delicacy  of  his  psychological 
insight,  his  power  of  intense  characterization,  and  for  his  mas- 
tery of  the  spiritual  and  the  supernatural.  His  genius  is  most  at 
home  when  delineating  the  darker  passages  of  life  and  the  emo- 
tions of  guilt  and  pain.  He  does  not  feel  the  necessity  of  time 
or  space  to  realize  his  spells,  and  the  early  history  of  New  Eng- 
land and  its  stern  people  have  found  no  more  vivid  illustration 
than  his  pages  afford.  The  style  of  Hawthorne  is  the  pure 
colorless  medium  of  his  thought ;  the  plain  current  of  his  lan- 
guage is  always  equable,  full  and  unvarying,  whether  in  the 
company  of  playful  children,  among  the  ancestral  associations 
of  family  or  history,  or  in  grappling  with  the  mysteries  and  ter- 
rors of  the  supernatural  world.  "  The  Scarlet  Letter "  is  a 
psychological  romance,  a  study  of  character  in  which  the  human 
heart  is  anatomized  with  striking  poetic  and  dramatic  power. 
"  The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables "  is  a  tale  of  retribution  and 


522       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

expiation,  dating  from  the  time  of  the  Salem  witchcraft.  "  The 
Marble  Faun''  is  the  most  elaborate  and  powerfully  drawn  of 
his  later  works. 

Edgar  A.  Poe  (1811-1849)  acquired  much  reputation  as  a 
writer  of  tales  and  many  of  his  productions  exhibit  extraordi- 
nary metaphysical  acuteness,  and  an  imagination  that  delights 
to  dwell  in  the  shadowy  confines  of  human  experience,  among 
the  abodes  of  crime  and  horror.  A  subtle  power  of  analysis,  a 
minuteness  of  detail,  a  refinement  of  reasoning  in  the  anatomy 
of  mystery,  give  to  his  most  improbable  inventions  a  wonderful 
reality. 

Of  the  numerous  writings  of  William  Gilmore  Simms,  histori- 
cal or  imaginative  romances  form  no  inconsiderable  part.  As  a 
novelist  he  is  vigorous  in  delineation,  dramatic  in  action,  poetic 
in  description,  and  skilled  in  the  art  of  story-telling.  His  pic- 
tures of  Southern  border  scenery  and  life  are  vivid  and  nat- 
ural. 

Harriet  Beecher  Stowe  was  well  known  as  a  writer  before  the 
appearance  of  the  work  which  has  given  her  a  world-wide  repu- 
tation. No  work  of  fiction  of  any  age  ever  attained  so  immediate 
and  extensive  a  popularity  as  "  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin  ;  "  before  the 
close  of  the  first  year  after  its  publication  it  had  been  translated 
into  all  the  languages  of  Europe ;  many  millions  of  copies  had 
been  sold,  and  it  had  been  dramatized  in  twenty  different  forms, 
and  performed  in  every  capital  of  Europe. 

Besides  the  authors  already  named,  there  is  a  crowd  of  others 
of  various  and  high  degrees  of  merit  and  reputation,  but  whose 
traits  are  chiefly  analogous  to  those  already  described.  Paul- 
ding,  in  "  Westward  Ho  "  and  "  The  Dutchman's  Fireside,"  has 
drawn  admirable  pictures  of  colonial  !ife ;  Dana,  in  "  The  Idle 
Man,"  has  two  or  three  remarkable  tales  ;  Flint,  Hall,  and  Web- 
ber have  written  graphic  and  spirited  tales  of  Western  life. 
Kennedy  has  described  Virginia  life  in  olden  times  in  "  Swallow 
Barn  ;  "  and  Fay  has  described  "  Life  in  New  York  ;  "  Hoffman 
has  embodied  the  early  history  of  New  York  in  a  romantic  form, 
and  Dr.  Bird,  that  of  Mexico.  William  Ware's  "  Probus  "  and 
"  Letters  from  Palmyra "  are  classical  romances,  and  Judd's 
"  Margaret "  is  a  tragic  story  of  New  England  life.  Cornelius 
Mathews  has  chosen  new  subjects,  and  treated  them  in  an  origi- 
nal way ;  John  Neal  has  written  many  novels  full  of  power  and 
incident.  The  "Hyperion"  and  "Kavanagh"  of  Longfellow 
establish  his  success  as  a  writer  of  fiction ;  and  in  adventurous 
description,  the  "  Omoo "  and  "  Typee "  of  Melville,  and  the 
"  Kaloolah  "  and  "  Berber  "  of  Mayo  have  gained  an  extensive 
popularity. 

This  department  of  literature  has  been  ably  represented  by 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE.  523 

the  women  of  the  United  States,  and  their  contributions  form  an 
important  part  of  our  national  literature.  Catharine  M.  Sedg- 
wick  has  written  the  most  pleasing  and  graphic  tales  of  New 
England  life.  Lydia  M.  Child  is  the  author  of  several  fictions, 
as  well  as  other  prose  works,  which  evince  great  vigor,  beauty, 
and  grace.  Maria  J.  Mclntosh  has  written  many  charming 
tales  ;  the  "  New  Home  "  of  Mrs.  Kirkland,  an  admirable  pic- 
ture of  frontier  life,  was  brilliantly  successful,  and  will  be  per- 
manently valuable  as  representing  scenes  most  familiar  to  the 
early  settlers  of  the  Western  States.  The  works  of  the  Misses 
Warner  are  equally  popular  in  England  and  the  United  States. 
Among  numerous  other  names  are  those  of  Eliza  Leslie,  Lydia 
H.  Sigourney.  Caroline  Gilman,  E.  Oakes  Smith,  Alice  and 
Phrebe  Cary,  Elizabeth  F.  Ellet,  Sarah  J.  Hale,  Emma  Willard, 
Caroline  Lee  Hentz,  Alice  B.  Neal,  Caroline  Chesebro,  Emma 
Southworth,  Ann  S.  Stephens,  Maria  Cummings,  Anna  Mowatt 
Ritchie,  Rose  Terry  Cooke,  Harriet  Prescott  Spofford,  Augusta 
J.  Evans,  Catharine  A.  Warfield,  and  the  writers  under  the  as- 
sumed names  of  Fanny  Forrester,  Grace  Greenwood,  Fanny 
Fern,  Marion  Harland,  and  Mary  Forrest,  besides  many  anon- 
ymous writers. 

4.  POETRY.  —  America  has  as  yet  produced  no  great  epic 
poet,  although  the  existence  of  a  high  degree  of  poetical  talent 
cannot  be  denied.  Carrying  the  same  enthusiasm  into  the  world 
of  fancy  that  he  does  into  the  world  of  fact,  the  American  finds 
in  the  cultivation  of  the  poetic  faculty  a  pleasant  relief  from  the 
absorbing  pursuits  of  daily  life ;  hence,  while  poetry  is  some- 
times cultivated  as  an  art,  it  is  oftener  resorted  to  as  a  pastime ; 
the  number  of  writers  is  more  numerous  here  than  in  any  other 
country,  and  the  facility  of  poetical  expression  more  universal. 
William  C.  Bryant  (1794-1878)  is  recognized  as  the  best  rep- 
resentative of  American  poetry.  He  is  extremely  felicitous  in 
the  use  of  native  materials,  and  he  has  a  profound  love  of  nature 
and  of  freedom  united  with  great  artistic  skill.  He  is  eminently 
a  contemplative  poet ;  in  his  writings  there  is  a  remarkable  ab- 
sence of  those  bursts  of  tenderness  and  passion  which  constitute 
the  essence  of  a  large  portion  of  modern  verse.  His  strength 
lies  in  his  descriptive  power,  in  his  serene  and  elevated  philos- 
ophy, and  in  his  noble  simplicity  of  language.  Richard  H.  Dana 
(1787-1879)  is  the  most  psychological  of  the  American  poets ; 
the  tragic  and  remorseful  elements  of  humanity  exert  a  powerful 
influence  over  his  imagination,  while  the  mysteries  and  aspira- 
tions of  the  human  soul  fill  and  elevate  his  mind.  His  verse  is 
sometimes  abrupt,  but  never  feeble.  The  poems  of  Fitz-Greene 
Halleck  are  spirited  and  warm  with  emotion,  or  sparkling  with 
genuine  wit.  His  humorous  poems  are  marked  by  an  uncom- 


524       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

mon  ease  of  versification,  a  natural  flow  of  language,  and  a  play- 
ful felicity  of  jest ;  his  serious  poems  are  distinguished  for  manly 
vigor  of  thought  and  language,  and  a  beauty  of  imagery.  The 
poems  of  Henry  W.  Longfellow  (1807-1882)  are  chiefly  medi- 
tative, and  often  embody  and  illustrate  significant  truths.  They 
give  little  evidence  of  the  power  of  overmastering  passion,  but 
they  are  pervaded  with  an  earnestness  and  beauty  of  sentiment, 
expressed  in  a  finished  and  artistic  form,  which  at  once  wins 
the  ear  and  impresses  the  memory  and  heart.  In  "Evangeline  " 
and  "  Hiawatha,"  the  most  popular  of  his  later  productions,  he 
has  skillfully  succeeded  in  the  use  of  metres  unusual  in  English. 
The  poems  of  N.  P.  Willis  (1807-1867)  are  characterized  by  a 
vivid  imagination  and  a  brilliant  wit,  combined  with  grace  of 
utterance  and  artistic  finish.  His  picturesque  elaborations  of 
some  of  the  incidents  recorded  in  the  Bible  are  the  best  of  his 
poetical  compositions.  His  dramas  are  delicate  creations  of  sen- 
timent and  passion  with  a  relish  of  the  Elizabethan  age.  J.  R. 
Lowell  (b.  1819)  unites  in  his  most  effective  poems  a  philosophic 
simplicity  with  a  transcendental  suggestiveness.  Imagination 
and  philantliropy  are  the  dominant  elements  in  his  writings, 
which  are  marked  by  a  graceful  flow  and  an  earnest  tone.  His 
satires  contain  many  sharply-drawn  portraits,  and  his  humorous 
poems  are  replete  with  wit. 

Washington  Allston  (1779-1843)  owed  his  chief  celebrity  to 
his  paintings,  but  his  literary  works  alone  would  have  given  him 
high  rank  among  men  of  genius.  His  poems  are  delicate,  subtle, 
and  philosophical,  and  though  few  in  number,  they  are  exquisite 
in  finish  and  in  the  thoughts  which  they  embody. 

James  A.  Hillhouse  (1789—1841)  excelled  in  what  may  be 
called  the  written  drama,  which,  though  unsuited  to  representa- 
tion, is  characterized  by  noble  sentiment  and  imagery.  His 
dramatic  and  other  poems  are  the  first  instances  in  this  country 
of  artistic  skill  in  the  higher  and  more  elaborate  spheres  of  poetic 
writing,  and  have  gained  for  him  a  permanent  place  among  the 
American  poets.  The  "  Culprit  Fay  "  of  Joseph  Rodman  Drake 
(1795-1820)  is  a  poem  exhibiting  a  most  delicate  fancy  and 
much  artistic  skill.  It  was  a  sudden  and  brilliant  flash  of  a 
highly  poetical  mind  which  was  extinguished  before  its  powers 
were  fully  expanded.  The  poetry  of  John  G.  Whittier  (b.  1809) 
is  characterized  by  boldness,  energy,  and  simplicity,  often  united 
with  tenderness  and  grace ;  that  of  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  by 
humor  and  genial  sentiment.  In  poetry,  as  in  prose,  Edgar  A. 
Poe  was  most  successful  in  the  metaphysical  treatment  of  the 
passions.  His  poems,  which  are  constructed  with  great  ingenu- 
ity, illustrate  a  morbid  sensitiveness  and  a  shadowy  and  gloomy 
imagination.  The  poems  of  Henry  T.  Tuckerman  (1813-1871) 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE.  525 

are  expressions  of  graceful  and  romantic  sentiment  or  the  fruits 
of  reflection,  illustrated  with  a  scholar's  taste. 

Charles  Fenno  Hoffman  (1806-1884)  is  the  author  of  many 
admired  convivial  and  amatory  poems,  and  George  P.  Morris  is 
a  recognized  song-writer  of  America. 

Of  numerous  other  poets,  whose  names  are  familiar  to  all 
readers  of  American  literature,  a  few  only  can  be  named  ;  among 
them  are  John  G.  C.  Brainerd,  James  G.  Percival,  Richard  H. 
Wilde,  James  G.  Brooks,  Charles  Sprague,  Alfred  B.  Street,  T. 
Buchanan  Read,  T.  B.  Aldrich,  William  Allen  Butler,  Albert 
G.  Greene,  George  D.  Prentice,  William  J.  Pabodie,  Park  Benja- 
min, William  Gilmore  Simms,  John  R.  Thompson,  William 
Ross  Wallace,  Charles  G.  Leland,  Thomas  Dunn  English,  Wil- 
liam D.  Gallagher,  Albert  Pike,  John  G.  Saxe,  James  T.  Fields, 
Arthur  Cleveland  Coxe,  Cornelius  Mathews,  John  Neal,  and 
Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. 

Among  the  literary  women  of  the  United  States  are  many 
graceful  writers  who  possess  true  poetical  genius,  and  enjoy  a 
high  local  reputation.  The  "  Zophiel "  of  Maria  Brooks  (1795— 
1845)  evinces  an  uncommon  degree  of  power  in  one  of  the  most 
refined  and  difficult  provinces  of  creative  art.  Frances  S.  Osgood 
(1812—1850)  was  endowed  with  great  playfulness  of  fancy,  and 
a  facility  of  expression  which  rendered  her  almost  an  improvisa- 
trice.  Her  later  poems  are  marked  by  great  intensity  of  feeling 
and  power  of  expression.  The  "  Sinless  Child "  of  Elizabeth 
Oakes  Smith  is  a  melodious  and  imaginative  poem,  with  many 
passages  of  deep  significance.  Amelia  B.  Welby's  poems  are 
distinguished  for  sentiment  and  melody.  The  "  Passion  Flow- 
ers "  and  other  poems  of  Julia  Ward  -Howe  are  full  of  ardor  and 
earnestness.  Mrs.  Sigourney's  metrical  writings  are  cherished 
by  a  large  class  of  readers.  Hannah  F.  Gould  has  written  many 
pretty  and  fanciful  poems,  and  Grace  Greenwood's  "  Ariadne  " 
is  a  fine  burst  of  womanly  pride  and  indignation.  Among  many 
other  equally  well  known  and  honored  names,  there  are  those  of 
Elizabeth  F.  Ellet,  Emma  C.  Embury,  Sarah  J.  Hale,  Anna 
Mowatt  Ritchie,  Ann  S.  Stephens,  Sarah  H.  Whitman,  Catha- 
rine A.  Warfield,  and  Eleanor  Lee.  ("  Two  Sisters  of  the  West ") 
Alice  and  Phrebe  Gary,  "  Edith  May,"  Caroline  C.  Marsh,  Eliz- 
abeth C.  Kinney,  and  Maria  Lowell. 

Nothing  of  veiy  decided  mark  has  been  contributed  to  dra- 
matic literature  by  American  writers,  though  this  branch  of  let- 
ters has  been  cultivated  with  some  success.  John  Howard 
Payne  wrote  several  successful  plays ;  George  H.  Boker  is  the 
author  of  many  dramatic  works  which  establish  his  claim  to  an 
honorable  rank  among  the  dramatic  writers  of  the  age.  Single 
dramas  by  Bird,  Sargent,  Conrad,  and  other  writers  still  keep 
34 


526       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

their  place  upon  the  stage ;  with  many  faults,  they  abound  in 
beauties,  and  they  are  valuable  as  indications  of  awakening  gen- 
ius. 

5.  THE  TRANSCENDENTAL  MOVEMENT  IN  NEW  ENGLAND. 
• — The  Transcendental  Philosophy,  so-called,  had  its  distinct 
origin  in  the  "Critique  of  Pure  Reason,"  the  work  of  Iinmanuel 
Kant,  which  appeared  in  Germany  in  1781,  although,  under 
various  foritis,  the  questions  it  discussed  are  as  old  as  Plato  and 
Aristotle.  The  first  principle  of  this  philosophy  is  that  ideas 
exist  in  the  soul  which  transcend  the  senses,  while  that  of  the 
school  of  Locke,  or  the  School  of  Sensation,  is  that  there  is 
nothing  in  the  intellect  that  was  not  first  in  the  senses.  The 
Transceiidentalist  claimed  an  intuitive  knowledge  of  God,  belief 
in  immortality,  and  in  man's  ability  to  apprehend  absolute  ideas 
of  truth,  justice,  and  rectitude.  The  one  regarded  expediency, 
prudence,  caution,  and  practical  wisdom  as  the  liighest  of  the 
virtues,  and  distrusted  alike  the  seer,  the  prophet,  and  the  re- 
former. The  other  was  by  nature  a  reformer  and  dissatisfied  with 
men  as  they  are,  but  with  passionate  aspirations  for  a  pure  so- 
cial state,  he  recognized,  above  all,  the  dignity  of  the  individual 
man. 

These  two  schools  of  philosophy  aimed  at  the  same  results,  but 
by  different  methods.  The  one  worked  up  from  beneath  by 
material  processes,  the  other  worked  down  from  above  by  intel- 
lectual ones.  There  had  been  in  other  countries  a  transcen- 
dental philosophy,  but  in  New  England  alone,  where  the  sense 
of  individual  freedom  was  active,  and  where  there  were  no  fixed 
and  unalterable  social  conditions,  was  this  philosophy  applied 
to  actual  life.  Of  late  the  scientific  method,  so  triumphant  in 
the  natural  world,  has  been  applied  to  the  spiritual,  and  the 
principles  of  the  sensational  philosophy  have  been  re-stated  by 
Bain,  Mill,  Spencer,  and  other  leaders  of  speculative  opinion, 
who  present  it  under  the  name  of  the  "  Philosophy  of  Experi- 
ence," and  resolve  the  intuitions  of  the  ideal  into  the  results  of 
experience  and  the  processes  of  organic  life.  Mill  was  the  first 
to  organize  the  psychological  side,  while  Lewes,  Spencer,  and 
Tyndall  have  approached  the  same  problem  from  the  side  of 
organization.  Should  these  analyses  be  accepted,  Idealism  as  a 
philosophy  must  disappear.  There  is,  however,  no  cause  to  ap- 
prehend a  return  to  the  demoralization  which  the  sensualist 
doctrines  of  the  last  century  were  accused  of  encouraging.  The 
attitude  of  the  human  mind  towards  the  great  problems  of  des- 
tiny has  so  far  altered,  and  the  problems  themselves  have  so  far 
changed  their  face,  that  no  shock  will  be  felt  in  the  passage 
from  the  philosophy  of  intuition  to  that  of  experience. 

Early  in  the  second  quarter  of  our  century  the  doctrines  of 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE.  527 

Kant  and  of  his  German  followers,  Jacobi,  Fichte,  and  Schelling, 
found  their  way  into  New  England,  and  their  influence  on 
thought  and  life  was  immediate  and  powerful,  affecting  religion, 
literature,  laws,  and  institutions.  As  an  episode  or  special 
phase  of  thought,  it  was  of  necessity  transient,  but  had  it  be- 
queathed nothing  more  than  the  literature  that  sprang  from  it 
and  the  lives  of  the  men  and  women  who  had  their  intellec- 
tual roots  in  it,  it  would  have  conferred  a  lasting  benefit  on 
America. 

Among  the  first  to  plant  the  seeds  of  the  Transcendental 
Philosophy  in  New  England  was  George  Eipley  (1802-1880),  a 
philanthropist  on  ideal  principles,  whose  faith  blossomed  into 
works,  and  whose  well  known  attempt  to  create  a  new  earth  in 
preparation  for  a  new  heaven,  although  it  ended  in  failure,  com- 
manded sympathy  and  respect.  Later,  as  a  critic,  he  aided  the 
development  of  literature  in  America  by  erecting  a  high  stand- 
ard of  judgment  and  by  his  just  estimation  of  the  rights  and 
duties  of  literary  men. 

Theodore  Parker  (d.  1860)  owed  his  great  power  as  a  preacher 
to  his  faith  in  the  Transcendental  philosophy.  The  Absolute 
God,  the  Moral  Law,  and  the  Immortal  Life  he  held  to  be  the 
three  cardinal  attestations  of  the  universal  consciousness.  The 
authority  of  the  "  higher  law,"  the  absolute  necessity  of  religion 
for  safely  conducting  the  life  of  the  individual  and  the  life  of  the 
state,  he  asseverated  with  all  the  earnestness  of  an  enthusiastic 
believer. 

A.  Bronson  Alcott  (b.  1799)  is  a  philosopher  of  the  Mystic 
school.  Seeking  wisdom,  not  through  books,  but  by  intellectual 
processes,  he  appeals  at  once  to  consciousness,  claims  immediate 
insight,  and  contemplates  ultimate  laws  in  his  own  soul.  His 
"  Orphic  Sayings  "  amused  and  perplexed  the  critics,  who  made 
them  an  excuse  for  assailing  the  entire  Transcendental  school. 

Margaret  Fuller  (1810-1850)  adopted  the  spiritual  philoso- 
phy, and  had  the  subtlest  perception  of  its  bearings.  Her  vig- 
orous and  original  writings  possess  a  lasting  value,  although  they 
imperfectly  represent  her  remarkable  powers. 

Among  the  representatives  of  the  Spiritual  Philosophy  the 
first  place  belongs  to  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  (1803-1882),  who 
lighted  up  its  doctrines  with  the  rays  of  ethical  and  poetical  im- 
agination. Without  the  formality  of  dogma,  he  was  a  teacher 
of  vigorous  morality  in  line  with  the  ruling  tendencies  of  the 
age,  and  bringing  all  the  aid  of  abstract  teaching  towards  the 
solution  of  the  moral  problems  of  society. 

The  first  article  of  his  faith  is  the  primacy  of  Mind ;  that 
Mind  is  supreme,  eternal,  absolute,  one,  manifold,  subtle,  living, 
immanent  in  all  things,  permanent,  flowing,  self-manifesting ; 


528       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

that  the  universe  is  the  result  of  mind  ;  that  nature  is  the  sym» 
bol  of  mind  ;  that  finite  minds  live  and  act  through  concurrence 
with  infinite  mind.  His  second  is  the  connection  of  the  individ- 
ual intellect  with  the  primal  mind  and  its  ability  to  draw  thence 
wisdom,  will,  virtue,  prudence,  heroism,  all  active  and  passive 
qualities. 

In  his  essays,  which  are  prose  poems,  he  lays  incessant  em- 
phasis on  the  cardinal  virtues  of  humility,  sincerity,  obedience, 
aspiration,  and  acquiescence  to  the  will  of  the  Supreme  Powgr, 
and  he  sustains  the  mind  at  an  elevation  that  makes  the  heights 
of  accepted  morality  disappear  in  the  level  of  the  plain.  With 
many  inconsistencies  to  be  allowed  for,  Emerson  still  remains 
the  highest  mind  that  the  world  of  letters  has  produced  in  Amer- 
ica, inspiring  men  by  word  and  example,  rebuking  their  despond- 
ency, awakening  them  from  the  slumber  of  conformity  and  con- 
vention, and  lifting  them  from  low  thoughts  and  sullen  moods 
of  helplessness  and  impiety. 

Among  other  writers  identified  with  the  Transcendental 
movement  in  New  England  are  O.  B.  Frothingham,  Orestes  A. 
Brownson,  James  Freeman  Clarke,  William  H.  Channing, 
Henry  Thoreau,  John  S.  Dwight,  C.  P.  Oanch,  W.  E.  Chan- 
ning, T.  W.  Higginson,  C.  A.  Bartol,  D.  A.  Wasson,  John  Weiss, 
and  Samuel  Longfellow. 

6.  MISCELLANEOUS  WRITINGS. —  Of  the  essayists,  critics,  and 
miscellaneous  writers  of  the  United  States,  a  few  only  may  be 
here  characterized. 

Parke  Godwin  is  a  brilliant  political  essayist.  E.  P.  Whipple  . 
is  an  able  critic  and  an  essayist  of  great  acuteness,  insight,  and 
logical  power.  H.  T.  Tuckerman  is  a  genial  and  appreciative 
writer,  combining  extensive  scholarship  with  elevated  sentiment 
and  feeling.  Richard  Grant  White's  "  Commentaries  on  Shak- 
speare  "  have  met  with  a  cordial  reception  from  all  Shakspearean 
scholars. 

Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  conceals  under  the  garb  of  wit  and 
humor  an  earnest  sympathy  and  a  deep  knowledge  of  human 
nature ;  George  W.  Curtis  combines  fine  powers  of  observation 
and  satire  with  delicacy  of  taste  and  refinement  of  feeling ;  and 
Donald  G.  Mitchell  gives  to  the  world  his  "  Reveries  "  in  a  pleas- 
ing and  attractive  manner.  The  writings  of  A.  J.  Downing,  on 
subjects  relating  to  rural  life  and  architecture,  have  exercised  a 
wide  and  salutary  influence  on  the  taste  of  the  country.  Willis 
Gaylord  Clark  (1810-1841)  is  best  remembered  by  his  "  Olla- 
podiana  "  and  his  occasional  poems,  in  which  humor  and  pathos 
alternately  prevail.  The  *'  Charcoal  Sketches  "  of  Joseph  C. 
Neal  (1807-1847)  exhibit  a  genial  humor,  and  will  be  remem- 
bered for  the  curious  specimens  of  character  they  embody. 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE.  529 

Seba  Smith  has  been  most  successful  in  adapting  the  Yankee 
dialect  to  the  purposes  of  humorous  writing  in  his  "  Jack  Down- 
ing's  Letters  "  and  other  productions.  The  writings  of  Henry 
D.  Thoreau,  combining  essay  and  description,  are  quaint  and 
humorous,  while  those  of  "Timothy  Titcomb  "  (J.  G.  Holland) 
are  addressed  to  the  practical  common  sense  of  the  American 
people. 

Charles  T.  Brooks  (d.  1883)  is  distinguished  for  his  felicitous 
translations  from  the  German  poets  and  writers. 

The  writings  of  George  D.  Prentice  abound  in  wit  and  humor. 
W.  H.  Hurlburt  is  an  able  expositor  of  political  affairs  and  a 
brilliant  descriptive  writer. 

7.  ENCYCLOPAEDIAS,  DICTIONARIES,  AND  EDUCATIONAL  BOOKS. 
The  Encyclopaedia  Americana,  the  first  work  of  the  kind  un- 
dertaken in  America,  appeared  in  1829,  under  the  auspices  of 
Dr.  Lieber,  and  contains  articles  on  almost  every  subject  of  hu- 
man knowledge.  The  New  American  Cyclopaedia,  edited  by 
George  Ripley  and  Charles  A.  Dana,  is  a  work  on  a  larger  and 
more  original  plan,  and  is  particularly  valuable  as  the  repository 
of  all  knowledge  bearing  upon  American  civilization,  while  at 
the  same  time  it  embodies  a  great  amount  of  interesting  and 
valuable  information  on  all  subjects.  Allibone's  "  Dictionary 
of  English  Authors,"  completed  in  four  large  volumes,  exceeds 
all  similar  works  in  the  number  of  authors  it  describes  and  the 
details  it  contains.  Among  the  works  containing  abundant 
materials  for  the  history  of  American  literature  are  the  several 
volumes  of  Rufus  W.  Griswold,  the  "  Cyclopaedia  of  American 
Literature,"  by  G.  L.  and  E.  A.  Duyckinck,  and  other  collec- 
tions or  sketches  by  Hart,  Cleveland,  Tuckerman,  Everest,  and 
Caroline  May. 

The  Dictionary  of  Noah  Webster  (1778-1843),  an  elaborate 
and  successful  undertaking,  has  exercised  an  influence  over  the 
English  language  which  will  probably  endure  for  generations. 
The  more  recent  publication  of  Worcester's  Dictionary,  which 
adds  many  thousand  words  to  the  registered  English  vocabulary, 
marks  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  language.  It  is  regarded 
by  competent  critics  as  the  first  of  all  English  dictionaries  in 
point  of  merit,  and  as  the  fitting  representative  of  the  language 
of  the  two  great  branches  of  the  Anglican  stock.  The  "  Lec- 
tures on  the  English  Language,"  by  George  P.  Marsh,  exhibit  a  ' 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  subject,  and  are  admirably  designed 
to  render  the  study  attractive  to  all  persons  of  taste  and  cul- 
ture. 

The  scholars  of  Europe  are  much  indebted  to  those  of  Amer- 
ica for  their  investigations  of  the  Karen,  the  Siamese,  Asamese, 
Chinese,  and  numerous  African  languages  ;  and  for  grammars 


530       HANDBOOK   OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

and  dictionaries  of  the  Burmese,  Chinese,  the  Hawaiian,  and  the 
modern  Armenian,  Syrian,  and  Chaldee  tongues.  Foreign  and 
comparatively  unknown  languages  have  thus  been  reduced  to  a 
system  and  grammar  by  which  they  can  readily  be  acquired  by 
Europeans.  Many  valuable  works  have  also  appeared  on  the 
language  of  the  American  Indians. 

The  text-books  of  the  United  States  are  unsurpassed  by  those 
of  any  country,  and  many  of  them  are  in  use  in  England. 
Among  them  are  Anthon's-  admirable  series  of  Latin  and  Greek 
Classics  and  Classical  Dictionary,  Robinson's  Hebrew  and  Eng- 
lish Dictionary  of  Gesenius,  and  the  Latin  and  English  Diction- 
ary of  Andrews,  founded  on  the  celebrated  work  of  Freund. 

Felton's  "  Classical  Studies,"  and  his  various  editions  of  the 
classics,  have  been  ably  prepared  and  evince  a  scholar's  enthu- 
siasm. Henry  Barnard,  by  his  '"  Journal  of  Education "  and 
numerous  other  writings,  is  identified  with  the  cause  of  popular 
education  and  has  acquired  an  extensive  reputation  in  Europe 
and  the  United  States.  Horace  Mann  is  also  widely  known 
through  his  "  Reports  "  on  education  ;  and  in  the  practical  car- 
rying out  of  profound  liberal  and  national  views  in  our  colleges, 
Presidents  Nott,  Tappan,  Wayland,  Sears,  King,  and  Barnard 
have  been  eminently  successful. 

8.  THEOLOGY,  PHILOSOPHY,  ECONOMY,  AXD  JURISPRUDENCE. 
It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  theological  writers  of  this 
countiy  are  among  the  ablest  of  modern  times,  and  the  diversity 
of  sects,  a  curious  and  striking  fact  in  our  social  history,  is  fully 
illustrated  by  the  literary  organs  of  each  denomination,  from  the 
spiritual  commentaries  of  Bush  to  the  ardent  Catholicism  of 
Brownson.  The  works  of  Moses  Stuart  (1780-1852),  Edward 
Robinson,  Francis  Wayland,  and  Albert  Barnes  are  standard 
authorities  with  all  classes  of  Protestant  Christians. 

William  Ellery  Channing  (1780-1842)  achieved  a  wide  repu- 
tation for  genius  in  ethical  literature,  and  as  a  moral  essayist  will 
hold  a  permanent  place  in  English  letters.  Among  other  mem- 
bers of  the  clerical  profession  who  have  had  a  marked  influence 
on  the  mind  of  the  age  by  their  scholarship  or  eloquence  are 
Drs.  Hickok,  C.  S.  Henry,  Tappan,  H.  B.  Smith,  Hitchcock,  W. 
R.  Williams,  Alexander,  Bethune,  Hawks,  Sprague,  Bushnell, 
Thompson,  Tyng,  Bartol,  Dewey,  Norton,  Frothingham,  Osgood, 
Chapin,  Bellows,  Furness,  Livermore,  Ware,  Peabody,  and  Henry 
Ward  Beecher. 

The  philosophical  writings  of  Dr.  Tappan,  the  author  of  a 
"  Treatise  on  the  Will  "  and  a  work  on  the  "  Elements  of  Logic," 
those  of  C.  S.  Henry,  Wayland,  Hickok,  and  Haven  have  an  ex- 
tensive reputation  ;  and  of  the  various  works  on  political  econ- 
omy those  of  Henry  C.  Carey  are  most  widely  known. 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE.  531 

Most  prominent  among  the  writings  of  American  jurists  are 
those  of  Kent,  Wheaton,  Story,  Livingston,  Lawrence,  and  Bou- 
vier.  Kent's  (1768-1847)  "  Commentaries  "  on  American  Law 
at  once  took  a  prominent  place  in  legal  literature,  and  are  now 
universally  considered  of  the  highest  authority.  Of  Wheaton's 
(1785-1848)  great  works  on  International  Law,  it  is  sufficient 
to  say  that  one  has  been  formally  adopted  by  the  University  of 
Cambridge,  England,  as  the  best  work  of  its  kind  extant, 
and  as  a  manual  for  tuition  by  the  professors  of  legal  science. 
Among  modern  legal  writers,  Story  (1779-1845)  occupies  a  dis- 
tinguished position.  His  "  Commentaries  "  have  acquired  a  Eu- 
ropean reputation,  and  have  been  translated  into  French  and 
German.  Livingston's  (1764-1833)  ''  System  of  Penal  Laws 
for  the  United  States,"  since  its  publication  in  1828,  has  materi- 
ally modified  the  penal  laws  of  the  world,  and  may  be  considered 
the  first  complete  penal  system  based  upon  philanthropy,  and 
designed  to  substitute  mildness  for  severity  in  the  punishment  of 
criminals.  Bouvier's  "  Institutes  of  American  Law  "  and  "  Dic- 
tionary of  Law  "  are  considered  as  among  the  best  works  of 
their  kind,  both  in  the  United  States  and  Europe.  Other 
branches  of  legal  research  have  been  treated  in  a  masterly  man- 
ner by  American  writers,  and  many  authors  might  be  named 
whose  works  take  a  high  rank  in  both  hemispheres. 

9.  NATURAL  SCIENCES.  —  The  physical  sciences,  from  an 
early  period,  have  found  able  investigators  in  the  United  States. 
Benjamin  Thompson  (Count  Rumford)  successfully  applied  his 
knowledge  to  increase  the  convenience,  economy,  and  comfort  of 
mankind.  Franklin's  discoveries  in  electricity,  the  most  brill- 
iant which  had  yet  been  made,  have  been  followed  by  those  of 
Morse,  whose  application  of  that  power  to  the  telegraphic  wire  is 
one  of  the  most  wonderful  achievements  of  modern  science. 
Fitch  and  Fulton  were  the  first  to  apply  steam  to  navigation,  a 
force  which  has  become  one  of  the  most  powerful  levers  of  civ- 
ilization. In  chemistry  the  works  of  Hare,  Silliman,  Henry, 
Hunt,  and  Morfit  are  equally  honorable  to  themselves  and  the 
country.  The  names  of  Dana,  Hitchcock,  Hall,  the  brothers 
Rogers,  Eaton,  Hodge,  Owen,  and  Whitney  are  identified  with 
the  science  of  geology  in  the  United  States.  The  names  of  Tor- 
rey  and  Gray  are  eminent  in  botany,  and  the  writings  of  the  latter 
especially  rank  among  the  most  valuable  botanical  works  of  the 
age.  The  mathematical  sciences  have  found  able  expounders. 
The  merits  of  Dr.  Bowditch  (1773-1838)  entitle  him  to  a  high 
rank  among  the  mathematicians  of  the  world.  His  Commentary 
on  the  "  Mecanique  Celeste  "  of  La  Place,  which  he  translated, 
is  an  original  work,  and  contains  many  discoveries  of  his  own. 
His  "  Practical  Navigator  "  is  the  universally  adopted  guide  in 


532       HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

the  American  marine,  and  to  a  great  extent  in  the  naval  service 
of  England  and  France. 

In  mathematics  as  well  as  astronomy,  Peirce  and  Hill  have 
shown  themselves  able  investigators.  Bache,  of  the  United 
States  Coast  Survey,  has  made  many  valuable  contributions  to 
physical  science.  The  astronomical  works  of  Professors  Loomis, 
Gould,  Norton,  Olmsted,  and  Mitchell  hold  a  high  position  in 
the  United  States  and  Europe  ;  and  valuable  astronomical  obser- 
vations have  been  made  by  Lieutenants  Maury  and  Gillies,  and 
Maria  Mitchell. 

In  natural  history,  Holbrook's  "  North  American  Herpetol- 
ogy,"  or  a  description  of  the  reptiles  of  the  United  States,  is  a 
work  of  great  magnitude,  and  sustains  a  high  scientific  reputa- 
tion. Audubon's  (1780-1851)  "  Birds  of  America  "  is  the  most 
magnificent  work  on  ornithology  ever  published.  Since  the 
death  of  Audubon,  the  subject  to  which  he  devoted  his  life  has 
been  pursued  by  Cassin  and  Girard,  who  rank  with  him  as  nat- 
uralists. Goodrich's  "  Animal  Kingdom  "  is  a  recent  popular 
work  in  this  department. 

The  "  Crania  Americana  "  of  Dr.  Morton,  the  "  Crania  Egyp- 
tiaca  "  of  Gliddon,  and  the  "  Types  of  Mankind,"  the  joint  pro- 
duction of  the  above  writers  and  Dr.  Nott,  are  important  con- 
tributions to  the  department  of"  ethnology. 

DeVere  and  Dwight  are  eminent  writers  on  philology  ;  Jar- 
vis,  Hough,  Tucker,  DeBow,  Kennedy,  and  Wynne,  on  statis- 
tics. 

Medical  literature  has  been  ably  illustrated,  and  American 
writers  on  naval  and  military  affairs  have  contributed  largely 
to  the  effectiveness  of  modern  warfare.  Geographical  knowledge 
has  been  greatly  increased.  Many  explorations  and  publications 
have  been  made  under  the  patronage  of  the  government,  and 
many  excellent  maps  and  charts  have  been  executed  from  actual 
surveys.  The  Wind  Charts  and  other  works  of  Lieutenant 
Maury  have  greatly  advanced  the  science  of  navigation,  and  his 
"  Physical  Geography  of  the  Sea  "  has  revealed  the  mysteries  of 
the  submarine  world  with  graphic  power. 

10.  FOREIGN  WRITERS.  —  Many  foreign  writers  in  the  United 
States,  some  of  whom  have  had  their  tastes  formed  here,  and 
are  essentially  American  in  principle  and  feeling,  have  contrib- 
uted to  the  literature  of  the  country.  The  celebrated  Bishop 
Berkeley  (1684-1753),  whose  prophetic  verses  on  America  are 
so  often  quoted,  brought  with  him  the  prestige  which  attached 
to  high  literary  reputation,  and  had  an  influence  on  the  progress 
of  literature  in  the  colonies.  His  "  Minute  Philosopher  "  con- 
tains many  passages  descriptive  of  the  scenery  at  Newport,  in 
the  midst  of  which  it  was  written.  Thomas  Paine  (1736-1809) 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE.  533 

wrote  his  pamphlet  entitled  "  Common  Sense,"  and  his  "  Crisis," 
in  America,  the  former  of  which,  especially,  powerfully  affected 
the  political  condition  of  the  country.  John  Witherspoon  (1722— 
1794),  lineal  descendant  of  John  Knox,  was  the  author  of  many 
religious  works,  and  of  some  valuable  political  essays.  Susanna 
Rowson  (1762—1824)  was  the  author  of  "Charlotte  Temple,"  a 
novel  which  had  extraordinary  success  in  its  day,  and  of  many 
books  of  less  fame.  Joseph  Priestley  (1733-1804)  wrote  and 
published  many  of  his  most  valuable  works  in  the  United  States. 
His  friend  Thomas  Cooper  (1759-1840)  was  one  of  the  most 
active  minds  of  the  age,  and  his  religious,  political,  and  scien- 
tific writings  were  not  without  their  influence  on  the  national 
literature.  "  The  American  Ornithology  "  of  Alexander  Wilson 
(1766-1813),  a  native  of  Scotland,  is  second  only  to  the  great 
work  of  Audubon.  The  names  of  Matthew  Carey,  Peter  Du- 
ponceau,  and  Albert  Gallatin  are  also  honorably  associated  with 
American  letters. 

Of  the  more  recent  writers,  Dr.  Lieber  has  done  much  for  the 
advancement  of  political  and  philosophical  science  in  the  United 
States.  The  names  of  Agassiz,  father  and  son,  and  Guyot, 
prominent  among  the  scientific  investigators  of  the  age,  are  in- 
dissolubly  connected  with  science  in  America ;  and  Drs.  Draper 
and  Dunglison  have  made  valuable  contributions  to  the  medical 
literature  of  the  world.  Count  A.  de  Gurowski,  an  able  scholar, 
has  published  a  work  on  "  Russia  as  it  is,"  and  another  on 
"  America  and  Europe."  Mrs.  Robinson's  various  works  entitle 
her  to  high  distinction  in  the  more  grave  as  well  as  the  lighter 
departments  of  literature.  Professor  Koeppen  has  written  two 
valuable  works  on  the  "  World  in  the  Middle  Ages."  Dr.  Bru- 
now  has  brought  a  European  reputation  to  the  aid  of  one  of  our 
Western  universities.  Henry  Giles  has  gained  distinction  by  his 
essays  and  criticisms,  and  Henry  William  Herbert  by  his  novels 
and  miscellaneous  writings.  Many  other  foreign  men  of  letters 
might  be  named,  who,  in  various  ways,  aid  the  development  of 
the  national  literature. 

11.  NEWSPAPERS  AND  PERIODICALS.  —  One  of  the  most 
powerful  engines  in  creating  a  taste  for  literature  among  the 
people  of  the  United  States  is  the  newspaper  and  periodical 
press.  Every  interest,  every  social  and  political  doctrine  has  its 
organ,  and  every  village  has  its  newspaper ;  not  devoted  solely 
to  special,  local,  or  even  to  national  topics,  but  registering  the 
principal  passing  events  of  the  actual  as  well  as  of  the  intellectual 
world,  and  in  this  respect  differing  essentially  from  the  press  of 
all  other  countries.  These  papers  are  offered  at  so  small  a  price 
as  to  place  them  within  the  reach  of  all ;  and  in  a  country  where 
every  one  reads,  the  influence  of  such  a  power  as  a  public  educa- 


534       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

tor,  in  stimulating  and  diffusing  mental  activity,  and  in  creating 
cosmopolitan  interests,  can  scarcely  be  comprehended  in  its  full 
significance.  While  there  is  much  in  these  publications  that  is 
necessarily  of  an  evanescent  character,  and  much  that  might  per- 
haps be  better  excluded,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  best  of  our 
daily  and  weekly  papers  often  contain  literary  matter  which  in 
a  less  fugitive  form  would  become  a  permanent  and  valuable 
contribution  to  the  national  literature. 

The  magazines  and  reviews  of  the  United  States  take  a 
worthy  place  beside  those  of  Great  Britain,  and  present  a  vari- 
ety of  reading  which  exhibits  at  once  the  versatility  of  the  people 
and  the  cosmopolitan  tendency  of  the  literature  which  addresses 
itself  to  the  sympathies  of  the  most  diversified  classes  of  readers. 
Among  the  quarterly  reviews,  the  North  American  occupies  a 
prominent  position.  It  is  associated  with  the  earliest  dawnings 
of  the  national  literature,  and  in  the  list  of  its  contributors  is 
found  almost  every  name  of  note  in  American  letters.  The  Sci- 
entific American  and  the  Popular  Science  Monthly  are  the  most 
eminent  of  the  scientific  periodicals ;  the  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  the 
Andover  and  Princeton  Reviews,  the  Christian  Union,  the  Inde- 
pendent, the  Churchman  are  among  the  ablest  religious  journals. 

With  the  decease  of  H.  S.  Legare,  one  of  the  most  finished 
scholars  of  the  South,  the  Southern  Quarterly,  which  had  been 
indebted  to  his  pen  for  many  of  its  ablest  articles,  ceased  its  ex- 
istence. Putnam's  Magazine  was  long  the  medium  of  the  most 
valuable  and  interesting  fugitive  literature  ;  and  the  Atlantic 
Monthly,  which  has  succeeded  it,  is  under  the  auspices  of  the 
most  eminent  men  of  letters  in  New  England,  and  has  become 
the  nucleus  of  a  number  of  young  and  able  writers.  The  Mag- 
azine of  American  History  is  the  repository  of  much  valuable  in- 
formation and  many  curious  incidents  in  the  history  of  the  coun- 
try. Harper's  Magazine  and  the  Century  are  periodicals  of 
high  literary  character  and  of  wide  circulation  both  in  this  coun- 
try and  in  England.  They  have  by  means  of  their  illustrations 
done  much  to  advance  and  develop  the  art  of  engraving. 

The  language  of  American  literature  being  that  of  England, 
its  early  productions  were  naturally  modeled  after  those  of  the 
mother-country.  But  the  cosmopolitan  elements  of  which  the 
nation  is  composed,  and  the  peculiar  influences  of  American  civ- 
ilization in  holding  out  to  the  human  race  opportunities  and  des- 
tinies unparalleled  in  history,  are  rapidly  developing  a  distinct 
national  character  which  in  the  future  must  be  reflected  in  Amer- 
ican literature,  and  cannot  fail  to  produce  great  results.  This  at 
least  is  the  belief  of  all  those  who  have  faith  in  humanity  and  in 
the  spirit  which  laid  the  foundation  of  our  Republic. 

12.  SINCE  1860.  — The  period  intervening  between  1860  and 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE.  535 

1885  has  not  been  marked  by  any  important  literary  develop- 
ment. In  the  great  war  for  the  support  of  the  institution  of 
slavery  on  one  hand  and  for  national  existence  on  the  other,  his- 
tory was  enacted  rather  than  written,  and  the  sudden  and  rapid 
development  of  material  interests  succeeding  the  war  have  ab- 
sorbed, to  a  great  extent,  the  energies  of  the  people. 

Many  histories  of  special  occurrences  of  the  war  have  since 
appeared,  and  many  biographies  of  those  who  played  prominent 
parts  in  it,  and  when  time  shall  have  given  these,  and  the  great 
events  they  commemorate,  their  true  perspective,  the  poet,  nov- 
elist, and  historian  of  the  future  will  find  in  them  ample  material 
for  a  truly  national  literature. 

Among  the  poets  of  the  time  only  a  few  of  the  more  prominent 
can  be  named.  Bayard  Taylor  (1825-1878)  is  equally  distin- 
guished as  a  poet  and  prose  writer  of  fiction  and  travels.  His 
translation  of  Faust  in  the  original  metre  is  accepted  as  the  best 
representation  of  the  German  master  in  the  English  tongue,  and 
apart  from  its  merits  as  a  translation,  it  has  added  to  the  litera- 
ture by  the  beauty  and  power  of  its  versification.  His  poem  of 
"  Deukalion  "  shows  great  originality  and  power  of  imagination. 
Richard  H.  Stoddard  (b.  1825)  is  a  poet  and  critic,  equally  dis- 
tinguished in  both  departments.  Edmund  C.  Stedman  (b.  1833) 
is  known  by  his  translations  from  the  Greek  poets  and  his  orig- 
inal poems  marked  by  vigor  and  spontaneity  of  thought,  poetic 
power,  and  precision  in  art.  His  critical  volume  on  the  Victo- 
rian poets  is  notable  for  dispassionate,  conscientious,  and  skill- 
ful and  sympathetic  criticism. 

Walt  Whitman  (b.  1819)  writes  with  great  force,  originality, 
and  sympathy  with  all  forms  of  struggle  and  suffering,  but  with 
utter  contempt  for  conventionalities  and  for  the  acknowledged 
limits  of  true  art.  Richard  W.  Gilder  has  a  delicate  fancy  and 
power  of  poetic  expression.  William  Winter,  as  a  writer  of  oc- 
casional verses,  has  rare  felicity  of  thought  and  execution.  Wil- 
liam W.  Story  adds  to  his  many  other  gifts  those  of  a  true  poet. 
Charles  De  Kay  is  the  author  of  many  poems  original  in  concep- 
tion and  execution.  Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich  has  written  much 
dainty  and  musical  verse  and  several  successful  novels.  Will 
Carlton,  the  author  of  "  Farm  Ballads,"  displayr;  a  keen  sym- 
pathy for  the  harder  phases  of  common  life.  Charles  G.  Leland, 
in  prose  and  humorous  poetry,  is  widely  read,  and  known  also  by 
his  efforts  to  introduce  industrial  art  into  schools.  Henry  How- 
ard Brownell  is  the  author  of  "  War  Lyrics,"  among  the  best 
of  their  kind.  Edgar  Fawcett  is  equally  known  as  a  poet  and 
novelist.  Joaquin  Miller,  in  his  poems,  gives  pictures  of  lawless 
and  adventurous  life. 

Of  the  many  distinguished  women  in  contemporary  American 


536       HANDBOOK  OF   UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

literature  only  a  few  can  here  be  named.  Helen  Jackson  (H.  H.) 
is  a  brilliant  prose  writer  and  a  poet  of  originality  and  power. 
She  is  the  author  of  many  essays  and  works  of  fiction,  and  of  an 
exhaustive  work  on  the  Indian  question.  Emma  Lazarus  has 
written  many  poems  of  a  high  order.  Annie  Fields  recalls  the 
spirit  and  imagination  of  the  Greek  mythology.  Edith  M. 
Thomas,  in  her  poems,  shows  high  culture,  originality,  and  imag- 
ination. Those  of  Lucy  Larcom  belong  to  every-day  life,  and  are 
truthful  and  pathetic.  Mary  Mapes  Dodge  is  a  charming  writer 
of  tales  and  poems  for  children,  and  of  other  poems.  Celia  Thax- 
ter  dwells  on  the  picturesque  features  of  nature  on  sea  and  land. 
Julia  Dorr  in  her  novels  and  poems  gives  proof  of  great  versatil- 
ity of  talents.  Ellen  Hutchinson  is  a  writer  of  imaginative  and 
musical  verses.  Elizabeth  Stoddard  is  the  author  of  several 
powerful  novels  and  of  some  fine  poems.  Of  equal  merit  are  the 
productions  of -Louise  Chandler  Moulton,  Nora  Perry,  Edna  Dean 
Proctor,  S.  M.  B.  Piatt,  Margaret  Preston,  Harriet  Preston,  Eliza- 
beth Akers  Allen,  Sarah  Woolsey  (Susan  Coolidge),  Laura  John- 
son, Mary  Clemmer,  Mary  C.  Bradley,  Kate  Putnam  Osgood, 
Harriet  Kimball,  Marian  Douglas,  Mary  Prescott,  Laura  C.  Red- 
den. 

In  prose  Frances  Hodgson  Burnett  is  the  author  of  many  in- 
teresting novels  and  stories  ;  Harriet  Spofford,  of  original  tales  ; 
Elizabeth  Stuart  Phelps,  of  popular  and  highly  wrought  novels  ; 
Adeline  Whitney,  of  entertaining  novels  of  every-day  life ;  Re- 
becca Harding  Davis,  of  powerful  though  sombre  novels,  of  pic- 
tures of  contemporary  life,  society,  and  thought ;  Louisa  Alcott, 
of  a  series  of  charming  New  England  stories  for  the  young. 
Rose  Terry  Cooke,  in  her  short  stories,  has  presented  many  strik- 
ing studies  of  New  England  life  and  character  ;  and  Sarah  Orne 
Jewett  deals  with  the  same  material  in  a  manner  both  strong  and 
refined.  Julia  Fletcher  and  Blanche  Willis  Howard  have  each 
written  successful  novels,  and  Constance  Fenimore  Woolson  is 
the  author  of  many  vivid  and  well  written  tales.  Mary  A.  Dodge 
(Gail  Hamilton)  is  a  writer  on  many  subjects,  sparkling,  witty, 
aggressive  ;  Clara  Erskine  Waters  writes  ably  on  art ;  Kate  Field 
is  a  vigorous  and  brilliant  writer  in  journalism,  travels,  and 
criticism. 

FICTION.  —  Theodore  Winthrop  (1828-1861)  fell  an  early 
sacrifice  in  the  war.  His  descriptions  of  prairie  life,  his  fresh 
and  vigorous  individualization  of  character  and  power  of  narra- 
tive indicate  a  vein  of  original  genius  which  was  full  of  promise. 
William  Dean  Howells  and  Henry  James  are  foremost  as  writers 
of  the  analytic  and  realistic  school.  Their  studies  of  character 
are  life-like  and  finished,  their  satire  keen  and  good-natured. 
The  romances  of  Julian  Hawthorne  deal  with  the  marvelous  and 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE.  537 

unreal.  Bret  Harte  (b.  1839)  presents  us  with  vivid  and  life- 
like pictures  of  wild  Californian  life,  of  the  rude  hate  and  love 
which  prevail  in  an  atmosphere  of  lawlessness,  redeemed  by 
touching  exhibitions  of  gratitude  and  magnanimity.  His  dialect 
poems  and  those  of  John  Hay  enjoy  a  wide  popularity.  The 
latter  will  also  be  remembered  for  his  "  Castilian  Days,"  a  vol- 
ume of  fascinating  studies  of  Spanish  subjects.  George  W. 
Cable  is  known  for  his  pictures  of  Creole  life  ;  Edward  Eggleston, 
for  his  sketches  of  the  shrewd  and  kindly  humorous  Western  life. 
Albion  Tourgee  has  been  the  first  to  avail  himself  in  fiction  of 
the  political  conditions  growing  out  of  the  war.  Joel  Chandler 
Harris  delineates  the  character,  dialect,  and  peculiarities  of  the 
negro  race  in  his  "  Sketches  in  Black  and  White,"  and  Richard 
Malcolm  Johnston  has  graphically  described  phases  of  Southern 
life  which  have  almost  passed  away.  F.  Marion  Crawford  shows 
originality  and  promise  in  the  novels  he  has  so  far  given  to  the 
public ;  the  same  may  be  said  of  Arthur  S.  Hardy,  George  P. 
Lathrop,  W.  H.  Bishop,  Frank  R.  Stockton,  and  F.  J.  Stinson. 

SCIENCE.  —  In  astronomy,  Young,  Henry  Draper,  and  Lang- 
ley  may  be  named ;  in  geology,  Dana  and  Leconte  ;  in  physiol- 
ogy, Flint  and  Dalton ;  Marsh,  in  palaeontology,  and  Leidy,  in 
zoology ;  Professor  Whitney  is  an  able  writer  on  philology  and 
Oriental  literature.  Professor  E.  L.  Youmans  has  organized  the 
simultaneous  publication,  in  this  country,  England,  France, 
Germany,  Italy,  and  Russia,  of  an  international  series  of  scien- 
tific works  by  the  ablest  living  writers,  which  has  proved  emi- 
nently successful.  Among  the  theologians  representing  various 
schools  may  be  named,  Philip  Schaff,  Roswell  D.  Hitchcock, 
Samuel  Osgood,  Henry  W.  Bellows,  Frederick  H.  Hedge,  Ed- 
ward E.  Hale,  Newman  Smyth,  William  R.  Alger,  and  Octavius 
B.  Frothingham. 

MISCELLA^OUS.  — John  Fiske  is  an  able  and  versatile  thinker 
and  an  expounder  of  the  philosophy  of  Herbert  Spencer,  and  a 
writer  on  American  history,  and  on  the  leading  subjects  of  scien- 
tific thought.  Charles  Brace  is  the  author  of  many  volumes  on 
various  social  problems.  Moses  Coit  Tyler  is  a  writer  on  Amer- 
ican literature  and  history ;  Andrew  D.  White,  on  French  his- 
tory, and  on  science  and  religion.  Professor  McMaster's  "  His- 
tory of  the  People  of  the  United  States  "  is  considered  a  scholarly 
and  picturesque  work.  Professor  Lounsbury  has  written,  in 
his  "  Cooper,"  one  of  the  best  of  modern  biographies.  Charles 
Dudley  Warner  is  distinguished  by  the  great  geniality  and  hu- 
mor of  his  writings,  alternately  quaint,  delicate,  and  pungent. 
The  charm  and  purity  of  his  diction  recall  the  best  school  of 
English  essayists.  Paul  Du  Chaillu  is  widely  known  for  his  ac- 
counts of  travel  in  Africa  and  elsewhere  ;  Moncure  D.  Conway, 


538         HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

as  a  writer  on  social,  literary,  and  artistic  themes.  John  Bur- 
roughs is  a  close  observer  of  nature  ;  Eugene  Schuyler  is  the 
author  of  a  history  of  Peter  the  Great ;  Parkman  throws  much 
light  on  early  American  history  ;  Parton  is  the  author  of  many 
attractive  biographies  ;  Samuel  Clemens  (Mark  Twain)  is  known 
for  his  humorous  writings. 


CONCLUSION. 

IN  the  preceding  pages  the  progress  of  literature  has  been 
briefly  traced  through  its  various  periods  —  from  the  time  when 
its  meagre  records  were  confined  to  inscriptions  engraved  on 
stone,  or  inscribed  on  clay  tablets  or  papyrus  leaves,  or  in  its 
later  and  more  perfect  development  when,  written  on  parchment, 
it  was  the  possession  of  the  learned  few,  hidden  in  libraries  and 
so  precious  that  a  book  was  sometimes  the  ransom  of  a  city  — 
till  the  invention  of  printing  gave  to  the  world  the  accumulated 
treasures  of  the  past ;  and  from  that  time  to  the  present,  when 
the  press  has  poured  forth  from  year  to  year  an  ever  increas- 
ing succession  of  books,  the  records  of  human  thought,  achieve- 
ment, and  emotion  which  constitute  literature. 

The  question  here  naturally  arises  as  to  whether  the  human 
mind  has  now  reached  its  highest  development  in  this  direction, 
whether  it  is  henceforth  to  retrograde  or  to  advance.  It  was 
only  towards  the  close  of  the  last  century  that  the  idea  of  human 
progress  gained  ground,  after  the  American  and  French  revolu- 
tions had  broken  down  old  barriers,  inaugurated  new  systems, 
inspired  new  hopes,  and  revealed  new  possibilities.  What  was 
then  but  a  feeble  sentiment,  later  advances  in  the  direction  of 
science  have  confirmed.  Among  them  are  the  discovery  of  the 
correlation  and  conservation  of  force,  according  to  Faraday  the 
highest  law  which  our  faculties  permit  us  to  perceive ;  the  spec- 
troscope, that  gives  the  chemist  power  to  analyze  the  stars  ;  the 
microscope,  that  lays  bare  great  secrets  of  nature,  and  almost 
penetrates  the  mystery  of  life  itself;  the  application  of  steam 
and  electricity,  that  puts  all  nations  into  communication  and 
binds  mankind  together  with  nerves  of  steel ;  above  all,  the 
theory  of  evolution,  which  opens  to  man  an  almost  illimitable 
vista  of  progress  and  development.  It  is  true  that  these  great 
intellectual  triumphs  of  the  nineteenth  century  are  all  in  the 
direction  of  science ;  but  literature  in  its  true  sense  embraces 
both  science  and  art ;  science  which  discovers  through  the  intel- 
lect, and  art  which  transmutes,  through  the  imagination,  knowl- 
edge and  emotion  into  beauty.  When  the  stupendous  discov- 
eries of  our  time  have  been  fully  recognized  and  appreciated  and 
followed,  as  they  doubtless  will  be,  by  a  long  series  of  others 
equally  great,  a  higher  order  of  thought  must  follow,  and  litera- 


540         HANDBOOK  OF  UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE. 

ture,  which  is  but  the  reflection  of  the  thought  of  any  age,  can- 
not but  be  in  harmony  with  it. 

This  consummation  more  than  one  poet,  with  the  prescience 
of  genius,  has  already  foretold.  "  Poetry,"  says  Wordsworth, 
"  is  the  first  and  last  of  all  knowledge,  immortal  as  the  heart  of 
man.  If  the  labors  of  men  of  science  should  ever  create  any 
material  revolution,  direct  or  indirect,  in  our  condition  and  in 
the  impressions  we  habitually  receive,  the  poet  will  sleep  no 
more  then  than  at  present ;  he  will  be  ready  to  follow  the  steps 
of  the  man  of  science,  and  if  the  time  should  ever  come  when 
what  is  now  called  science  shall  be  ready  to  put  on,  as  it  were, 
a  form  of  flesh  and  blood,  the  poet  will  lend  his  divine  spirit 
to  aid  the  transfiguration."  "  The  sublime  and  all  reconciling 
revelations  of  nature,"  writes  Emerson,  "  will  exact  of  poetry  a 
corresponding  height  and  scope,  or  put  an  end  to  it."  George 
Eliot  says,  — 

"Presentiment  of  better  things  on  earth 
Sweeps  in  with  every  force  that  stirs  our  souls." 

Throughout  the  verse  of  Tennyson  the  idea  of  progress  is  vari- 
ously expressed.  He  dreams  of  a  future 

"When  the  war-drum  throbs  no  longer  and  the  battle-flags  are  furled." 

"  When  comes  the  statelier  Eden  back  to  man." 

"  When  springs  the  crowning  race  of  human  kind." 

Thus  the  inspirations  of  poetry  not  less  than  the  conclusions  of 
science  indicate  that  we  must  look  for  the  Golden  Age,  not  in  a 
mythical  past,  but  in  an  actual  though  far-off  future. 


INDEX. 


ABASSIDES,  184, 185. 

Abbott,  Jacob,  518. 

Abbott,  John  S.  C.,  518. 

Abd  al  Wahab,  183. 

AM  Arahman.     See  Jami. 

Abelard,  Pierre,  243. 

Abou-Simbel,  temple  of,  2. 

Aboul  Feda,  190. 

Aboul  Teman,  188. 

About,  Edmond,  292,  293. 

Abraham,  50,  179. 

"Abraham,  "376. 

"  Absalom  and  Achitophel,"  487. 

"  Absolute  Logic,"  436. 

Abubeker,  180. 

Abul  Kasim  Mansur.     See  Ferdusi. 

Academia,  105,  151. 

"  Academics,  The,  or  a  History  and  De- 
fense of  the  Belief  of  the  New  Acad- 
emy," 151. 

Academy  del  Cimento,  220. 

Academy  of  Madrid,  330. 

Academy  of  Sciences,  220. 

Academy,  the  French,  244,  262 ;  dictionary 
of,  245. 

Academy,  school  of  the,  111,  151. 

Academy,  Swedish,  399. 

Accadians,  35. 

Achaia,  121. 

"Aehilleid,"  161. 

Achilles,  74. 

"Adam,"  225. 

"  Adam  and  Eve,"  395. 

Adams,  John,  513. 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  520. 

Addison,  Joseph,  454,  487,  489. 

"  Adelchi,"  232. 

Adelphi,  132. 

Adhumba,  384. 

Adonis,  72. 

"  Adonis  "  (Jlarini's),  224. 

Adriani,  John  Baptist,  219. 

"  Adventures  of  the  Ten  Princes,"  28. 

"  Adventures  of  Tristram,"  466. 

.(Egean  Sea,  69. 

"  JSneid,"  143,  412,  472,  474,  487. 

jEolic  dialect,  69 ;  poetry,  79. 

.Eschines,  100,  103. 

^schylus,  68,  77,  83,  91,  97,  98,  100. 

JEsop,  78,  157. 

JSsopus,  141. 

Affghanistan,  4. 

African  languages,  529. 

Agamemnon,  74. 

Agassiz,  L.  J.  R.,  533- 

"Agathon,"426. 

Agglutinated  languages,  3, 15,  35. 


Agricola,  Georg,  421. 

"  Agricola,  Life  of,"  162. 

Agrippa,  Cornelius,  421. 

Aguesseau,  H.  F.  d',  272. 

Ahab,  55. 

Ahriman,  41. 

Akenside,  Mark,  455,  491. 

Ali,  Caliph,  185. 

Al-Mamoun,  184, 185, 187. 

Al-Moolenabbee,  188. 

"Al  Sehah,"  186. 

Al  Sirat,  181. 

Alamanni,  Louis,  215. 

"Alastor,"500. 

Alba,  124. 

Albergati,  Marquis  d',  230. 

Albigenses,  249,  308. 

Alcaeus,  79,  80. 

Alcman,  81,  82. 

Alcott,  A.  Bronson,  527. 

Alcott,  Louisa,  536. 

Alcuin,  3,  242,  410,  462. 

Aldrich,  T.  B.,  525,  535. 

Aleardi,  Aleardo,  240. 

Aleinan,  Matthew,  325. 

Alembert,  Jean  le  Rond  d',  281,  282,  476. 

"Alexander,"  251. 

Alexander  the  Great,  40,  63,  68, 106, 107, 
110,  412. 

"  Alexander  the  Great "  (Curtius'),  164. 

"  Alexander  the  Great "  (Segura's),  301. 

Alexander,  J.  W.,  530. 

"  Alexandra,"  109. 

Alexandria,  65,  69,  107;  fiction,  116;  his- 
tory,  109;  Jews,  57,  110;  library,  65, 
108,  115;  literature,  107,  116;  obelisks, 
61 ;  philosophy,  65,  109,  111 ;  poetry, 
108 ;  religion,  110  ;  science,  110,  116. 

Alexandrine  verse,  251. 

Alexis,  Wilibald,  441. 

Alfieri,  Victor,  194,  228,  231. 

Alfonso  XI.,  305. 

Alfonso  the  Wise,  300,  305,  336. 

Alfred,  King,  173,  178,  458,  463. 

Algarotti,  Francesco,  235. 

Alger,  W.  R.,  537. 

Alison,  Rev.  Archibald,  506. 

Alison,  Sir  Archibald,  504. 

Allegories,  252. 

Allegro,  L',  483. 

Allen,  Elizabeth  Akers,  536. 

AHibone,  529. 

Alliteration,  392,  409,  463. 

Allstoii,  Washington,  524. 

Ahuquist,  402. 

Alphabets,  1 ;  Anglo-Saxon,  3 ;  Arabic,  349; 
Armenian,  349,  350  ;  Assyrian,  35  ;  Baby- 


542 


INDEX. 


Ionian,  35 ;  Black  letter,  3 ;  Bohemian, 
361 ;  Chinese,  7  ;  Coptic,  3  ;  Cufic,  179 ; 
Cyrillic,  353  ;  Egyptian,  5,  CO  ;  Finnish, 
345  ;  Gothic,  3,  389,  409  ;  Greek,  1,  2,  3, 
GO,  62,  349,  353,  409 ;  Hebrew,  2,  50 ; 
Hieratic,  00,  64  ;  Hieronymic,  353 ;  Hit- 
tite,  1 ;  Indo-European,  37  ;  Ionic,  2,  3 ; 
Irish,  3 ;  Italic,  2,  3 ;  Japanese,  15 ;  Latin, 
361 ;  Mediaeval,  3 ;  Neshki,  179  ;  Norse, 
389;  Pehlvi,  39;  Persian,  179;  Phoeni- 
cian, 1,  2,  5,  15,  37 ;  Romaic,  3  ;  Roman, 
3,  345,  353,  409  ;  Runic,  3,  387,  409  ;  Sa- 
maritan, 1  ;  Semitic,  35,  37  ;  Servian, 
358  ;  Slavic,  3,  354  ;  Syriac,  179 ;  Turkish, 
179,  349. 

Alphen,  Van,  378. 

Alphonso  V.,205. 

Althing,  383. 

"  Amadis,"  306. 

"  Amadis  of  Gaul,"  251. 

Ambrose,  St.,  172,  174. 

"  America  and  Europe,"  533. 

"  American  Antiquities,"  518. 

American  biography,  516  ;  colonial  period, 
510  ;  criticism,  528  ;  drama,  524,  525  ;  ed- 
ucation, 511,  529 ;  fiction,  515,  520,  523, 
536;  foreign  writers,  532;  history,  515, 
516,  517,  518  ;  Indians,  530 ;  jurispru- 
dence, 530,  531 ;  literature,  510-538 ;  mis- 
cellaneous writings,  528,  537  ;  oratory, 
513,  514,  520 ;  periodicals,  533 ;  philoso- 
phy, 526-528,  530 ;  poetry,  514,  523,  525, 
635  ;  politics,  512,  530 ;  science,  531,  537  ; 
theology,  515,  530 ;  transcendental  move- 
ment, 526-528  ;  travels,  516, 519  ;  women, 
525,535. 

"American  Ornithology,"  533. 

Ames,  Fisher,  514. 

Amicis,  De,  241. 

"  Aminta,"  117,  210,  215. 

Ammon  Ra,  63. 

Atnmonius  Saccas,  112,  116. 

Amoret,  482. 

Amos,  54. 

Amrou,  184. 

Amyot,  Bishop,  259. 

"Anabasis,"  104. 

Anacreon,  81,  90. 

Anacreon  of  the  Temple,  277. 

"  Analogy  "  (Butler's),  489. 

"  Anastasi  Papyri,"  64. 

"  Anastasius,"  503. 

"  Anatomy  of  Melancholy,"  478. 

Anaxagoras,  86,  87. 

Anaximander,  86. 

Anaxiinenes,  86. 

"  Ancestress,"  434. 

"  Ancient  History,"  273. 

Andersen,  Hans  Christian,  398. 

"Andover  Review,"  534. 

Andrade,  Jacinto  de,  342. 

Andreini,  G.  Battista,  225. 

Andrews,  530. 

Andrews,  Bishop,  476. 

"  Andrian,"  132. 

"  Androtnaque,''  267. 

Andronicus,   Livius,  129,  133,  134,  140. 

Anghiera,  D',  219. 

"  Angiola  Maria,"  235. 

A.nglen,  382. 

Anglo-Saxons,  382,  449  ;  alphabet,  3 ;  his- 
tory, 463  ;  language,  178,  408,  450,  458, 


459,  460,  462;  literature,  457,  462,463; 
poetry,  462  ;  religion,  462. 
'  Animal  Kingdom,"  532. 
'Annals,  The,"  130. 
'  Annals  of  Aragon,"  328. 
'  Annals  of  Italy,"  236. 
'  Annals  "  of  Uvy,  154. 
'  Annals  of  Nestor,"  353. 
'  Annals  of  Tacitus,"  162,  163. 

Anne,  Queen,  454,  487. 

"  Annus  Mirabilis,"  486. 

Anselm,  Archbishop,  464. 

"  Anthologies,"  113. 

Anthon,  C.,  530. 

Antisthenes,  105. 

Antonides,  J.  van  der  Goes,  375. 

Antonius,  M.,  138. 

Antony,  144,  150. 

"  Aphorisms  "  (Novalis'),  440. 

Aphrodite,  71. 

"  Apocrypha,"  57,  117. 

Apollo,  70,  71,  72,  84,  126. 

Apollo,  Delphian,  2. 

Apollo,  Temple  of,  2. 

Apollodprus,  110. 

Apollonius,  465. 

Apollonius  of  Perga,  110. 

Apollonius  Rhodius,  108,  109, 110, 161. 

"  Apology  for  Christianity,"  494. 

Apostolic  Fathers,  118. 

Apuleius,  173. 

Aquinas,  Thomas,  243. 

"  Arabian  Nights'  Entertainments,"  188. 

Arabian  alphabet,  349  ;  art,  176,  179  pdis- 
coveries,  191 ;  education,  185,  192  ;  em- 
pire, 176 ;  fiction,  182,  187,  188,  189,  253; 
history,  189  ;  inventions,  191 ;  language, 
4,  39,  48,  50,  57,  60,  66,  179,  180,  349 ; 
literature,  67,  176,  192,  193,  349 ;  litera- 
ture compared  with  France,  Greece, 
Rome,  184;  mythology,  179,  180,  182; 
people,  38,  40,  51.  115  ;  people  in  Arme- 
nia, 350  ;  philosophy,  190  ;  poetry,  187 ; 
religion,  179-183  ;  sciences,  176,  185,  186, 
187,  189,  190,  191.  See  Koran  and  Span- 
ish Literature. 

Arabic  numerals,  191. 

Aragona,  Tullia  d',  213. 

Aramaean  language.     See  Chaldaic. 

Aramaic  language,  4,  38. 

Arany,  348. 

"  Araucana,"  326. 

Arbuthnot,  John,  488,  489. 

"  Arcadia,"  451,  477. 

"  Arcadia  "  (Sannazzaro's),  214. 

Arcadians,  The,  233. 

Archelaus,  140. 

Archias,  speech  for,  149. 

Archilochus,  77,  78. 

Archimedes,  110. 

Archipelago,  Grecian,  69. 

Arctic  Ocean,  4. 

Ares,  71. 

Aretino,  Pietro,  214. 

Argensola,  Bartolome'  de,  326,  327. 

Argensola,  Lupercio  de,  326,  327,  329. 

"Argonautic  Expedition,"  109. 

"  Argonautica,"  161. 

Ari  the  Wise,  392. 

"Ariadne,"  525. 

Arici,  234. 

Arion,  82. 


INDEX. 


543 


Ariosto,  Ludovioo,  183,  189,  194,  207,  208, 
212,  214,  215. 

Aristarchus,  109. 

Aristippus,  105. 

"  Aristippus,"  426. 

"  Aristodemus,"  232. 

Aristophanes,  99,  109. 

Aristotle,  47,  68,  88,  95,  98,  104,  106,  108, 
111,  190,  205,  222,  2C3. 

Arius,  119. 

Armenian  alphabet,  349,  350 ;  education, 
351 ;  language,  349,  530 ;  literature,  349- 
351  ;  influence  of  Greek  literature  on, 
350 ;  monasteries,  351 ;  periodicals,  351 ; 
religion,  350.  See  Finnish  Literature. 

Arminius,  371. 

Arnaboldi,  241. 

Arnauld,  266. 

Arnd,  Johan,  420. 

Arndt,  E.  M.,  431. 

Arniiii,  Bettiua,  441. 

Arnim,  L.  A.  von,  441. 

Arnobius,  174. 

Arnold,  Edwin,  507. 

Arnold,  Godfrey,  423. 

Arnold,  Matthew,  507. 

Arnold,  Thomas,  504. 

Arreboe,  Anders,  394. 

Arrian,  112. 

Art.    See  Arabic,  Athens,  Greek,  Italian. 
'Art  of  Logic  "  (Wilson's),  473. 
'  Art  of  Love,"  148. 
'  Art  of  Poetry  "  (BoUeau's),  270. 
'  Art  of  Poetry  "  (Luzan's),  330. 
'  Art  of  War  "  (Machiavelli's),  218. 

Artegal,  Sir,  482. 

Artemis,  71. 

Arthur,  King,  250,  251,  306,  412,  461,  464, 
466,482. 

"  Arthur  Mervyn,"  515. 

Aryan  books,  23  ;  languages,  5 ;  literature, 
24 ;  races,  20,  22,  24 ;  signification,  5. 

Aryavarta,  5. 

Asaland,  392. 

Asamese  language,  529. 

Ascham,  Roger,  473. 

Asen,  386. 

Asgard,  386,  387,  392. 

Asia,  Central,  30  ;  languages,  4  ;  literature, 
12,  23  ;  Minor,  4,  69  ;  Southwestern,  4. 

Asiatic  school  of  rhetoric,  103. 

Asioli,  239. 

Asonante,  303. 

"Aspects  of  Nature,"  437. 

Assyria,  35,  36. 

Assyrian  alphabet,  35  ;  history,  36 ;  monu- 
ments, 35;  people,  35,  36,  38;  poetry, 
36;  science,  36. 

"  Astoria,"  519. 

Astrology,  16,  36. 

"  Athalie,"  267. 

Athanasius,  119. 

Athena,  70,  71. 

Athens,  69,  80,  90,  101,  107,  108,  111 ;  art, 
92 ;  drama,  93,  99 :  history,  90,  100 ;  lit- 
erature, 90-107  ;  oratory,  100  ;  philoso- 
phy, 111 ;  rhetoric,  100. 

"  Atlantic  Monthly,"  534. 

Atomic  philosophy,  30. 

"  Atrea,"  268. 

Attar,  45,  46. 

Atteius,  155. 

Atterbom,  401. 


Attic  dialect,  69  ;  school  of  rhetoric,  108. 

"  Attic  Nights,"  172. 

Attica,  69,  90. 

"  Atticus,  Letters  to,"  151. 

Attila,  413,  414,  434. 

Attius,  133-135. 

"  Aucassin  and  Nicolette,"  253. 

Audubon,  J.  J.,  532. 

Auerbach,  442. 

Auersperg,  Count,  432. 

Augurs,  126. 

Augustan  age,  132  ;  poets,  126. 

Augustine,  St.,  173,  174,  463. 

Augustus,  113,  122, 134, 144, 147, 164, 156. 

"  Aulularia,"  132. 

Auruspices,  126. 

Austen,  Jane,  502. 

Auto  da  fa",  312. 

"Autobiography  of  Benvenuto   Cellini," 

219. 

Autos,  319,  332,  341. 
Avalon,  466. 

Avellaneda,  Gertrude  de,  334. 
Averrhoes,  190. 
Avicenna,  190. 
Ayala,  Pedro  Lopez,  302. 
Ayton,  Robert,  483. 
Aytoun,  Sir  Robert,  502. 
Azad,  33. 
"  Azazel,"  182. 
Azeglio,  Massimo  d',  235. 
Azrael,  182. 

BABYLONIAN  alphabet,  35 ;  country,  5 ;  his- 
tory, 36 ;  monuments,  35 ;  people,  35, 
36,  38 ;  poetry,  36 ;  science,  36 ;  Talmud, 
57. 

"  Babylonian  Adventures,"  117. 

"  Babylonian  Annals,"  110. 

Bacchic  festivals,  82,  96. 

Bacchus,  71,  84,  91,  94-97,  99, 117, 126. 

Bacchylides,  81,  82. 

Bache,  532. 

Bacon,  Lord,  258,  451,  452,  476,  477. 

Bacon,  Roger,  464,  471. 

Bactria,  39,  40. 

Baden,  Mile.  Clarisse,  294. 

Baena,  310. 

Bagdad,  184, 185,  191,  192;  caliph  of,  44. 

Bagehot,  Walter,  509. 

Baggesen,  Jens,  396. 

Baillie,  Joanna,  501. 

Bain,  Alexander,  509,  526. 

Baki,  349. 

Balaam,  53. 

Balbo,  Caesar,  237. 

Balbus,  L.  Lucilius,  140. 

Balder,  385,  390,  396. 

"  Balder's  Death,"  395. 

Bale,  Bishop,  475. 

Balearic  Islands,  298. 

Balkh,  185. 

Balzac,  Honors  de,  292. 

Balzac,  J.  de,  260,  262. 

Bancroft,  517. 

Bandello,  Matteo,  217. 

Banim,  John,  503. 

Bantine  table,  124. 

Barante,  Baron,  288. 

Barbatus,  L.  Cornelius  Scipio,  125. 

Barbieri,  234. 

Barbour,  John,  471. 

Barca,  Calderon  de  la,  319,  320. 


544 


INDEX. 


Barcelona,  Counts  of,  308. 

Bards,  177,  183. 

"Bards,  The,"  492. 

Baretti,  Giuseppe,  238. 

Barlow,  Joel,  515. 

Barnard,  Henry,  530. 

Barnes,  Albert,  530. 

Barneveldt,  Johan  van  Olden,  371,  372. 375. 

Barri,  Gerald  de.     See  Giraldus  Cambren- 

tis. 

Barros,  J.  de,  342. 
Barrow,  Isaac,  484. 
Barth,  437. 

Barthelemy,  Abbe,  285. 
Bartlett,  519. 
Bartol,  C.  A.,  528,  530. 
Bartoli,  241. 
Barton,  Benjamin,  515. 
Bashmuric  dialect,  60. 
"  Basia,"  373. 
Basil,  119. 

Basque  language.     See  Iberian. 
Bassora,  185, 186. 
"Basvilliana,"  233. 
"  Batavia,"  376. 
"  Battle  of  Benevento,"  235. 
"  Battle  of  the  Books,"  488. 
"  Battle   of    Don  Carnival  with   Madame 

Lent,"  301. 

"  Battle  of  the  Frogs  and  Mice,"  78. 
Baudelaire,  Charles,  291. 
Bauernfeld,  435. 
Bauville,  Theodore  de,  291. 
Baxter,  Richard,  453,  476. 
"Bay  Psalm-Book,"  511. 
Bayle,  Peter,  266,  276. 
Beatrice,  196,  197,  199. 
"  Beatrice  Cenci,"  235. 
Beattie,  James,  495. 
Beaumarchais,  Pierre  de,  285. 
Beaumont,  Francis,  452,  480. 
"  Beautiful,  The  "  (Gioberti's),  238. 
"Beautiful,  True,  and  Good,  The,"  293. 
Beccari,  Agostino,  214. 
Beccaria,  Marquis  di,  228. 
Becker,  G.  W.,  445. 
Becket.  Thomas  a,  464. 
Bede,  The  Venerable,  462,  463. 
Bedouins,  192. 
Beecher,  H.  W.,  530. 
"Bees,  The,"  215. 
"Beggar's  Opera,"  487. 
"  Behemoth,"  477. 
"  Belfagor,"  216. 
Belgium,  368. 
"  Belisarius,"  284. 
Bellamy,  Jacob,  378. 
Bellamy,  Joseph,  515. 
Belleuden,  William,  477. 
Bellinghausen,  Munch,  435. 
Bellini,  Laurentio,  222. 
Bellman,  Charles  M.,  400. 
Bellows,  H.  W.,  530,  537. 
Belot,  293. 
Belphoebe,  482. 
Belzoni,  227. 

Bembo,  Cardinal,  212,  219. 
Benares,  33. 
Benedict  XIV.,  227. 
Benjamin,  Park,  525. 
Bentham,  Jeremy,  505,  506. 
Bentivoglio,  Guido,  226,  227. 
Bentivoglio,  Ercole,  214. 


Bentley,  Richard,  484. 

Beuton,  T.  H.,  520. 

"  Beowulf,"  462. 

Bequer,  334. 

Beranger,  Pierre  Jean  de,  290. 

"  Berber,"  522. 

Berceo,  Gonzalo,  300. 

Berchet,  233. 

"  Berenice,"  267. 

Berkeley,  Bishop,  488,  494,  532. 

Berlin,  58. 

Bernard,  Charles  de,  292. 

Bernard,  St.,  243. 

Bernardo  del  Carpio,  305. 

Berui,  Francis,  207,  216. 

Berosus,  35,  110. 

Berseggio,  241. 

Bert,  Paul,  294. 

Berti,  241. 

"  Bertram,"  501. 

Bethune,  G.  W.,  530. 

"  Betrothed,"  235. 

Betti,  234. 

Bettina.     See  Arnim,  Bettina. 

Beyle,  Henri,  293. 

Beyrout,  192. 

"Bhagavad-Gita,"  27,  30. 

Bhavabhuti,  29. 

Bianchi,  The,  197. 

Bianchini,  Francis,  236. 

Bibiena,  Cardinal,  214. 

Bible,  38,  49,  51,  56,  57,  60,  110,  111,  180; 
Anglo-Saxon,  463 ;  Armenian,  350,  351 ; 
Bishops',  475  ;  Bohemian,  362 ;  Brescia, 
56;  Danish,  3SM;  Douay,  475;  Dutch, 
373,  375,  379;  English,  468,  473,  475; 
Flemish,  369  ;  Geneva,  475 ;  German,  419 ; 
Gothic,  409;  Hungarian,  346,  347;  In- 
dian, 511;  Latin,  174,  371;  Polish,  364; 
Revision,  58;  Russian,  354;  Slavic,  353. 
See  Christianity,  New  and  Old  Testa- 
ments, Septuaaint,  and  Vulgate. 

"  Bibliotheca,''  110. 

"  Bibliotheca  Sacra,"  534. 

Bielski,  Martin,  363,  365. 

Bifrost,  385. 

Bilderdyk,  Madame,  380. 

Bilderdyk,  W.,  379. 

"  Biographical  and  Historical  Studies,"  519. 

"Biographie  Universelle,"  288. 

Biography.  See  American,  Egyptian,  and 
French  Biography. 

Bion,  85,  108,  109. 

Biran,  Maine  de,  287. 

Birchpfeifer,  Charlotte,  435. 

Bird,  525. 

Bird,  Dr.,  522. 

"  Birds  of  America,"  532. 

Bishop,  W.  H.,  537. 

"  Bishops'  Bible,"  475. 

Bjbrnson,  404. 

Blab  Phelair,  47. 

Black  letter  character.  See  Gothic  Alpho 
bet. 

Black,  William,  508. 

Blackmore,  Richard,  508. 

Blackwood,  Mrs.,  502. 

"Blackwood's  Magazine,"  506. 

Blair,  Hugh,  494. 

Blair,  Robert,  49i. 

Blanc,  Louis,  289. 

Blicher,  397. 

Bloudel,  248. 


INDEX. 


545 


"  Bluebeard,"  230,  393. 

'•  Boat  Life,"  519. 

Bocage,  Manuel  de,  344. 

Boccaccio,  183,  189,  194,  195,  197,  201-230. 

Bockh,  444,  445. 

Bodenstedt,  432. 

Bodiner,  John  J.,  424. 

Bceotia,  75,  83. 

Boehin,  Jacob,  420. 

Boerhaave,  Herman,  372,  373. 

Boethius,  115,  173,  195,  463,  468. 

Bohemian  alphabet,  361 ;  education,  361 ; 
fiction,  363 ;  history,  362,  303 ;  influence 
of  German  on,  361 ;  language,  353,  360 ; 
literature,  360-363;  oratory,  362;  peri- 
odicals, 362  ;  poetry,  361,  363  ;  theology, 
302. 

Bogaers,  380. 

Boiardo,  M.  M.,  207. 

Boileau,  Abb<5,  112,  266,  267, 270,  330. 

Boker,  George  H.,  525. 

Bolingbroke,  Henry  St.  John,  278,  281,  488. 

Bolivia,  poetry,  334. 

Bologna,  193,  220,  221,  225. 

Bombay,  33. 

Bonald,  287. 

Bonaventure,  Cardinal,  243. 

Boudam,  378. 

Bonpland,  437. 
'  Book  of  the  Dead,"  64. 
'  Book  of  Heroes,"  413. 
'  Book  of  History,"  8. 

'  Book  of  Martyrs,"  473. 

'  Book  of  Odes,"  8,  9,  12. 

'  Book  of  Rites,"  8. 

'  Book  of  Transformations,"  8. 

Bor,  373,  384,  385. 

Borelli,  G.  A.,  221. 

Borgia,  Caesar,  217. 

BiJrjesson,  404. 

"  Bormus,"  72. 

Born,  Bertrand  de,  248. 

Borne,  Ludwig,  432. 

Borsippa,  University  of,  36. 

Boscan,  Juan,  314. 

Bossuet,  Abb(5,  262,  266,  271,  273. 

Bosnia,  359. 

"  Bostan,"  45. 

Boswell,  James,  493. 

"  Botanic  Garden,"  495. 

Botta,  C.  J.  W.,  237. 

Bottiger,  C.  A.,  445. 

Bourdaloue,  Louis,  266,  271. 

Bouvier,  531. 

Bowditch,  Dr.,  531. 

Bowles,  W.  L.,  501. 

Bowring,  Sir  John,  360. 

Boyesen,  Professor,  404. 

Bracciolini,  Francesco,  225. 

Brace,  519. 

Brace,  Charles,  537. 

Bradford,  518. 

Bradley,  Mary  C.,  536. 

Bradstreet,  Mrs.  Anne,  511. 

Brahe,  Tycho,  360,  362,  395. 

Brahm,  21,  24.  25,  28-30. 

Brahma,  21,  31. 

Brainerd,  John  G.  C.,  525. 

Bramo-Somaj,  34. 

Brandt,  Gerard,  375. 

Brantoine,  Abbot  of,  273. 

Bremer,  Fredrika,  403. 

Brenner,  Mrs.,  398. 

35 


Brentano,  Clemens,  441. 

Brescia,  Old  Testament  of,  56. 

Brewster,  Sir  David,  507. 

Briseis,  74. 

British  Museum,  2,  12,  36,  38,  64,  65. 

Brito,  Bernardo  de,  342. 

"  Britomart,"  482. 

Britons,  language,  460. 

Brodhead,  J.  R.,  518. 

Bronte,  Charlotte,  503. 

Bronte,  Emily,  503. 

Brooke,  Lord,  483. 

Brooks,  C.  T.,  529. 

Brooks,  James  G.,  525. 

Brooks,  Maria,  525. 

Brougham,  Lord,  506. 

Brown,  Charles  Brockden,  515. 

Brown,  Thomas,  505,  506. 

Browne,  Ross,  519. 

Browne,  Sir  Thomas,  478. 

Brownell,  H.  H.,  535. 

Browning,  Elizabeth  Barrett,  502. 

Browning,  Robert,  502. 

Brownson,  Orestes  A.,  528,  530. 

"  Bruce,  The,"  471. 

Bruges,  368. 

Brugsch,  437,  445. 

Brun,  Friederike,  441. 

Brun,  Malte,  398. 

Brunhild,  413-415. 

Bruno,  Giordano,  222,  241. 

Brunow,  Dr.,  533. 

"  Brut  d'Angleterre,"  465. 

Brutus,  250. 

"Brutus;    or,  the   Illustrious   Orators," 

150. 

Bryant,  W  C.,  523. 
Bryennios,  59. 
Buchanan,  Robert,  507. 
Buckhurst,  Lord.     See  Sackville. 
Buckland,  William,  507. 
Buckle,  Henry  Thomas,  504. 
"  Bucolics,"  144. 
Buddha,  30. 

Buddhism,  10,  16,  30 ;  literature,  31. 
"  Bride  of  Messina,"  429,  434. 
Buffon,  Count  de,  283. 
Bull,  Bishop,  484. 
Bulwer,  Edward  Lytton,  501,  503. 
Buusen,  Baron  C.  K.  J.,  64,  437. 
Bunyan,  John,  484. 
Buonmattei,  Benedetto,  219. 
Burchiello,  Domenico,  216. 
Burger,  G.  A.,  430. 
Burgundy,  Duke  of,  274. 
Burke,  Edmund,  493,  494. 
Burmaim,  Pieter,  372. 
Burmeister,  437. 
Burmese  language,  530. 
Burnet,  Bishop,  484. 
Burnett,  Frances  Hodgson,  536. 
Burney,  Frances,  493. 
Burns,  Robert,  455,  495. 
Burr,  Aaron,  519. 
Burroughs,  John,  538. 
Burton,  Robert,  478. 
Bush,  G.,  530. 
Bushnell,  H.,  530. 
Butler,  Bishop,  489. 
Butler,  Joseph,  455. 
Butler,  Samuel,  485,  486. 
Butler,  William  Allen,  525. 
Byns,  Anna,  373. 


546 


INDEX. 


Byrnhilda,  391. 
Byron,  Lord,  450,  4J16-498. 
Byzantium,  2,  C9 ;  fiction,  117 ;  history,  116, 
117 ;  literature,  117  ;  poetry,  117. 

CAABA.,  180, 183. 

Cabala,  58. 

Caballero,  Fenian,  334. 

Cable,  George  W.,  537. 

Cachma-Afet,  Princess,  66. 

Cadmus,  2,  88. 

Caedmon,  463. 

Caesar,  Julius,  122,  142,  148,  149,  152. 

Cairo,  186  ;  university  of,  65. 

Calamy,  Edmund,  453. 

Calcutta,  33. 

Calderon,  Pedro,  337. 

Calhoun,  John  C.,  520. 

Calidore,  Sir,  482. 

Caligula,  156. 

Calisthenes,  36. 

"  Calila  and  Dimna,"  28. 

"  Call  to  the  Unconverted,"  476. 

Callimachus,  108,  116. 

Calvin,  John,  259. 

Calypso,  74. 

Cambel,  482. 

Cambyses,  62. 

Camden,  W.,  452,  477. 

Camerarius,  Joachim,  421. 

Camoens,  Luis  de,  339. 

Campanella,  Tommaso,  222. 

Campbell,  George,  494. 

Campbell,  Thomas,  496. 

Campeador,  El.    See  Cid. 

Campoamor,  334. 

Canaan.    See  Palestine. 

"  Cancionero  General,"  310. 

Cancioneros,  310,  336. 

Canterbury,  59. 

"  Canterbury  Tales,"  468,  469. 

Cantu,  235,  237. 

Capponi,  241. 

Capranagra,  241. 

Captivi,  132. 

Caraites,  58. 

Carcano,  235. 

Cardano,  Jerome,  221,  222. 

Carducci,  240. 

"  Careless  Husband,"  487. 

Carew,  Thomas,  483. 

Carey,  H.  C.,  530. 

Carey,  Matthew,  533. 

Carlen,  Emily,  403. 

Carleton,  William,  503. 

Carlton,  Will,  535. 

Carlyle,  Thomas,  504. 

"  Carmen  Saliare,"  125. 

Carmen  Sylva,  367. 

Caro,  334. 

Caro,  Annibale,  214,  220. 

Carpio,  Bernardo  del,  303. 

Carriere,  447. 

Gary,  Alice,  523,  525. 

Cary,  Plwebe,  523,  525. 

Casa,  Giovanni  della,  212,  220,  222. 

"  Cashmere,  History  of,"  29. 

Casimir  the  Great,  364. 

Cassa,  241. 

"  Cassandra,"  109. 

Cassin,  John,  532. 

Cassini,  G.  D.,  221. 

Cassiodorus,  172, 195. 


Castelar,  334. 

Castiglione,  B.,  222. 

"Castilian  Days,"  537. 

Castilian  dialect,  296,  298. 

Castillo,  310. 

"  Castle  of  Indolence,"  491. 

Castor,  127. 

Castro,  Inez  de,  339,  341. 

Castro,  Juan  dt,  342. 

Catalan  dialect,  298. 

"  Catalogue  of  the  Fixed  Stars,"  111. 

Catherine,  St.,  of  Siena,  203. 

Catiline,  148,  154  ;  orations  against,  150. 

Catlin,  518. 

Cato,  129,  130,  136. 

"Cato,"487. 

Cats,  Jacob,  374,  375. 

Cattaneo,  239. 

Catullus,  146,  147. 

Caucasian  language,  4. 

Cavalcanti,  B.,  220. 

Cavalcanti,  Guido,  195. 

Cavalieri,  Bonaventura,  221. 

Cavour,  Count,  240. 

Caxton,  William,  471. 

Cech,  363. 

Cederborg,  403. 

"  Celestina,"  308. 

Cellini,  Benvenuto,  219. 

Celsus,  170. 

Celtic  fiction,  461  ;  history,  461  ;  language, 

5, 298,  449,  458 ;  literature,  457, 460, 461 ; 

poetry,  460. 
Celts,  243,  448,  460. 
"  Century,  The,"  534. 
Ceres,  126. 

Cervantes,  Miguel  de,  316,  322. 
Cesari,  239. 

Cesarotti,  Melchior,  227,  238. 
Ceylon,  30. 
Chaillu,  Paul  Du,  537. 
Chaldaic  language,  4,  38,  39,  50,  57,  530. 
Chaldea,  50. 

Chaldeans,  35 ;  science,  35. 
Chalmers,  Thomas,  505,  512. 
Chambers  of  Rhetoric,  369. 
Chamisso,  Adelbert  von,  441. 
Champollion,  Jean  Francois,  62. 
Channing,  W.  E.,  528,  530. 
Channing,  W.  H.,  528. 
Chanzos.246,  247. 
Chapin,  Dr.,  530. 
Chaplain,  262. 
Chapman,  George,  481. 
"  Characters  of  our  Age,"  273. 
"  Charcoal  Sketches,"  528. 
Charlemagne,  3, 176-178,  207, 208,  234,  242, 

243,  252,  303,  306,  409,  410, 412. 
Charles  I.,  452. 
Charles  III.,  331. 
Charles  V.,  312. 
Charles  XV.,  404. 
Charles,  Duke  of  Orleans,  255. 
"  Charlotte  Temple,"  533. 
Charron,  Pierre,  259. 
"  Chartreuse  de  Parme,"  293. 
Chastelain,  369. 

Chateaubriand,  Vicomte  de,  286,  287. 
Chatham,  Lord,  493,  512. 
Chatterton,  Thomas,  495. 
Chaucer,  Geoffrey,  248,  458,  460,  465-470. 
Chaulieu,  Abb<5,  276. 
Chenier,  Andre,  286. 


INDEX. 


547 


Cherbuliez,  '292,  293. 

Chesebro,  Caroline,  523. 

Chesterfield,  Lord,  222. 

Chevalier,  Michael,  293. 

Chevreuse,  Duchess  de,  261. 

"  Chevy  Chase,"  470. 

Chiabrera,  Gabriello,  212,  224. 

Child,  Lydia  M.,  523. 

"  Childe  Harold,"  497,  498. 

"  Children's  Fables,"  444. 

Chilon,  85. 

Chinese  alphabet,  7  ;  classics,  8  ;  drama, 
13 ;  education,  14 ;  fiction,  13 ;  govern- 
ment, 10;  history,  11  ;  language,  3,  7,  17, 
529,  530  ;  literature,  7,  14,  23,  67  ;  philos- 
ophy, 9  ;  picture  writing,  1 ;  poetry,  9, 
12  ;  printing,  11 ;  religion,  9 ;  science,  11, 
18  ;  social  constitution,  10  ;  theatres,  13 ; 
writing,  7. 

"  Chinese  Empire,  General  Geography  of," 
17. 

Chivalry,  178,  193,  246,  251  ;  romances  of, 
246,  251,  302,  306,  323,  393,  412,  461,  465. 

Choate,  Rufus,  520. 

Choosers  of  the  Slain,  386. 

Chorus,  73,  81,  96,  97. 

Chriemhild,  413,  414. 

"Christabel,"498. 

"  Christian  Union,"  534. 

Christianity,  111,  112, 115-118, 168 ;  fathers, 
173  ;  hymns,  172  ;  in  Trajan's  reign,  165- 
167  ;  opposition  to  the  drama,  142.  See 
Bible,  Religion,  Theology. 

Christmas  tree,  386. 

"  Christ's  Victory  and  Triumph,"  482. 

"  Chronicle  of  Holland,"  369. 

"  Chronicle  of  New  Spain,"  315. 

"  Chronicle  of  Poland,"  365. 

"  Chronicle  of  Spain,"  305. 

"  Chronicle  of  the  Cid,"  305. 

"  Chronicles,"  49,  55. 

"  Chronicles  of  Sweden,"  402, 

Chronicles,  Spanish,  305. 

Chrysostom,  John,  119. 

Churchill,  Charles,  491. 

"  Churchman,"  534. 

Cibber,  Colley,  487. 

Cicero,  87, 102,  113,  122,  126-128,  130,  132, 
138,  140, 142, 148,  150,  151, 153. 

"  Cicero  "  (Passeroni's),  234. 

Cicero,  the  Christian,  174. 

Cid,  the,  248,  304,  305. 

"  Cid,  The,"  263,  296,  299,  304,  305,  325. 

Cincinnati,  58. 

Cincius  Alhnentus,  136. 

"Cinderella,"  393. 

"  Cinna,"  263. 

Cino  da  Pistoca,  195,  196. 

Cinoino,  219. 

"  Cistellaria,"  132. 

"  Cities  of  Yucatan,"  519. 

"  Citizen  of  the  World,"  493. 

"City  of  God."  174. 

"City  of  the  Plague,"  500. 

"Civil  History  of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples," 
236. 

"  Civil  Wars  of  Flanders,"  226. 

"  Civil  Wars  of  France,"  226. 

Clarendon,  Lord,  484. 

"  Clarissa  Harlowe,"  490. 

Clark,  W.  G.,  528. 

Clarke,  J.  F.,  528. 

Clasio,  235. 


"  Classical  Dictionary,"  530. 

"  Classical  Studies,"  530. 

Classification  of  languages,  3. 

Claudian,  171. 

Claudius,  156. 

Claudius  (poet),  430. 

Clay,  Henry,  520. 

Clemens,  Samuel,  538. 

Clement  XIV.,  227. 

Clement  of  Alexandria,  118. 

Clemmer,  Mary,  536. 

Cleopatra,  144. 

Cleopatra's  Needles,  61. 

Clerks  of  the  Revels,  254. 

Cleveland,  529. 

Clifton,  William,  515. 

Clough,  Arthur  Hugh,  502. 

Cobbe,  Frances  Power,  509. 

Cobbett,  William,  505. 

Cobolds,  407. 

Coccajo,  Merlino,  216. 

Cocceius,  John,  372. 

Cochin,  Henri,  272. 

"  Code  of  Justinian,"  174. 

"  Code  of  Theodosius,"  174. 

Coehoro,  Menno  van,  372. 

Colbert,  Jean  Baptiste,  189. 

Colden,  Cadwallader,  512. 

Coleridge,  S.  T.,  434,  436,  496,  498. 

Collett,  Camilla,  404. 

Colletta,  Peter,  237. 

Collins,  Wilkie,  508. 

Collins,  William,  455,  491. 

"  Colloquies,"  371. 

Colman,    George,  495. 

Colombia,    United    States   of,  literature, 

334. 

Colonna,  Vittoria,  212, 
"Columbiad,"  515. 
Columbine,  214. 
Columbus,  315. 
Columella,  170. 
"  Come'die  Huinaine,"  292. 
"  Comedy  of  Errors,"  479. 
Comenius,  John  Amos,  360,  362. 
"  Commentaries  "  (Caesar's),  52. 
"  Commentaries  "  (Kent's),  531. 
"  Commentaries  on  Peru,"  329. 
"Commentaries  on  Shakspeare,"  528. 
"  Commentaries"  (Story's),  531. 
"  Commercial  Relations  of  Antiquity,"  445. 
Commines,  Philip  de,  256. 
"  Common  Sense,"  533. 
Commonwealth,  452,  453. 
Comneni,  116. 
Compass,  191. 
"Compendium  of  the  History  of  Italy," 

237. 

"  Compromise  of  the  Nobles,"  373. 
Comte,  Auguste,  293. 
Comus,  99. 
"  Comus,"  483. 
Conclusion,  539. 

"  Concordance  of  the  Scriptures,"  611. 
Concorde,  Place  de  la,  61. 
Condillac,  Etienne  Bonnot  de,  239,  281. 
"Confessio  Amantis,"  469. 
"  Confession  of  Augsburg,"  419. 
"Confessions,"  Rousseau's,  283. 
"Confucian  Analects,"  9. 
Confucius,  8,  9, 13. 
"  Congress  of  Citera,"  235. 
Cougreve,  William,  485. 


548 


INDEX. 


"  Conic  Elements,"  110. 

"  Conquest  of  Cauaau,"  515. 

"Conquest  of  Mexico"  (Prescott's),  517; 
(Soils'),  329. 

"  Conquest  of  Peru,"  517. 

Conrad,  262. 

Conrad,  R.  T.,  525. 

Conradin,  413. 

Conscience,  Henri,  380. 

Consentes,  126. 

"Considerations  on  the  French  Revolu- 
tion," 286. 

"  Consolations  of  Philosophy,"  463. 

Constant,  Benjamin,  287. 

Constant  inc.,  2,  115. 

Constantinople,  2,  59,  69,  115,  116. 

"Conte  di  Carmagnola,"  232. 

"  Contemplations  "  (Hall's),  476. 

Conway,  Moncure  D.,  537. 

Cook,  Eliza,  502. 

Cooke,  Rose  Terry,  523,  536. 

Coolidge,  Susan,  536. 

Cooper,  518. 

"  Cooper,"  537. 

Cooper,  J.  F.,  520. 

"  Cooper,  Thomas,"  533. 

"  Cooper's  Hill,"  483. 

Cooruhert,  369,  373. 

Copernicus,  Nicholas,  363,  365. 

Copp»5e,  291. 

Coptic  alphabet,  3,  60,  64  ;  language,  4,  60 ; 
literature,  61. 

Coquerel,  Athanase,  294. 

Cora,  70,  71. 

"  Corals,"  234. 

Cordova,  58,  186,  191. 

Corea,  10. 

Corinna,  83. 

"  Corinne,"  286. 

Corn-Law  Rhymer,  502. 

Corneille,  Pierre,  160,  263,  267. 

Coruiani,  Count  de,  238. 

Cornwall,  Barry,  501. 

"  Coronation,  The,"  309. 

Cortes,  Fernando,  315. 

"  Cortigiano,"  222. 

"  Cosmos,"  437,  438. 

Costa,  Isaac  Da,  380. 

Costanzo,  Angelo  di,  212. 

Costart,  262. 

"  Count  Lucanor,"  301. 

"  Count  Rudolph,"  411. 

"  Countess  Dolores,"  441. 

"  Course  of  Time,"  501. 

"  Court  Rhymes,"  302. 

Court  of  Literature,  11. 

Courts  of  Love,  246. 

Cousin,  Victor,  293. 

Coverdale,  Miles,  473. 

Cowley,  Abraham,  453,  478,  483. 

Cowley,  Mrs.  Hannah,  495. 

Cowper,  William,  455,  494,  495. 

Coxe,  A.  C.   525. 

Crabbe,  Rev.  George,  500. 

Cracow,  University  of,  364. 

Craik,  Mrs.  D.  M..  504 

Cranch,  C.  P.,  528. 

"  Cranes  of  Ibycus,"  429. 

"  Crania  Americana,"  532. 

"  Crania  Epyptiaca,"  532. 

Cranmer,  Thomas,  473,  475. 

Crassus,  L.  Licinius,  138. 

Crates  Mallotes,  140. 


Cratinus,  99. 

Craven,  jviadame,  293. 

Crawford,  F.  Marion,  537. 

Cr^bUlon,  P.  J.  de,  268. 

Creobulus,  85. 

Creutz,  Count  of,  399. 

Crimean  War,  358. 

"  Crisis,"  533. 

Critical  Philosophy,  435. 

Criticism.    See  American,  English,  French, 

German,  and  Italian  Criticism. 
"  Critique  of  Practical  Reason,"  435. 
"Critique  of  Pure  Reason,"  435,  526. 
Croatia,  359. 
Crosland,  Mrs.,  502. 
Crusaders,  67,  179. 
Crusades,  178,  193,  211,  248. 
Cruz,  Ramon  de  la,  332. 
Cuba,  literature,  334 ;  poetry,  334. 
Cud  worth,  Ralph,  453,  476. 
Cufa,  185,  186. 
Cufic  letters,  179. 
"  Culprit  Fay,"  524. 
"  Cultivation,"  215. 
"  Cultivation  of  Mountains,"  234. 
"  Cultivation  of  Olive  Trees,"  234. 
Cumse,  2. 

Cumberland,  Richard,  493,  495. 
Cuminings,  Maria,  523. 
Cuneiform  writing,  1,  35,  36. 
Cunningham,  Allan,  501. 
"  Curse  of  Kehama,"  497. 
Curtis,  G.  W.,  519,  528. 
Curtius,  164,  446. 
Cyclic  poets,  75. 
"  Cyclopaedia   of    American   Literature," 

529. 
"  Cymbeline,"  464 ;  (Greene's),  479 ;  (Shak- 

speare's),  479. 
Cymrians,  460. 
Cymric  history,  461 ;  language,  458,  460 ; 

literature,  461 ;  poetry,  461. 
Cynic  philosophy,  105,  111. 
Cyprian,  St.,  173. 
Cyrenaics.     See  Cyrenian  School. 
Cyrenian  school  of  philosophy,  105,  111. 
Cyril,  St.,  353. 
Cyrillic  alphabet,  353. 
Cyrus,  104. 
Czartoryski,  Adam,  363,  365. 

D^MONION,  89. 

Dahlgren,  C.  J.,  402. 

Dahlmann,  446. 

Dalin,  Olof  von,  399. 

Dalton,  J.,  537. 

Dalmatia,  359. 

Damascus,  192. 

Damasus,  172. 

Damiron,  293. 

Damophila,  81. 

Dana,  C.  A.,  519. 

Dana,  Prof.  J.  D.,  531,  537. 

Dana,  Richard  H.,  522,  523. 

Dana,  Richard  H.,  Jr.,  519. 

"  Dance  of  Death,"  302. 

"  Dance  of  the  Seven  Deadly  Sins,"  472. 

Dances,  Etruscan,  129 ;  Spanish,  321. 

Dandin,  28. 

Daniel,  53. 

"Daniel,  Book  of,"  38. 

Danilof ,  Kireha,  354. 

Danish  drama,  395-397  ;  fiction,  397,  398; 


INDEX. 


549 


history,  395  ;  language,  387,  388  ;  litera- 
ture, 394-398  ;  people,  38G ;  poetry,  394- 
397  ;  science,  395,  398. 

Dante   Alighieri,  194-196. 

"  Dante  "  (Balbo's), 237  ;  (Boccaccio's),  203. 

Dark  Ages,  115,  17U,  195,  242,  449,  461. 

"Dark  Ladye,  The,"  499. 

Darwin,  Charles,  508. 

Darwin,  Erasmus,  495. 

Dasaratha,  2G. 

Daudet,  Alphonse,  292,  293. 

Daumer,  G.  F.,  432. 

Davanzati,  Bernardo,  219. 

David,  49,  52,  55. 

Davila,  Enrico  Caterino,  226. 

Davis,  Rebecca  Harding,  £36. 

"  Day,  The,"  234. 

"  De  la  Sagesse,"  259. 

"  De  Re  Rustica  "  (Cato's),  137  ;  (Columel- 
la's),  170. 

"  Debit  and  Credit,"  442. 

Deborah,  53. 

"Deborah,"  435. 

De  Bow,  J.,  532. 

"Decameron,"  202. 

Decker,  Thomas,  481. 

"Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire," 
492. 

Deev,  182. 

"Defense  of  the  English  People,"  372. 

"  Defense  of  Poesy,"  477. 

Deffand,  Madame  du,  281. 

Defoe,  Daniel,  488. 

DeKay,  Charles,  535. 

Deken,  Agatha,  378. 

Delphi,  78,  79. 

"Delphine,"  286. 

"Deluge,  The,"  36. 

Demeter,  70,  84. 

Demetrius,  109. 

"  Democracy  in  America,"  293. 

Democritus,  86,  87,  111. 

Demosthenes,  68,  100-102,  104,  149. 

Demotic  writing,  60,  62. 

Denham,  Sir  John,  483. 

Denmark,  387. 

De  Quincey,  Thomas,  504. 

Deri  language,  39. 

Derzhavin,  355. 

Descartes,  Rene",  239,  259,  264,  281,  374. 

"  Descent  of  Istar  into  Hades,"  36. 

"Descent of  Odin,"  390. 

"Deserted  Village,"  495. 

Deshoulieres,  Madame,  261,  270. 

Destiny,  160. 

"  Destruction  of  th»  Primitive  World," 
379. 

"  Deukalion,"  535. 

"  Deuteronomy,"  55. 

Deutsch,  405. 

Dewey,  Dr.,  530. 

Dial,  35. 

Dialectic  philosophy,  30. 

Dialectics,  104. 

Dialects.     See  Languages. 

"  Dialogues  of  the  Dead,"  277. 

"Dialogues  on  Eloquence,"  274. 

"  Dialogues  on  the  Supreme  Good,"  151. 

Diana,  126. 

"Diana,"  117,324,338. 

"  Diary  of  a  Sportsman,"  358. 

Diaz,  Bernal,  315. 

Dickens,  Charles,  503,  504. 


Dickinson,  John,  514. 

"  Dictionary  della  Crusca,"  219,  239. 

"  Dictionary  of  English  Authors,"  529. 

Dictionary  (Johnson's),  490. 

Dictionary  (Webster's),  529. 

Dictionary  (Worcester's),  529. 

"  Dictionary  of  Law,"  531. 

Diderot,  Denis,  281,  282,  285 

Didier,  Gerard.     See  Erasmus. 

Dido,  143,  144. 

Dietrich  of  Berne,  393,  410,  413,  414. 

"  Digest,"  175. 

Diodorus,  114. 

Diogenes,  105. 

"  Dion,"  499. 

Dione,  70. 

"  Dionysian  Adventures,"  117. 

Hir»m'enno    7A      71       SA      ft?^      O/l      11? 


273. 

"  Discourses  of  Animals,"  217. 

Discoveries.     See  Arabic  Discoveries. 

"  Discoveries  and  Adventures  in  the  North- 
west," 519. 

"Dispute  between  Day  and  Night,"  44. 

"  Disputes  with  the  Gentiles,"  174. 

Disraeli,  503. 

Dithyramb,  82,  95. 

Dittmar,  445. 

"  Divine  Comedy,"  197,  215,  248,  300. 

"  Divine  Emblems,"  483. 

"  Divine  Institutes,"  174. 

Dix,  519. 

Dmitrief,  356. 

Dobrovsky,  J,,  363. 

Dobson,  Austin,  508. 

Doddridge,  Philip,  489. 

Dodge,  Mary  A.,  536. 

Dodge,  Mary  Mapes,  536. 

Dombrovka,  Princess,  363. 

"Don  Carlos,"  434. 

"Don Quixote,"  252,  305,  323. 

Donne,  John,  452,  453,  47G,  483. 

Dorians,  95. 

Doric  dialect,  69  ;  poetry,  79,  81. 

Dorr,  Julia,  536. 

"  Douay  Bible,"  475. 

"Douglas,"  495. 

Douglas,  Gavin,  472. 

Douglas,  Marian,  536. 

Downing,  A.  J.,  528. 

Drake,  Joseph  Rodman,  524. 

Drama.  See  American,  Athens,  Chinese, 
Danish,  Dutch,  English,  Etruscan,  Fin- 
nish, French,  German,  Greek,  Hebrew, 
Hindu,  Hungarian,  Italian,  Japanese, 
Norwegian,  Oscans,  Pantomime,  Polish, 
Portuguese,  Roman,  Russian,  Servian, 
Spanish,  Swedish  Drama.  See  Tragedy. 

Draper,  Dr.,  533. 

Draper,  Henry,  537. 

Drayton,  Michael,  465,  483. 

Drayton,  W.  H.,  514. 

"  Dream  "  (Richter's),  440. 

Droysen,  444. 

Droz,  292,  293. 

Drusius,  John,  372. 

Dryden,  John,  132,  453,  485,  486. 

Du  Bois-Raymond,  438. 

Dudevant,  Aurore,  292. 

"  Duke   Ernest,"  411. 

Dumas,  Alexaudre,  288,  291,  292. 


550 


INDEX. 


Dumas,  Alexandra,  flls,  291,  292. 

Dunbar,  William,  472 

"Dunciad,"  488. 

Duncker,  444. 

Dunglison,  Dr.,  533. 

Duponceau,  Peter,  533. 

Dutch  drama,  3G9, 376-378 ;  education,  370 ; 
fiction,  378,  380;  history,  372-375,  377- 
380  ;  language,  368,  374,  408  ;  Latin  writ- 
ers, 370 ;  literature,  368-381 ;  influence  of 
French  on,  376 ;  oratory,  379 ;  periodi- 
cals, 377 ;  philosophy,  373 ;  poetry,  369, 
373-380  ;  science,  372 ;  theology,  370. 

"  Dutch  Nations,  The,"  380. 

"  Dutchman's  Fireside,"  522. 

"  Duties  "  (Cicero's),  151. 

Duvant,  Madame,  294. 

Duyckinck,  K.  A.,  529. 

Duyckinck,  G.  L.,  529. 

Dwarfs,  407. 

Dwight,  532. 

Dwight,  J.  S.,528. 

Dwight,  Timothy,  515. 

EATON,  DANIEL  C.,  531. 

Eblis,  182. 

'  Ecclesiastes,"  54. 

1  Ecclesiastical  History,"  446. 

'  Ecclesiastical  History  of  England,"  462. 

'  Ecclesiastical  Polity,"  451,  475. 

Eclogues,  109. 

'  Edda,"  384,  387,  389-391,  397,  407, 413. 

'  Edda,  Icelandic,"  177. 

Eddaic  literature,  389. 

Edgeworth,  Maria,  502. 

"  Edinburgh  Review,"  306. 

Education.  See  American,  Armenian,  Bo- 
hemian, Chinese,  Dutch,  Egyptian, 
French,  Hebrew,  Hindu,  Hungarian, 
Italian,  Japanese,  Moors,  Persian,  Po- 
lish, Portuguese,  Pythagorean,  Russian, 
Sanskrit,  Turkish,  Education. 

"  Education  of  Girls,"  274. 

Edwards,  Jonathan,  512. 

Elf  en,  Justus  van,  377. 

Eggleston,  Edward,  537. 

Eginhardt,  409,  410. 

"  Egmont,"  427,  433. 

Egyptian  alphabet,  5,  60  ;  biography,  65  ; 
education,  65 ;  fiction,  61,  64, 65  ;  history, 
61 ,  62 ;  inscriptions,  2 ;  language,  4,  50. 
60,  66;  literature,  60,  62,  65;  monu- 
ments, 61 ;  people,  5,  107, 108,  115  ;  peri- 
odicals, 66 ;  philosophy,  65  ;  poetry,  65 ; 
religion,  61,  63;  satire,  65;  science,  64; 
writing,  1,  60.  See  Alexandria. 

"  Egypt's  Place  in  Universal  History,"  64. 

"  El  Kamus,"  186. 

Elci,  D',  234. 

Elea,  86. 

Eleatic  philosophy,  85,  86. 

"Elective  Affinities,"  439. 

"  Electra,"  268. 


"  Elements  of  Literature,"  284. 

"  Elements  of  Logic,"  530. 

"  Elements  of  Pure  Mathematics,"  110. 

Eleusis,  84. 

Elijah,  55. 

Eliot,  George,  508,  540. 

Eliot,  John,  511. 


Elisha,  55. 

Elizabeth,  Queen,  450,  482. 

Ellet,  Elizabeth  F.,  519,  523,  525. 

Elliott,  518. 

Elliott  (Corn-Law  Rhymer),  502. 

Elves,  407. 

Embury,  Emma  C.,  525. 

Emelian  dialect,  194. 

Emerson,  R.  W.,  525,  527,  540. 

"  Eniile,"  282. 

"  Emilie  Galotti,"  426. 

Empedocles,  86. 

"  Encyclopaedia"  (French),  281. 

"  Encyclopaedia  Americana,"  529. 

"Encyclopaedia  Britanuica,"  505. 

Encyclopaedists,  243. 

"  Endymion,"  500. 

English :  Anglo-Saxon  literature,  462  ;  Cel- 
tic literature,  4CO ;  criticism,  504  ;  drama, 
478-481,  485,  487,  495;  essays,  489,  505 ; 
fiction,  488,  490,  493,  502,  503,  508 ;  his- 
tory, 484,492/504;  language,  178,  457; 
letters,  489;  Latin  literature,  461,  463; 
literature,  448-509 ;  Norman-French  lit- 
erature, 465 ;  oratory,  493 ;  people,  20  ; 
periodicals,  45G,  504,  506  ;  philosophy, 
488,  489,  494,  505 ;  poetry,  455,  481-183, 
486,  487,  491,  492,  495-502,  507  ;  Saxon 
literature,  467 ;  science,  506-509 ;  Scot- 
tish literature,  471. 

English,  T.  D.,  525. 

Ennius,  125,  130,  133-135,  140. 

Ense,  Rahel  von,  441. 

Ense,  Varnhagen  von,  441. 

Eb'tvos,  348. 

Ephraem  (Saint  or  Syrus),  38. 

Epictetus,  112. 

Epicurus,  100,  111  ;  philosophy,  145,  151. 

"  Epidicus,"  132. 

Epirota,  155. 

"  Epistles  from  Pontus,"  148. 

"  Epistle  of  Eloisa  to  Abelard,"  488. 

"  Epistles  of  Horace,"  146. 

"  Epistles  to  and  from  Women  of  the  He- 
roic Age,  148. 

Epithalamia,  81. 

"  Epitome  of  Roman  History,"  172. 

"  Epochs  of  Nature,"  283. 

Erasmus,  Desiderius,  369,  370,  472. 

Eratosthenes,  111. 

Ercilla,  Alonzo  de,  326. 

Erckmann-Chatrian,  292. 

Erech,  University  of,  36. 

Eric  XIV.,  404. 

Erigena,  Joannes  Scotus,  462. 

Erik  the  Wanderer,  393. 

Erinna,  81. 

Erse  language,  460. 

Espinasse,  Madame  de  1',  281. 

Espronceda,  Jos6  de,  333. 

"  Essay  on  Criticism,"  488. 
'  Essay  on  Man,"  488. 
'  Essay  on  Miracles,"  494. 
'  Essay  on  the  Manners  of  Nations,"  279. 
'  Essay  on  the  Understanding,"  484. 
'  Essay  on  Translated  Verse,"  486. 

Essayists  (English),  489. 

"  Essays  "  (Bacon's),  451,  477. 

"  Essays  "  (Montaigne's),  259. 

Essedi  of  Tus,  44. 

"  Essence  of  Logic,"  47. 

Essenes,  56. 

Este,  Cardinal  D',  209,  210. 


INDEX. 


551 


Bste,  Leonora  D',  210. 

•'  Esther  "  (Racine's),  267. 

"  Ethica,"  373. 

Ethiopian  language,  179. 

Etruria,  121,  123. 

Etruscan  dances,  129  ;  drama,  121 ;  histri- 

ones,  129 ;  language,  5,  124  ;   literature, 

121-129  ;  music,  129  ;  people,  2, 124, 127 ; 

poetry,  121,  125,  128;  religion,  121,  126; 

science,  121. 

"  Ettore  Fieramosca,"  235. 
Etzel,  413,  414. 
Eucleides,  105. 
Euclid,  110,  116. 
Eugubine  Tables,  124. 
Eupolis,  99. 
Euripides,  68,  98,  100. 
Europa,  2. 

Europe,  languages  of,  20. 
Eusebius,  35,  37,  119. 
Eutropius,  Flavius,  172. 
Euzina,  308. 
Evald,  395. 
"  Evangeline,"  524. 
Evans,  Augusta  J. ,  523. 
Evelyn,  John,  485. 
Everard,  John,  373. 
Everest,  529. 
Everett,  Edward,  520. 
"  Evidences  of  Christianity,''  494. 
1 '  Examination    of    the   Conscience   of    a 

King,"  274. 

"  Excursion,  The,"  456,  499. 
"  Exodus,"  65. 

"  Experience,  Philosophy  of,"  526. 
"  Exploration  of  the  Dead  Sea,"  519. 
"  Explorations  in  Texas  and  New  Mexico, 

519. 
"  Exposition   of  the  Catholic  Doctrine," 

271. 

"  Exposition  of  the  Christian  Faith, "419. 
Ezekiel,  53. 
Ezra,  50,  56. 
"Ezra,  Book  of, "38,  49,  55. 

FABICS  PICTOB,  136. 

"  Fables  "  (Gellert's),  425. 

"  Fables  of  Florian,"  285. 

"  Fabliaux,"  182, 189, 202, 246, 250, 253, 469. 

Fabulse  Atellanse,  129. 

"  Faerie  Queene,"  470,  481,  482. 

Fahlcrantz,  402. 

"Fair  Penitent,"  481,  487. 

"Fair  Star,"  217. 

"  Fairy  Tales  "  (Strapparola's),  217. 

Falconer,  William,  491. 

Faraday,  539. 

Farina,  241. 

Farini,  Carlo  Luigi,  241. 

"  Farm  Ballads,"  535. 

Farquhar,  George.  485. 

Fasli,  349. 

"  Fasti,  The,"  148. 

"Fatal  Dowry,"  481. 

Fates,  387. 

Fathers,  The,  118, 173. 

Faunus,  126. 

Faust,  422. 

"  Faust  "  (Goethe's),  427,428;  (Taylor's), 

535. 

Fawcett,  Edgar,  535. 
Fay,  522. 
"  Feast  of  the  Dead,"  367. 


"  Federalist,  The,"  513. 

Feitama,  376. 

Feith,  R.,  379. 

Feizi,  Sheik,  46. 

Felix,  Pere,  294. 

Felton,  530. 

"  Femmes  Savantes,  Les,"  269. 

Fenelon,  F.  de  la  Mothe,  26G,  271,  274. 

Fenris,  385,  387. 

Ferdinand  VII.,  333. 

Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  Chronicle  of,  305. 

Ferdusi,  40,  43. 

Ferischta,  47. 

Fern,  Fanny,  523. 

Ferrara,  221. 

Ferrara,  Marquis  of,  204. 

Ferreira,  A.,  339,  342. 

Ferrex,  465. 

"Ferrex  and  Porrex,"  475. 

Fescennine  songs,  128,  129. 

Feuerbach,  436. 

Feuillet,  Octave,  291,  292,  293. 

Feydeau,  Ernest,  293. 

Feyjoo,  Benito,  331. 

Fez,  186. 

"Fiammetta,"  202,  203.- 

Fichte,  I.  H.,  436. 

Fichte,  J.  G.,  435,  437,  527. 

Fiction.  See  Alexandria,  American,  Ara- 
bic, Bohemian,  Byzantium,  Celtic,  Chi- 
nese, Danish,  Dutch,  Egyptian,  English, 
Finnish,  French,  German,  Greek,  Hindu, 
Hungarian,  Irish,  Italian,  Japanese, 
Latin,  Norwegian,  Persian,  Polish,  Ro- 
man, Russian,  Servian,  Spanish,  Swed- 
ish, Turkish,  Welsh  Fiction. 

"Field  Book  of  the  Revolution,"  518. 

Fi3ld,  Kate,  536. 

Fielding,  Henry,  454,  490,  503. 

Fields,  Annie,  536. 

Fields,  J.  T.,  525. 

"Fiesco,"  434. 

"  Fight  with  the  Dragon,"  429. 

Figulus,  Nigidius,  155. 

Filangieri,Gaetano,  227. 

Filicaja,  Vincenzo  da,  224. 

"Filocopo,"203. 

Fingal,  461,  495. 

Finn,  398. 


345  ;  science,  346.     See  Armenian,  Hun- 
garian, and  Turkish  Literature. 

Florentine,  234,  241. 

Fire-worshipers,  41, 179. 

Firenzuola,  Agnolo,  214,  217. 

Fischart,  420. 

Fischer,  447. 

"  Fishermen,  The,"  395. 

Fiske,  John,  537. 

Fitch,  John,  531. 

"Five  Treasures,"  45. 

Flameland,  386. 

Flanders,  368. 

Flaubert,  Gustave,  292,  293. 

Flechier,  E.,  271. 

Flemish  language,  368,  408. 

Flemming,  Paul,  423. 

Fletcher,  Giles,  482. 

Fletcher,  John,  452,  480. 

Fletcher,  Julia,  536. 

Fleury,  Abb<§,  27& 


552 


INDEX. 


Flint,  Timothy,  519,  522. 

Flint,  Austin,  537. 

Flora,  127. 

Florence,  221,  227. 

Fo,  10,  31. 

Fokke,  379. 

"  Folk  Sagas,"  393. 

Fontenelle,  B.  de,  264,  277,  354. 

Ford,  John,  452,  481. 

Forrest,  Mary,  523. 

Forrester,  Fanny,  523. 

Forster,  George,  437. 

Fortiguerri,  Niccolo,  234. 

Fortune-tellers,  13. 

"  Fortunio,"  217. 

Foscolo,  Ugo,  232,  233,  235,  238,  239. 

Foster,  John,  505. 

Fouqu6,  La  Motte,  440. 

"  Four  Great  Marvels'  Books,"  14. 

Fox,  C.  J.,493. 

Fox,  John,  473. 

Francis  I.,  244. 

Francis,  Dr.,  518. 

Franck,  420. 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  512,  513,  531. 

Franzen,  F.  M.,  401. 

Fraternity  of  the  Passion,  254. 

Fratres  Arvales,  125. 

Frederick  the  Great,  278. 

"  Free  Will,"  371. 

Freeman,  504. 

Freiligrath,  Ferdinand,  432. 

"Fremont's  Reports,"  519. 

French  biography,  273 ;  criticism,  293 ; 
drama,  254,  262,  267,  268,  289,  291 ;  edu- 
cation, 243;  empire,  286;  fiction,  269, 
274,  292  ;  history,  273,  '-'88  ;  influence  on 
Spanish  literature,  330 ;  language,  178, 
243,  255;  letters,  274;  literature,  112, 
207,  242,  294  ;  Arabian  influence  on,  245, 
247  ;  compared  with  Arabian,  184  ;  mu- 
sic, 268  ;  oratory,  270,  272,  284 ;  philoso- 
phy, 264,  272,  293  ;  poetry,  260,  289  ;  re- 
ligion, 275 ;  satire,  269 ;  women,  246,  261, 
268,  281,  286,  287,  294. 

Freneau,  Philip,  513. 

Freund,  530. 

Freya,  385,  387. 

Freytag,  Gustave,  435,  442. 

Frezza,  241. 

"  Friar  Amis,"  416. 

Friar  John,  258. 

Friday,  387. 

"  Friendship  "  (Cicero  on),  151. 

Friesland,  368.  ,- 

Fri^ga,  385,  408. 

Frisian  language,  368,  408,  458. 

Frisic  language.     See  Frisian  language. 

"Friso,"  377. 

"  Frithiof's  Saga,"  393,  402. 

Froissart,  Jean,  256,  467. 

Frontiuus,  170. 

Fronto,  Cornelius,  172. 

Frothingham,  O.  B.,  528,  530,  537. 

Fronde,  James  Anthony,  509. 

Fuchs,  Leonard,  421. 

Fuller,  Margaret,  527. 

Fuller,  Thomas,  476. 

Fulton,  Robert.  531. 

Furness,  Dr.,  530. 

GABOWAU,  292,  293. 
Gabriel,  182. 


Gaelic  language,  458,  460. 

Gaius,  139. 

Gal,  348. 

"  Galatea  "  (Cervantes'),  322. 

"  Galateo,"  222. 

Galba,  138. 

Galdos,  334. 

Galen,  Claudius,  115. 

Galician  dialect,  298. 

Galileo,  194,  221,  239,  374. 

Gallagher,  William  D.,  525. 

Gallahad,  Sir,  466. 

Galland,  Anthony,  189. 

Gallatin,  Albert,  533. 

Galli,  243. 

Galluppi,  239. 

Gallus,  ^lius,  140. 

Gallus,  Martin,  364. 

Gait,  John,  503. 

Gambara,  Veronica,  213. 

Games,  134. 

Gama,  Vasco  da,  337,  340. 

Garagantua,  258. 

"  Garagantua,"  420. 

Gautier,  Th<5ophile,  291-293. 

Gay  Science,  246. 

"  Gazetteer  of  Hellas,"  114. 

Geijer,  Eric  Gustaf,  401. 

Gellert,  Christian  F.,  425. 

Gellius,  Aulus,  172. 

"  Gemara,"  57. 

"General  Geography  of  the  Chinese  Em- 
pire," 12. 

"  General  History  of  the  Indies  "  (Herre- 
ra's),  329 ;  (Las  Casas'),  316. 

"  Genesis,"  55. 

"  Geneva  Bible,"  475. 

Genii,  182. 

Genius,  127. 

Genius  of  Christianity,  287. 

Genlis,  Madame  de,  287. 

Gentle  Shepherd,  117. 

Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  461,  464-466. 

Geoffrin,  Madame,  281. 

"  Geography,  Manners,  and  Nations  of  Ger- 
many," 162. 

"Geography  viewed  in  its  Relations  to 
Nature  and  History,"  445. 

George  I.,  487. 

George  II.,  454,  489. 

George  III.,  455. 

"  Georgics,"  144. 

Gerard,  Claude,  404. 

Gerhard,  Paul,  423. 

Geriziin,  Mount,  1. 

German  bards,  177  ;  criticism,  442 ;  de- 
monology,  420  ;  drama,  416,  432 ;  fiction, 
423,  439-442  ;  history,  445  ;  language, 
178,  298,  408  ;  Latin  literature,  422 ;  lit- 
erature, 405-447  ;  mythology,  407,  444  ; 
people,  243  ;  philosophy,  435-437  :  poetry, 
177,  412,  413,  420,  425-432 ;  satire,  420 ; 
Suabian  age,  411  ;  theology,  417,  418, 
445.  See  Charlemngnf,  Chiralry,G'6ttin- 
gen  school,  Lrtthfr,  Mattersingers,  Min- 
nesingers, Romantic,  Sazonic,  and  Swiss 
schools. 

"  German  language,"  444. 

"  German  theology,"  417. 

"  Germany"  (Madame  de  Stael's),  286. 

"  Gertrude  of  Wyoming,"  496. 

Gervase  of  Tilbury,  464,  465. 

Gervinus,  444. 


INDEX. 


553 


Gesenius,  530. 
Gesner,  Conrad  von,  421. 
Gessner,  Solomon,  425. 
"  Gest  of  King  Horn,"  466. 
"  Gesta  Romanorum,"  465. 
Geysbeck,  380. 
Ghent,  3G9. 
Gherardini,  239. 
Ghibellines,  196. 
Ghouls,  182. 
Giambullari,  219. 
Gianni,  Lapo,  195. 
Giannene,  Pietro,  236. 
Gianola,  2-11. 
"  Giavidan  Kird,"  40. 
Gibbon,  Edward,  281,  455,  492. 
Gifford,  William,  506. 
"  Gil  Bias,"  277,  314,  325. 
Gilder,  R.  W.,  535. 
Giles,  Henry,  533. 
Gillies,  Lieutenant,  532. 
Gihnau,  Caroline,  523. 
Giuguene,  P.  L.,  293. 
Gioberti.  Vincent,  238,  240. 
Gioja,  Melchior,  239. 
Giordaui,  Vital,  238. 
Giraldi,  Cinzio,  216. 
Giraldi,  C.  J.,  213. 
Giraldus  Cambrensis,  4G1,  464. 
Girard,  532. 
"Gita-Govinda,"  27. 
"  Giulietta,"  216. 
Giusti,  Giuseppe,  234. 
"Glance  at  Recent  Affairs,"  47. 
Glatigny,  291. 
Gleim,  John  W.  L.,  425. 
Gliddon,  G.  R.,  532. 
Gloriana,  482. 
Gnomes,  407. 
Gnostics,  41. 
"  Godiva,"  441. 
"  Gods  of  the  North,"  397. 
Godwin,  Parke,  517,  528. 
Godwin,  William,  502. 
-«oethe,  J.  W.  von,  253,  360,  406,  437-429, 

433,  434,  439,  442. 
"  Goethe's  Correspondence  with  a  Child," 

441. 

Gogol,  Nicholas,  356. 
Golden  Age,   Armenian,  350 ;   Bohemian, 

362  ;  Chinese,  13  ;  Dutch,  374  ;  French, 

243,  265 :  Grecian,  68,  85  ;  Hebrew,  50  ; 

Hindu,  23  ;  Hungarian,  347  ;  Latin,  122 ; 

Portuguese,  337,  540. 
"  Golden  Ass  "  (Firenzuola's),  217. 
"  Golden  Terge,"  472. 
"  Goldmaker's  Village,"  441. 
Goldoni,  Carlo,  194,  227,  230. 
Goldschmidt,  398. 
Goldsmith,  Oliver,  455,  493,  495. 
Gomara,  315. 
Gomarus,  372. 
Gongora,  Luis,  327. 
Gongorism,  342. 
Gonzaga,  Giulia,  213. 
Gonzalez,  332. 
Gonzalez,  Fernan,  304. 
Gonzalo,  John,  300. 
Goodrich,  532. 
Goodrich,  S.  G..  518. 
"  Gorboduc,"  475. 
"Gospel-Book,"  410. 
Gosse,  Edmund,  508. 


Gothic  alphabet,  3 ;  languages,  5,  368,  408, 
415. 

Gothic  school,  401. 

Goths,  3,  405. 

Gottingen  school,  430. 

Gottsched,  John  C.,  424,  432. 

"  Gotz  von  Berlichingen,"  427,  433 

Gould,  Professor,  532. 

Gould,  Hannah  F.,  525. 

Gower,  John,  458,  465,  469. 

Gozzi,  Carlo,  230. 

Gozzi,  G.,  234,  238. 

Grabowski,  356. 

Grabowski,  367. 

Gracchi,  The,  138. 

Graeco-Italic  languages,  5. 

Grammaticus,  Saxo,  394. 

Grammont,  Count  de,  274. 

Granada,  58,  311. 

"Grave,  The  "  (Blair's),  491. 

Gravenweert,  De  s',  380. 

Gravina,  G.  V.,  229,  238. 

Gray,  531. 

Gray,  Thomas,  455,  487,  491. 

Graydon,  Alexander,  515. 

"  Gray's  Ode,"  390. 

Grazzini,  A.  F.,  217. 

"  Great  Construction  of  Astronomy,"  114. 

"  Great  Japan,  History  of,"  17. 

"  Great  Learning,"  9. 

"  Greater  Prophets,"  54. 

Greek  alphabet,  1,  2, 3,  60,  62, 349,  353, 409 ; 
art,  88  ;  Christianity,  118 ;  conquests,  63, 
65 ;  drama,  68,  91,  93,  94,  122,  131,  133, 
134 ;  fathers,  118 ;  fiction,  78  ;  games, 
134 ;  history,  68,  87,  100,  103,  107,  114, 
115 ;  history  compared  with  Roman,  152 ; 
influence  on  Arabic  science,  185;  influ- 
ence in  Italy,  203 ;  influence  in  Rome, 
129,  130, 133,  139,  140,141,  148,  175;  lan- 
guage, 5,  57,  60,  69,  113.  115,  119,  124, 
126 ;  literature,  67,  68,  90,  113,  115,  116, 
119,  121,  176 ;  literature  compared  with 
Arab,  184 ;  music,  78 ;  mysteries,  84 ; 
mythology,  68,  69,  84,  127,  352  ;  oratory, 
68,  100, 115,  122 ;  people,  20, 65, 110, 122 ; 
periodicals,  69  ;  philosophy,  41,  56,  68, 
85,  105,  107,  111  ;  poetry,  68,  72,  76-79, 
81,  83,  85,  93,  101,  113,  117,  120,  122 ; 
religion,  68.  69,  84,  127  ;  sciences,  100, 
107,  114,  115,  140 ;  theatres,  97 :  women, 
80,  120;  writing,  88.  See  Alexandria, 
Athens,  and  Bible. 

"Greek  Classics,"  530. 

"  Greek  and  Roman  Iconography,"  227. 

Gregory  Nazianzen,  119. 

Green,  John  Richard,  509. 

Greene,  A.  G.,  525. 

Greene,  G.  W.,  519. 

Greene,  Robert,  479. 

"Greenfield  Hill," 515. 

Greenwood,  Grace,  520,  523,  525. 

Gregorianus,  174. 

Gregory  of  Tours,  242. 

Greville,  Fulke,  483. 

Greville,  Henri,  294. 

Griffin,  Gerald,  503. 

Grillparzer,  Franz,  434. 

Grimm,  2S1,  360. 

Grimm,  Jacob,  443,  445. 

Grimm,  William,  444,  445. 

"  Grimner's  Song,"  389. 

"  Griselda,"  202. 


554 


INDEX. 


Griswold,  R.  W.,  629. 

Groningen,  370. 

Gronovius,  J.  F.,  372. 

Groot,  Hugh  de.     See  Grotius. 

Grossi,  234,  235. 

Grote,  George,  504. 

Grotius,  371,  372,  374. 

"  Grovrth   and   Prospects  of   the  United 

Provinces,"  378. 
Grlin,  Anastasius,  432. 
Grundtvig,  397,  398. 
Gryphius,  Andreas,  424. 
Guadagnoli,  234. 
"Guardian,"  489. 
Guarini,  G.,  117,  215. 
Guarinos,  305. 
Gudrune,  413. 
Guebers,  41. 
Guelphs,  196. 

Guerrazzi,  Francesco  D.,  235. 
Guerzoni,  241. 
"  Gueux,"  377. 
Guicciardini,  Francesco,  218. 
Guidiccioni,  Giovanni,  212. 
Guilds,  369. 
Guiscard,  Robert,  383. 
Guizot,  F.  P.  G.,  288. 
"  Gulistan,"  45. 
"  Gulliver's  Travels,"  488. 
Gunpowder,  191. 
Gunther,  413,  414. 
Gurowski,356. 
Gurowski,  Count  A.  de,  533. 
Gustavus  III.,  399. 
Gutenberg,  Johann,  11. 
Gutzkow,  Karl  F.,  432,  435. 
Gutzlaff,  Karl,  437. 
"  Guy  of  Warwick,"  466. 
Guyon,  Madame,  271. 
Guyon,  Sir,  482. 
Guyot,  533. 

"  Guzman  de  Alfarache,"  325. 
Gyllenborg,  399. 
Gyllenbourg,  Countess,  397. 

H.  H.,  536. 

Haardrada,  Harold,  392. 

Habakkuk,  54. 

Haber,  Theresa,  441. 

Habington,  William,  483. 

Hadji-Khalfa,  349. 

Hadrian,  123,  171. 

Hseckel,  438. 

Hafiz,  45. 

Hagan,  413,  414. 

Hagedorn,  Friedrich,  425. 

Hagen,  F.  H.  von  der,  445. 

Haggai,  54. 

Hahn-Hahn,  Countess,  441. 

Haight,  Sarah,  519. 

Hale,  E.  E.,  537. 

Hale,  Mrs.  T.  J.  B.,  519. 

Hale,  Sarah  J.,  523,  525. 

Halek,  363. 

Hales,  Alexander  de,  464. 

Hall,  Bishop,  452. 

Hall,  James,  531. 

Hall,  Joseph,  476. 

Hall,  Judge,  513,  522. 

Hall,  Mrs.,  503. 

Hall,  Robert,  505,  512. 

Hallam,  Henry,  470,  504. 

Halleck,  Fitz-Greeue,  523. 


Haller,  Albert  von,  426. 

Hallman,  400. 

Halmaal,  Van,  380. 

Hamann,  J.  G.,  435. 

Hamelsveld,  Van,  379. 

Hamerling,  432. 

Hamerton,  William,  509. 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  513,  614. 

Hamilton,  Count,  274. 

Hamilton,  Gail,  536. 

Hamilton,  Sir  William,  506. 

"  Hamlet,"  479. 

Hammarskold,  Lars,  401.  . 

Hanke,  Henriette,  441. 

Hannibal,  136. 

Hardenberg,  Friedrich  von.    See  Novalit. 

Hardy,  Alexander,  260. 

Hardy,  Arthur  S.,  537. 

Hare,  Augustus,  505. 

Hare,  Julius,  505. 

Haren,  Onno  Zwier  van,  377. 

Haren,  William  van,  377. 

Haring,  Wilhelm,  441. 

Harland,  Marion,  523. 

Harlequin,  214. 

"  Harmonies,"  290. 

Haroun  al  Raschid,  185,  187. 

Harpe,  J.  F.  de  la,  274,  284. 

"  Harper's  Magazine,"  534. 

Harrington,  James,  477. 

Harris,  Joel  Chandler,  537. 

Hart,  J.  S.,  529. 

Harte,  Bret,  537. 

Hartmann,  Van,  436. 

Hassam,  192.' 

Hastrup,  398. 

"  Hasty  Pudding,"  515. 

Hatifl,  46. 

Haupt,  Moritz,  445. 

"Havamal,  The,"  389,  390. 

"  Havelok,"  466. 

Haven,  J.,  530. 

Hawaiian  language,  530. 

Hawes,  Stephen,  470. 

Hawks,  518. 

Hawks,  F.  L.,  530. 

Hawthorne,  Julian,  536. 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel,  521. 

Hay,  John,  537. 

Hayes,  519. 

Hazlitt,  William,  507. 

Headley,  J.  T.,  519. 

Heaven,  387. 

Heber,  Bishop,  501. 

Hebrew  alphabet,  2,  50 ;  drama,  54  ;  edu- 
cation, 51 ;  history,  55 ;  language,  4,  38, 
60,  57 ;  literature,  49,  51 ;  philosophy, 
56;  poetry,  52;  religion,  51,  111.  See 
Bible  and  Rabbinical  Literature. 

"  Hebrew  and  English  Dictionary,"  530. 

"Hebrew  Poetry,"  426. 

Hector,  74. 

Hedge,  F.  H.,  537. 

Heeren,  Arnold  H.  L.,  445. 

Hefar,  192. 

Hegel,  G.  W.  F.,  236,  436,  437. 

Hegesias,  103. 

Hegira,  184. 

Heiberg,  397. 

Heimdall,  385,  387. 

"  Heimskringla,"  392. 

Heine,  Heinrich,  432. 

Heinsius,  Daniel,  372,  373,  375. 


INDEX. 


555 


Heinsius,  Nicholas,  373. 

"  Heir  in  Old  Age,"  13. 

Hela,  385,  386. 

"  Heldenbuch,"  177,  410,  413,  420. 

Helicon,  73. 

Heliopolis,  61,  62. 

Helios,  87. 

Helheim,  386. 

Hellas.    See  Greece. 

Heller,  442. 

Helmers,  J.  F.,  379. 

Helmholtz,  438. 

Helmont,  F.  M.  van,  372. 

Helps,  Arthur,  505. 

Helvetius,  C.  A.,  281,  282. 

Henians,  Mrs.  F.  D.,  501. 

Hemsterhuis,  T.,  372. 

"Henriade,"  279. 

Henricourt,  369. 

Henry  VIII.,  473,  479. 

Henry  of  Burgundy,  336. 

Henry  of  Huntingdon,  464. 

Henry  the  Minstrel,  471. 

Henry  of  Ofterdingen,  412,  413. 

"  Henry  von  Ofterdingen,"  440. 

Henry,  C.  S.,  530. 

Henry,  Patrick,  513,  514. 

Henry,  William,  531. 

Henryson,  Robert,  471. 

Hentz,  Caroline  Lee,  523. 

Hephaestus,  70,  71. 

"  Heptameron,  L',"  258. 

Hera,  70,  71. 

Heraclitus,  86. 

Herbert,  George,  483. 

Herbert,  Lord,  of  Cherbury,  476. 

Herbert,  W.  H.,  533. 

Hercules,  127. 

Herder,  J.  G.  von,  406,  426,  427,  442,  445. 

Heredia,  334. 

"  Herman  and  Dorothea,"  428. 

Hermes,  70,  71. 

"Hermit,  The,"  465. 

Hennogenianus,  174. 

"  Hernani,"  290. 

Herndon,  W.  L.,  519. 

"  Hero  and  Leander,"  117. 

Herodotus,  62,  68,  69,  72,  88,  103, 152. 

Herrera,  Antonio,  316, 329. 

Herrera,  Fernando  de,  326,  327. 

Herrick,  Robert,  483. 

Herschel,  Sir  John,  507. 

Hertha,  408. 

Hertz,  398. 

Herwegh,  Georg,  432. 

Herz,  Henriette,  441. 

Herzegovina,  359. 

Hesiod,  69,  71,  75,  84,  85, 144. 

"Hesperus,"  440. 

"  Hexameron,"  394. 

Heywood,  John,  475. 

Heywood,  Thomas,  481. 

"  Hiawatha,"  346,  524. 

Hickok,  Rev.  Dr.,  530. 

Hieratic  characters,  60,  64. 

Hieroglyphics,  35,  60,  62. 

Hieronymic  alphabet,  353. 

Hisrginson,  T.  W.,  528. 

"  High  Song  of  Odin."  389. 

Hilarius,  172. 

"Hildebrand  Lied,"  410. 

Hildreth,  S.  P., 518. 

Hill,  532. 


Hillard,  G.  S.,  519. 
Hillhouse,  James  A..  524. 
"  Hind  and  Panther,"  487. 
Hindi,  33. 

Hindus,  5,  20,  46 ;  drama,  28,  93 ;  educa- 
tion, 33;  fiction,  13,  202;  history,  29; 
language,  20,  21,  32 ;  literature,  21 ;  phi- 
losophy, 29,  31 ;  poetry,  22 ;  religion,  21, 
23,  111 ;  science,  29 ;  social  constitution. 
21 ;  women,  32-34.  See  Bramo-Somqj 
and  Buddhism. 

Hindui,  21,  32. 

Hindustani,  21,  33. 

Hipparchus,  111. 

Hippias,  91. 

Hippodrome,  2. 

Hispaniola,  315. 

"Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary," 
276. 

"  Historical  Contemplations,"  237. 

"Historical  Library,"  114. 

"  Historical  Sketches,"  518. 

History.  See  Alexandria,  American,  An- 
glo-Saxon, Arabic,  Assyrian,  Athens, 
Babylonian,  Bohemian,  Byzantium,  Cel- 
tic, Chinese,  Cymric,  Danish,  Dutch, 
Egyptian,  English,  Etruscan,  Finnish, 
French,  German,  Greek,  Hebrew,  ffin- 
du,'  Irish,  Italian,  Japanese,  Latin, 
Norse,  Persian,  Phoenician,  Polish,  Por- 
tuguese, Roman,  Roumanian,  Russian, 
Sanskrit,  Spanish,  Turkish,  Welsh  His- 
tory. 

"History  of  the  Age  of  Louis  XIV.," 
279. 

"  History  of  America  "  (Robertson's),  492. 

"History  of  the  American  Revolution" 
(Botta's),  239. 

"  History  of  Ancient  Rome,"  446. 

"History  of  the  Ancient  World  and  its 
Culture,"  445. 

"  History  of  Bohemia,"  363. 

"  History,  Book  of,"  13. 

'  History  of  Cashmere,"  29. 

'History  of  Charles  XII.,"  279. 

'  History  of  Charles  the  Bold,"  518. 
1  History  of  Christianity,"  273. 

« History  of  the  Church,"  446. 

'  History  of  the  Civil  Wars,"  477. 
'  History  of  Civilization,"  504. 

"  History  of  Connecticut,"  518. 

"  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Constantino- 
ple," 251. 

"  History  of  Dr.  Faustus,"  422. 

"  History  of  England  "  (Hume's),  492  ;  (Ma- 
caulay's),  504. 

"  History  of  English  Poetry,"  493. 

"History  of  Europe"  (Alison's),  504; 
(Giambullari's),  219. 

"  History  of  European  Civilization,"  288. 

"  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella," 
517. 

"History  of  Florence"  (Adriani's),  219; 
(Machiavelli's),  218  ;  (Segni's),  219  ;  (Var- 
chi's),  219. 

"  History  of  the  Florentine  Revolution," 
219. 

"  History  of  Florida,"  329. 

"  History  of  the  Fortunate  Lovers,"  258. 

"History  of  France"  (Godwin's),  517; 
(Guizot's),  288;  (Martin's),  289 ;  (Meze. 
ray's),  273. 

"  History  of  the  French  People,"  289. 


556 


INDEX. 


"  History  of  the  French  Revolution  "  (Car- 
lyle's),  504  ;  (Mignet's),  289. 

"  History  of  Friar  Gerund,"  331. 

"  History  of  the  Gauls,"  289. 

"  History  of  German  Literature,"  444. 

"  History  of  the  Girondins,"  289. 

"  History  of  Great  Japan,"  17. 

"  History  of  Greece  "  (Curtius,'),  446. 

"  History  of  Greek  Literature,"  444. 

"  History  of  Henry  IV.,"  374. 

"  History  of  his  own  Times  "  (Burnet's), 
484. 

'•  History  of  Holland,"  373. 

"  History  of  the  House  of  Medici,"  374. 

"  History  of  the  Indian  Tribes  of  North 
America,"  518. 

"  History  of  the  Indies,"  315. 

"  History  of  Italian  Literature,"  238,  240. 

"History  of  the  Italian  Republics,"  289. 

"  History  of  the  Italians  "  (Cantii's),  238. 

"History  of  Italy"  (Botta's),  237 ;  (Fari- 
ni's),  24»;  (Guicciardini's),  218. 

"  History  of  the  Jewish  Wars,"  113. 

"  History  of  John  Bull,"  489. 

"  History  of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples  "  (Col- 
letta's),  237. 

"  History  of  Materialism,"  447. 

"History  of  Morals,"  500. 

"History  of  New  England"  (Elliott's), 
518 ;  (Palfrey's),  518. 

"  History  of  New  York,"  518. 

"  History  of  the  Norman  Conquest "  (Free- 
man's), 504 ;  (Thierry's),  289. 

"  History  of  North  Carolina,"  518. 

"  History  of  our  own  Times,"  509. 

"  History  of  Papacy  in  the  Sixteenth  and 
Seventeenth  Centuries,"  446. 

"History  of  the  People  of  the  United 
States,"  537. 

"  History  of  Philip  II.,"  517. 

"History  of  Philosophy,"  447. 

"  History  of  the  Poetical  National  Litera- 
ture of  the  Germans,"  444. 

"  History  of  Poland,"  366. 

"  History  of  the  Polish  Insurrection,"  366. 

"  History  of  Port  Royal,"  267. 

"  History  of  Portugal,"  342. 

"  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  484. 

"  History  of  the  Reformation  "  (Burnet's), 
484. 

"History  of  the  Reformation  in  the  Neth- 
erlands," 375. 

'•History  of  the  Reign  of  Louis  XIV.," 
267. 

"  History  of  the  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Repub- 
lic," 517. 

"  History  of  the  Russian  Empire,"  355. 

"  History  of  the  Schism  of  England,"  219. 

"  History  of  Scotland,"  492. 

"  History  of  the  Slavic  Language  and  Lit- 
erature," 363. 

"  History  of  Spain,"  328. 

"  History  of  Spanish  Literature,"  518. 

"  History  of  the  Two  Indies,"  284. 

"  History  of  the  United  Provinces,"  377. 

"History  of  the  United  States"  (Hil- 
dreth's),  518. 

"History  of  the  Variations,"  271. 

"  History  of  the  War  of  Independence  in 
the  Low  Countries,"  374. 

"  History  of  the  World,"  477. 

"  Histriones,"  129. 

Hitchcock,  Edward,  531. 


Hitchcock,  R.  B.,  530,  537. 

Hittite  picture-writing,  1. 

"  Hitopadesa,"  28,  47. 

Hobbes,  Thomas,  453,  476,  477. 

Hodge,  J.  T.,  531. 

Hoelty,  L.  H.  C.,430. 

Hoevell,  Van,    380. 

Hoffman,  522. 

Hoffmann,  C.  F.,  525. 

Hoffmann,  Ernest,  T.  W.,  441. 

Hoffmanswaldau,  424. 

Hogg,  James,  501. 

Holbach,  Baron  d',  281. 

Holberg,  Ludwig,  395. 

Holbrook,  J.  E.,532. 

Holland,  368,  370. 

Holland,  J.  G.,  529. 

Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  524,  528. 

"  Holy  Dying,"  476. 

"Holy  Living,"  476. 

Horn.     See  Honover. 

"  Home-circle,"  392. 

Home,  John,  495. 

"  Home  Life  in  Germany,"  519. 

Homer,  68,  69,  71-73,  84,  110. 

Homeric  Hymns,  75. 

Homerides,  75. 

Honorius,  171. 

Honover,  40,  41. 

Hood,  Thomas,  502. 

Hoofman,  Elizabeth,  375. 

Hooft,  P.  C.,  369,  374. 

Hoogvliet,  A.,  376. 

Hook,  Theodore,  503. 

Hooker,  451,  475. 

Hope,  Thomas,  503. 

"  Hopes  of  Italy,"  237. 

Hopkins,  474. 

Hopkins,  Samuel,  515. 

Hopkinson,  Francis,  515. 

Horace,  122,  130,  135,  146,  157;  life  of, 
164. 

"Horaces,  Les,"  263. 

Home,  R.  H.,  502. 

"  Horny  Siegfried,"  413. 

Hortensius,  2,  138. 

Hosea,  54. 

Hoveden,  Roger  de,  464. 

Hough,  532. 

Houghton,  Lord,  502. 

"  House  of  the  Seven  Gables,"  521. 

"  Household  Tales  "  (Grimm's),  444. 

Houssaye,  Arsene,  293. 

Howald,  434. 

Howard,  Blanche  Willis,  536. 

Howe,  Charles,  484. 

Howe,  Julia  Ward,  525. 

HoweUs,  W.  D.,  536. 

Howitt,  Mary,  403,  502,  505 

Howitt,  William,  505. 

"Hudibras,"  485,  486. 

Hugin,  385. 

Hugo,  Victor,  290-292. 

"  Human  Learning,"  483. 

Humboldt,  Alexander  von,  437,  438. 

Humboldt,  William  von,  442. 

Hume,  David,  281,  455,  489,  492,  494. 

"  Hundred  Plays  of  the  Yuen  Dynasty,"  13. 

"Hundred  Tales,"  216. 

Hungarian  drama.  348  ;  education,  347  ;  fic- 
tion, 348  ;  language,  4,  346,  347,  360  ;  lit- 
erature, 346  ;  poetry,  348.  See  Finniih 
literature. 


INDEX. 


557 


"  Hungary,"  519. 
Hunt,  531. 

Hunt,  Leigh,  501,  516. 
Hurlburt,  W.  H.,  529. 
Hushaug,  40. 
HUBS,  John,  360,  361. 
Hutchinson,  Ellen,  536. 
Hutten,  Ulric  von,  420. 
Huxley,  609. 
Huydecoper,  377. 
Huygheus,  Christian,  372. 
Huygens,  Constantine,  375. 
Hyueinthe,  Pere,  294. 
Hyginus,  Julius,  155. 
Hylas,  72. 
Hymenaeos,  73. 
Hypatia,  110. 
Hypereides,  103. 
"  Hj'perion,"  522. 

IAMBLICHUS,  116. 
Iambus,  78. 

Iberian  language,  297,  298. 
Ibrahim  Pacha,  183. 
Ibsen,  Henrick,  404. 
Ibycus,  81,  82. 

Iceland,  383, 3S7,  388  ;  dialect,  387  ;  litera- 
ture, 177,  388.     See  Norse. 
"  Ideas  for  the  Philosophy  of  Humanity," 

426. 

'  Identity  System,"  436. 
"  Idle  Man,"  522. 
Iduna,  385. 
"Idyls,"  109;    (Gessner's),  425;    (Voss'), 

430. 

"  Idyls  of  the  King,"  502. 
Iffland,  A.  W.,  435. 
Ignatius,  118. 
"  Igor's  Expedition  against  the  Polovtzi," 

354. 

"  Iliad,"  26,  73,  90,  488,  495. 
"  Imitation  of  Christ,"  417. 
"  Immortality  of  the  Soul "  (Addison's), 

489 ;  (Florentine's),  234. 
"  Improvisatore,"  398. 
"  In  Memoriam,"  502. 
Inchbald,  Mrs.,493. 
"  Incidents  of  Travel "  (Stephens'),  519. 
"  Independent,"  534. 
"  Index  Expurgatorius,"  312. 
India.     See  Hindu. 
Indian  (American)  language,  3. 
"  Indian  Cottage,"  285. 
Indian,  East,  languages,  5,  21. 
Indians.     See  American. 
Indigetes,  126,  127. 
Indo-European  alphabet,  37;  languages,  3, 

5,  6,  20,  39,  69,  349,  408  ;  races,  4,  5,  20, 

123,  352. 

"  Induction  "  (Sackville's),  474. 
"  Inez  de  Castro,"  339. 
"  Inferno,  Commentary  on,"  203. 
Inflected  languages,  3,  4. 
Ingelow,  Jean,  508. 
Ingemann,  397. 
Inquisition,  310,  312,  333. 
' '  Instauratio  Magna,"  476. 
"  Institutes  of  American  Law,"  531. 
"  Institutes   of   the    Christian  Religion," 

259. 

"Institutes  of  Gaius,"  139. 
"  Institutes  "  (of  Justinian),  175. 
"  Institutes  of  Oratory,"  165. 


"  Instructions  in  the  Art  of  Falling  Asleep," 
439. 

Interludes,  475. 

"  International  Law,"  531. 

"  Introduction  to  a  Devout  Life,"  259. 

"Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Eu- 
rope," 504. 

Inventions.     See  Arabic  Inventions. 

"  Invitation  of  Lesbia,"  234. 

lona,  86. 

lonians,  91. 

Ionic  alphabet,  2,  3  ;  dialect,  69,  89  ;  phil- 
osophy, 85 ;  spirit,  90. 

"  Iphigenia,"  427,  433. 

Iranian  languages,  5,  349. 

Irnerius,  175. 

Irish  alphabet,  3 ;  fiction,  460  ;  language, 
460  ;  history,  460 ;  legends,  460  ;  litera- 
ture, 460,  462  ;  poetry,  460. 

Irving,  Washington,  518,  519,  521. 

"  Isabella  Orsini,"  235. 

Isseus,  103. 

Isaiah,  53. 

Isenland,  413. 

Ishmael,  179. 

Isla,  J.  F.  de,  331. 

"  Isle  of  Palms,"  500. 

Ismail-Pacha,  66. 

Isocrates,  101, 102. 

Isolated  languages,  17. 

Ispahan,  185. 

Itali,  123. 

Italian  aesthetics,  238  ;  art,  206 ;  criticism, 
238  ;  drama,  206,  213,  214,  225,  230,  231 ; 
education,  220;  fiction,  215,  234,  235; 
history,  203,  217,  226,  235 ;  influence  in 
Spain,  314;  language,  124,178,  194;  in- 
fluence of  Latin  on,  195, 213  ;  letters,  226  ; 
literature,  113,  116,  121,  193 ;  in  Spain, 
309  ;  influence  of  France  on,  228 ;  music, 
225,  228  ;  oratory,  220 ;  philosophy,  220, 
238,239;  poetry,  195,  206,207,212,214, 
224,  225,  233,  234  ;  politics,  220 ;  satire, 
215,  225,  234  ;  sciences,  219,  220,  239. 

"  Italian  Antiquities,"  236. 

"  Italian  Literature  "  (Ginguene's),  293. 

Italic  alphabet,  2,  3  ;  languages,  5 ;  philos- 
ophy, 87. 

Italy,  69,  123,  144;  Greek  literature  in, 
203. 

Izrafel,  182. 

"JACK  Downing's  Letters,"  529. 

"  Jack  the  Giant  Killer,"  393. 

Jackson,  Helen,  536. 

Jacob  of  Edessa,  38. 

Jacobi,  F.  H.,435,  527. 

James  I.,  57,  452. 

James,  G.  P.  R.,  503. 

James,  Henry,  536. 

Jameson,  Mrs.  Anna,  505. 

Jami,  45,  46, 348. 

Janin,  Jules,  293. 

Janus,  126. 

Japanese  alphabet,  15  ;  country.  31 ;  drama, 
17  ;  education,  17  ;  fiction,  18  ;  history, 
17  ;  language,  15,  16  ;  literature,  15,  19, 
23  ;  periodicals,  18  ;  poetry,  18  ;  religion, 
16;  science,  18;  Sea,  4;  theatres,  18; 
women,  16,  18. 

Japix,  Gyshert,  368. 

Jaroslav,  353,  354. 

Jarvis,  532. 


558 


INDEX. 


Jasmin,  291. 
Jay,  John,  513. 
Jayadeva,  23,  27. 
Jean  Paul.     See  Richter. 
Jedekiah,  55. 
Jefferson,  Thomas,  513. 
Jeffrey,  Lord,  450,  506,  507. 
Jehoram,  2. 
Jeremiah,  53. 

Jerome  of  Prague,  3GO,  361. 
Jerome,  Saint,  57, 139,  174. 
Jerrold,  Douglas,  503. 
"  Jerusalem,''  482. 

""  Jerusalem  Delivered,"  26,  210, 211. 
Jesuits,  331. 

Jewett,  Sarah  Orne,  536. 
"  Jewish  Archaeology,"  113. 
"  Jewish  Wars,  History  of  the,"  113. 
Jews,  5,    58,  311;  Alexandrian,  57,  110; 

Spanish,  56,  58. 
Jimmu,  17. 
Jingu,  Empress,  18. 
Jins,  182. 

"  Job,  Book  of,"  54. 
"  Jocelyn,"  290. 
Jodelle,  S.,  260. 
Joel,  54. 

John  II.,  of  Spain,  309. 
John  of  Salisbury,  464. 
Johnson,  Laura,  536. 
Johnson,  Samuel,  158,  454,  459,  487,  490, 

493. 

Johnston,  B.  M.,  537. 
Joinville,  Sire  de,  256. 
Jokai,  348. 
Jonah,  54. 

Jones,  Sir  W.,  29,  45,  51. 
Jonson,  Ben,  452,  480. 
Jos<5,  Antonio,  343. 
Joseph,  63. 
Joseph  H.,  228. 
Josephus,  Flavius,  56, 110,  113  ;  writings, 

49, 113. 

"  Joshua,  Book  of,"  53. 
Josika,  Baron,  348. 
Jotunheim,  386. 
Jotuns,  384. 
Jouffroy,  T.  S.,293. 
"  Journal  of  Education,"  530. 
Jovellanos,  Gaspar  de,  332. 
Judaism,  179. 
Judd,  S.,522. 
Judea,  108. 
"  Judges,"  55. 
Judith,  53. 

"  Jugurthine  War,"  154. 
Julia,  wife  of  Antony,  149. 
Julian,  115. 
"Julian,"  501. 
"  Julie,"  282. 
Junius,  494. 
Juno,  71,  126, 143. 
Jupiter,  71, 126,  143. 
Jurisprudence.    See  American. 
"  Just  Medium,"  9. 
Justin  Martyr,  118. 

Justinian,  115,  139,  174,  175 ;  code,  175. 
Juvenal,  135,  146,  156-158,  171 ;  life  of, 

164. 
Juventius,  C.,  140. 

"  KALEVALA,"  345. 
Kalidasa,  23,  27,  28. 


Kalmucks,  31 ;  literature,  23. 

"  Kaloolah,"  622. 

Kames,  Lord,  494. 

Kampen,  N.  G.  van,  380. 

Kane,  E.  K.,  519. 

Kant,  Immanuel,  406,  435,  526. 

Kantele,  345. 

Kantemir,  354. 

Kapila,  29. 

Karadshitch,  V.  S.,359. 

Karamzin,  N.  M.,  355. 

Karen  language,  529. 

Kiistner,  Abraham,  425. 

"  Kavanagh,"  522. 

Keats,  John,  499,  500. 

Keble,  John,  501. 

Kellgren,  J.  H.,  399. 

Keltai,  243. 

Kemeny,  Baron,  348. 

Kempis,  Thomas  a,  417. 

Kennedy,  522. 

Kent,  James,  531. 

Kepler,  John,  360,  362,  423. 

Kerman,  41. 

Kerner,  431. 

Keshub  Chunder  Sen,  34. 

Kexel,  400. 

Khedive,  63,  66. 

Kheraskof,  M.,  355. 

Khian-lung,  Emperor,  13. 

Khondemir,  47. 

"  Khosru  and  Shireen,"  43,  45. 

Khukoffski,  356. 

Kielland,  404. 

Kimball.  Harriet,  536. 

"  King  Arthur ''  (Bulwer's),  502. 

"  King  Christian/'  396. 

"  Khig  of  the  Genii,"  230. 

"  King  Hart,"  472. 

King,  President,  530. 

Kings,  394. 

"  Kings,  Book  of,"  55. 

"  King's  Quair,  The,"  471. 

Kingsley,  Charles,  502,  503. 

Kinney,  Elizabeth  C.,  525. 

Kirk,  John  Foster,  518. 

Kirkland,  Mrs.  C.  M.,  519,  523. 

Kleist,  Ewald,  425. 

Kleist,  H.  von,  435. 

Klinger,  F.  M.  von,  430. 

Klopstock,  F.  G.,  425,  426. 

Klyn,  380. 

"  Knickerbocker's  History  of  New  York, 

521. 

Knight,  Payne,  506. 
Knights  of  the  Round  Table,  251,  412,  461, 

465,466. 

Knolles,  Eichard,  477. 
Knorring,  Baroness,  403. 
Kn6z,  Tekla,  404. 
Kochanowski,  John,  364. 
Koeppen,  Professor,  533. 
Kohl,  Dr.  J.  G.,437. 
"Kojiki,"  17. 
Kollar,  356,  363. 
Koltsoff,  356. 
Konarski,  Stephen,  365. 
Konig,  442. 

"  Koran,"  179,  180,  190 
Korhonen,  346. 
Korner,  C.  T.,431. 
Kortvim,  444. 
Kossuth,  347,  348 


INDEX. 


559 


Kotzebue,  A.  F.  F.  von,  434. 
Krainerius,  362. 
Krasicki,  I.,  306. 
Krishna,  20. 
"  Kubla  Khan,"  498. 
Kung-fu-tses,  9. 
Kuthy,  348. 
Krylof,  I.  A.,  356. 

LA  BRUYERE,  JEAN  DE,  266,  273. 

Laberiiis,  141. 

"Labors  of  Hercules,"'  309. 

"  Labyrinth,  The,"  309. 

Lachinann,  445. 

Lacordaire,  J.  B.  H.,  294. 

Lactantius,  174. 

"  Lady  of  the  Lake,"  497. 

Laclius,  140. 

Laet,  De,  380. 

Lafayette,  Mme.  de,  261,  266,  272,  274, 
275. 

La  Fontaine,  Jean  de,  253,  266,  269. 

Lagrange,  Joseph  L.,  228. 

Lamartine,  A.  M.  L.  de,  289,  290. 

Lamb,  Charles,  505. 

"  Lamberto  Malatesta,"  235. 

Lamennais,  H.  F.  R.,  Abbe  de,  290,  293. 

"Lament  of  Isis,"  64. 

"Lamentations,"  53. 

Lamotte,  A.  H.  de,  277. 

Lampadio,  C.  Octavius,  140. 

"Lancelot,"  251. 

"Land  of  Cockayne,"  467. 

Laudor,  Walter  Savage,  501. 

Lanfranc,  Archbishop,  464. 

Lanfrey,  289. 

Lang,  Andrew,  508. 

Lange,  447. 

Langendik,  376. 

Langland,  Robert,  468. 

Langley,  537. 

Languages.  See  JEolic,  African,  Agglutin- 
ated, Anglo-Saxon,  Arabic,  Aramaic, 
Armenian,  Aryan,  Asamese,  Asia,  Attic, 
Bashmuric,  Basque,  Bohemian,  Britons, 
Burmese,  Castilian,  Catalan,  Caucasian, 
Celtic,  Ckal'Jaic,  Chinese,  Classification, 
Coptic,  Cymric,  Danish,  Deri,  Doric, 
Dutch,  Egyptian,  Emelian,  English, 
Erse,  Ethiopian,  Etruscan,  Europe,  Fin- 
nish, Flemish,  French,  Frisian,  Gaelic, 
Galician,  German,  Gothic,  Grcgco-ltalic, 
Greek,  Hawaiian,  Hebrew,  Hindu,  Hin- 
dustani, Hungarian,  Iberian,  Iceland, 
Indian  American,  Indian  East,  Indo- 
European,  Inflected,  Ionic,  Iranian, 
Irish,  Isolated,  Italian,  Italic,  Japanese, 
Karen,  Lappish,  Latin,  Lettic,  Ligurian, 
Limousin,  Lombard,  Maltese,  Marches, 
Mf.mphitic,  Metaphorical,  Monosyllabic, 
Neapolitan,  Neo  -  Hellenic,  Neo- Latin, 
Nomadic,  Norman-French,  Norse,  Nor- 
wegian, Parsee,  Pehlvi,  Pelasgic,  Per- 
*  sian,  Philosophical,  Phoenician,  Pied- 
montese,  Polish,  Political,  Portuguese, 
Prakrit,  Provencal,  Rabbinical,  Romaic, 
Roman,  Roman  Provinces,  Romance, 
Romance- Wall  on,  Romanic,  Roumanian, 
Russian,  Sahidic,  Sanskrit,  Saxon, 
Scandinavian,  Semitic,  Servian,  Siam- 
ese, Sicily,  Slavic,  Spanish,  Sparta, 
State,  Suabian,  Swedish,  Syriac,  Syr- 
ian, Tartar,  Teutonic,  Tkeban,  Tura- 


nian, Turkish,  Tuscan,  Umbrians,  Vene- 
tian, Wallachia,  Welsh,  Ztndic  dialects 
and  languages. 

"Languages  and  Literature  of  the  Slavic 
Nations,"  359. 

Langue  de  ya,  244. 

Langue  d'oc,  244,  245,  291. 

Langue  d'oui,  244,  250. 

Langue  de  si,  244. 

Lannoy,  Baroness  de,  378. 

"Laodamia,"  499. 

Lao-ts<5,  9. 

La  Place,  Marquis  de,  531. 

Lappish  language,  4. 

Larcom,  Lucy,  536. 

Lares,  126. 

Larra,  Jose"  de,  333. 

Las  Casas,  Bartolome  de,  315,  316. 

Lasca,  I],  217. 

"Last  Athenian,"  404. 

"  Last  Letters  of  Jacopo  Ortis,"  235. 

"  Last  of  the  Mohicans,"  521. 

Lathrop,  G.  P.,  537. 

Latimer,  Hugh,  473. 

Latin  fiction,  465 ;  history,  464 ;  influence 
in  Denmark,  394 ;  in  France,  243 ;  in 
Germany,  418,  422;  in  Hungary,  346, 
347 ;  in  Italy,  195 ;  in  the  Netherlands, 
370 ;  in  Poland,  365  ;  hi  Spain,  297  ;  lan- 
guage, 5,  57,  122-126,  177,  178,  194,  353, 
418,  459,  460;  literature,  370,  457,  461, 
463;  philosophy,  464;  poetry,  129-131. 
See  Dutch,  English,  German,  Italian, 
and  Roman. 

"  Latin  Classics,"  530. 

"  Latin  and  English  Dictionary,"  530. 

Latini,  Brunette,  196. 

Latium,  123  ;  poetry,  128. 

Laube,  432. 

"Launcelot,"  466. 

Laura  de  Sade,  200. 

Lavinium,  124. 

Lawrence,  John,  531. 

"Law,  The  "  (Cicero  on),  151. 

Law  of  the  Language,  347. 

"  Laws,"  Plato's,  106. 

"Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,"  497. 

Layamon,  467. 

"Lazarillo  de  Tormes,"  314,  325. 

Lazarus,  Emma,  536. 

Le  Maitre,  272. 

Lear,  464,  465. 

"  Lear,"  479. 

Lecky,  509. 

Leconte,  537. 

"  Lectures  on  the  English  Language,"  529. 

"  Lectures  on  Rhetoric  and  Belles  Lettres," 
494. 

"  Lectures  on  Universal  History,"  445. 

Ledyard,  John,  516. 

Lee,  Eleanor,  525. 

Lee,  Nathaniel,  485. 

"  Legal  Antiquities,"  444. 

Legar<5,  H.  S.,  520,  534. 

"Legend  of  Good  Women,"  469. 

"  Leges  regiae,"  125,  139. 

Legouve",  G.  M.  J.  B.,  291. 

Leibnitz,  Baron,  239,  264. 

Leichhardt,  437. 

Leidy,  537. 

Leighton,  Archbishop,  484. 

Leland,  C.G.,525,  535. 

Lelewel,  366, 


560 


INDEX. 


Lengren,  Anna  Maria,  400,  401. 

Lennep,  Jan  vail,  380. 

Leo  the  Great,  174. 

Leo  X.,  194,  206,  213,  218. 

Leon,  Luis  de,  326,  327. 

'•  Leonore,"  430. 

Leopardi,  Count,  194,  233,  234,  238. 

Leopold,  399,  400. 

Lepsius,  437,  445. 

Lermontoff,  M.  T.,  356. 

"  Lesbian  Adventure,  The,"  117. 

Lesbos,  79,  80. 

Leslie,  Eliza,  523. 

Leslie,  John,  505. 

Lessing,  G.  E.,  406,  426,  432. 

Letters.  See  English.,  French,  and  Italian 
Letters. 

Letters,  their  origin,  1. 

"Letters  "  (Hillard's),  519. 

"Letters"  (Luther's),  419. 

"Letters"  (Walpole's),  494. 

"Letters  of  the  British  Spy,"  516. 

"Letters  of  Irenaeus,"  519. 

"  Letters  of  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montagu," 
489. 

"  Letters  from  Palmyra,"  522. 

Lettic  languages,  5. 

Lever,  Charles  J. ,  503. 

"  Leviathan,"  477. 

"Leviticus,"  55. 

Lewald,  Fanny,  442. 

Lewes,  George  H.,  509,  526. 

Lewes,  Mrs..  508. 

Leyden,  370. 

"  Liberty,  To,"  356. 

"  Liberty  of  Unlicensed  Printing,"  477. 

Libraries.  See  Alexandria,  British.  Mu- 
settm,  and  Oxford  Libraries. 

Lichtenstein,  437. 

Lidner,  400. 

Lie,  Jonas,  404. 

Lieber,  Dr.,  533. 

Liebig,  Baron  von,  438. 

"  Life  and  Voyages  of  Columbus,"  518. 

"Life  of  Estevanillo  Gonzalez,"  325. 

"  Life  of  Frederic  the  Great,"  504. 

"  Life  of  Jefferson,"  519. 

"  Life  in  New  York,"  522. 

"  Life  of  Patrick  Henry,"  516. 

"  Life  of  St.  Louis,"  256. 

"Life  of  Washington"  (Irving's),  519; 
(Kirkland's),  519  ;  (Marshall's),  514. 

"Light  of  Asia,"  507. 

"  Light  of  Nature,"  494. 

"  Lights  and  Shadows  of  Scottish  Life," 
503. 

"  Lights  of  Canope,"  47. 

Ligurian  dialect,  194. 

Limousin  dialect,  298. 

Lingua  prisca,  125. 

Linnaeus,  C.  von,  372,  403. 

Linus,  72. 

Lippi,  Lawrence,  225. 

Lipsius,  Justus,  372. 

"Literary  Scourge,"  238. 

Literati,  140. 

Literature.  See  Alexandria,  American, 
Anz/o-Saxon,  Arabic,  Armenian,  Aryan, 
Asia,  Athens,  Bohemian,  Budd/iixm,  By- 
zantium, Celtic,  Chinese,  Cn'nmbia,  Cop- 
tic, Court  of  Literature,  Cuba,  Cymric, 
Danish.,  Dutch,  Eddaic,  Egyptian,  En%- 
lith,  Etruscan,  Finnish,  French,  Ger- 


man, Greek,  Hebrew,  Hindu,  Hungarian, 
Iceland,  Irish,  Italian,  Japanese,  Kal- 
mucks, Latin,  Norman,  Norman-French, 
Norse,  Norwegian,  Parsef,  Pehli-i,  Per- 
sian, Phanician,  Polish,  Portuguese,  Pro- 
vengal,  Rabbinical,  Roman,  Roumanian, 
Russian,  Saga,  Sunskrit,  .Sorrow. 
Scandinavian,  Scotc/i,  Strt-ian,  Slavic, 
Spanish,  Swedish,  Syriac,  Turkish,  Ven- 
ezuela, Welsh,  Zendic  Literature. 

"  Literature  of  all  Nations,'"  443. 

"Literature  of  Southern  Europe,"  293. 

"Little  Old  Woman  Cut  Shorter,"  393. 

Livermore,  Dr.,  530. 

"  Lives  of  Eminent  Generals,"  152. 

"Lives  of  Garagantua   and   Pantagruel," 
258. 

"  Lives  of  the  Most  Celebrated  Artists," 
219. 

"  Lives  of  the  Poets  "  (Johnson's)  490,  493 ; 
(Suetonius'),  164. 

"Lives  of  the  Twelve  Caesars,"  164. 

"  Living  Temple,"  484. 

Livingston,  Edward,  531. 

Livingston,  William,  514. 

Livy,  129,  152, 154 :  "Discourses  on,"  218. 

Lobeira,  Vasco  de,  252,  306. 

Lobo,  Rodriguez,  342. 

Locke,  John,  239,  264,  453,  484,  494,  526. 

Lockhart,  John,  503, 506. 

Lockyer,  Norman,  509. 

Lodbrok,  Ragnor,  392, 393. 

Logographers,  88. 

Lohenstein,  Daniel  G.,  424. 

Loke,  385. 

Lokman,  40. 

Lollio,  220. 

Lombard  Cycle,  411. 

Lombard  dialect,  194. 

Lomonosof,  M.  V.,  354. 

London  Academy,  220. 

London  obelisk,  61 . 

"London  Quarterly,"  506. 

Longfellow,  H.  W.,  522,  524. 

Longfellow,  S.,  528. 

Longinus,  112. 

"  Longobards  of  the  First  Crusade,"  234, 

Longueville,  Duchess  de,  261,  272. 

Longus,  117. 

Loomis,  Professor,  532. 

Loosjes,  A.,  379. 

Loots,  380. 

Lord  of  the  isles,  471. 

Lorenzi,  234. 

Lorris,  Guillaume  de,  252. 
i   Lossing,  B..  518. 

Louis  XI.,  256. 

Louis  XIV.,  243.  265. 

"  Louise,"  430. 

Lb'nnrot,  Elias,  345. 

Lounsbury,  Professor,  537. 

Louvre,  2. 

Lovelace,  Richard,  483. 

"  Lover's  Confession,"  469. 

"  Love's  Labor  's  Lost,"  479. 

Lowell,  J.  R.,  524. 

Lowell,  Maria,  525. 

Lubbock,  Sir  John,  509. 

Lubke,  447. 

Lucan,  160,  161 ;  life  of,  164. 

Lucena,  310. 

Lucian,  112. 

Lucidor,  398. 


INDEX. 


661 


"Lucile,"507. 

Lucilius,  135, 14G,  157. 

Lucretius,  145,  152. 

Lucullus,  L.,  15'-'. 

"  Ludwig's  Lied,"  410. 

"  Luisa  Strozzi,"  235. 

Luna,  127. 

"  Lusiad,"  2G,  339-341. 

"Lusiadas,  Os,"  340. 

Luther,  Martin,  50,  312,  371,  417-419,  421. 

"  Lutrin,"  270. 

Luzan,  Ignazio  de,  330. 

Lybian  Desert,  60. 

Lyceum,  107  ;  school  of  the,  111. 

Lycophron,  108,  109. 

Lycurgus,  103. 

Lydgate,  John,  470. 

Lyell,  Sir  Charles,  507. 

Lynch,  519. 

"  Lyre  and  Sword,"  431. 

Lysias,  100,  101. 

Lytton,  360. 

Lytton,  Lord,  501,  507. 

"  MABINOGI,"  461. 

Mably,  AbW  de,  285. 

Macaronic  style,  216. 

Macaulay,  T.  B.,  125,  504,  507. 

"  Macbeth,"  479. 

Maccabees,  50. 

McCarthy,  Justin,  508,  509. 

McClurg,  Dr.,  515. 

KcCulloch,  J.  R.,  505. 

Macdonald,  George,  508. 

Macedonia,  121. 

"McFingal,"514. 

Machiavelli,  N.,  194,  212, 214,  216-218, 222  ; 

life  of,  241,  278. 
Macias  (the  Enamored),  337. 
Mclntosh,  Maria  J.,  523. 
Mackenzie,  Henry,  493. 
McKinney,  518. 

Mackintosh,  Sir  James,  505,  506. 
McMaster,  Professor,  537. 
Macpherson,  James,  460,  495. 
Macrobius,  172. 

"  Madhava  and  Eadha,"  27. 
Madison,  James,  513. 
Madras,  33. 

Maecenas,  143,  146,  147. 

Maerlant,  Jacob,  369. 

Maffei,  Seipione,  227,  231,  236,  238,  239. 

"  Magazine  of  American  History,"  534. 

Magi,  religion  of,  179. 

"  Magnalia  Christi  "  (Americana),  511. 

Magnusen,  398. 

Magyars,  346. 

"Mahabharata,"  23,  26,  346. 

"Mahabarit,"  47. 

Mahmud,  Shah,  43. 

"Maid  of  Orleans,"  429,  434. 

Maintenon,  Madame  de,  267,  275. 

Maistre,  de,  288. 

Malachi,  54. 

"  Malade  Imaginaire,"  269. 

Malebranche,  N.,  2C6,  273. 

Malherbe,  Francois  de,  260. 

Mallory,  Sir  Thomas,  470. 

"  Malmantile,  The,"  225. 

Malpighi,  Marcellus,  222. 

Maltese  language,  4. 

Malthus,  Rev.  T.  R.,  505,  506. 

Mamelukes,  63. 


Mamiani,  240. 

"Man  of  Feeling,"  493. 

"  Manavadharmasastra,"  24,  31. 

Mandeville,  Sir  John,  468. 

Manetho,  62,  108, 110. 

"  Manfred,"  498. 

Mann,  Horace,  530. 

Manrique,  George,  310. 

Mantua,  Marquis  of,  204. 

Manu,  24  ;  Code  of,  31. 

"Manual  of  Epictetus,"  112. 

"  Manual  of  Pomponius,"  139. 

Manuel,  Don  Juan,  301. 

Manuel,  N., 419. 

Manzoni,  Count  Alessandro,  194,  232.  233, 

235. 

Marathon,  92. 
"Marble  Faun,"  622. 
Marcellinus,  Ammianus,  172. 
Marches,  dialects  of  the,  194. 
Marclii,  Francesco,  221. 
"  Marco  Visconti,"  235. 
Marcus  Aurelius,  112. 
Marenco,  232. 
"Margaret,"  522. 
"  Margherita  Pusterla,"  235. 
Maria  Theresa,  227. 
Mariana,  Juan  de,  301,  328. 
Marie  of  France,  465. 
"Marie  Stuart,"  429,  434. 
Marini,  G.,  223, 224. 
Marini,  school  of,  194. 
Marlowe,  Christopher,  422,  479. 
"  Marmion,"  465,  497. 
Marinontel,  J.  F.,  281,  284. 
Marnix,  P.  van,  369. 
Maronites,  38. 
Marot,  Clement,  258. 
Marre,  de,  376. 
Marryatt,  Frederick,  503. 
Mars,  71,  120. 
Marsh,  Caroline  C.,  525. 
Marsh,  G.  P.,  529. 
Marsh,  Mrs.,  503. 
Marsh,  Professor  O.  C.,  537. 
Marshall,  John,  513. 
Marston,  Philip,  508. 
Marsyas,  73. 

MarteUi,  Pietro  Giacomo,  231. 
Martial,  159. 
Martin,  Henri,  289. 
"  Martin  Luther,"  434. 
Martineau,  Miss  Harriet,  503. 
"  Martinus  Scriblerus,"  488. 
Martins,  437. 

"  Martyrs  "  (Chateaubriand's),  287. 
Marvell,  Andrew,  485, 486. 
Mascheroni,  Lorenzo,  234. 
Massillon,  J.  B..  200,  271,  276. 
Massinger,  Philip,  452,  481,  487. 
Mastersingers.     See  Meistersingers. 
Mather,  Cotton,  511. 
Mathews,  Cornelius,  522,  525. 
Maturin,  Charles  R.,  601. 
Maudsley,  Henry,  509. 
Maury,  Lieutenant,  632. 
"  Maxims  "  (Fenelon's),  274. 
"  Maxims  "  (Rochefoucauld's),  272. 
"  Maxims  of  the  Saints,"  271. 
May,  Caroline,  529. 
May,  Edith,  525. 
Mayo,  522. 
Maypole,  386. 


562 


INDEX. 


Mazarin,  Cardinal,  268. 

Mazzerani,  241. 

"  Measure  for  Measure,"  479. 

"  Mecanique  Celeste,"  531. 

Mecca,  179,  180. 

Mechitar,  351. 

"  Medea,"  134. 

Media,  39,  40. 

Mediaeval  scripts,  3. 

Medici,  the,  218. 

Medici,  Cosmo  de',  204,  218,  219. 

Medici,  Leopold  de',  220. 

Medici,  Lorenzo  de',  194,  205,  212. 

"  Meditations  "  (Stranger's),  290. 

"  Meditations  "  (Hall's),  470. 

Megaric  school  of  philosophy,  105,  111. 

"  Meghaduta,"  27. 

Mehemet  Ali,  65. 

Meistersingers,  369,  405,  415,  416,  421,  423. 

"Mejnoun,"  43,  46. 

Melanchthon,  Philip,  419. 

Melendez,  J.  A.,  331. 

"Melite,"  263. 

Melville,  522. 

"  Memoirs  "  (de  Retz's),  274. 

"  Memoirs  of  his  own  Times  "  (Graydon's), 
515. 

"Memoirs  of  the  Reign  of  Anne  of  Aus- 
tria," 272. 

"Memorable  Sayings  and  Deeds,"  164. 

Memphis,  60. 

Memphitic  dialect,  60. 

Mena,  Juan  de,  309. 

Menage,  G.,  262. 

Menander,  99,  100,  132. 

Mencius,  9, 10. 

MendeleeSff,  358. 

Mendelssohn,  Moses,  435. 

Mendoza,  Diego  de,  314. 

Meng-ts6.     See  Mencius. 

Menzel,  C.  A.,  444. 

Menzini,  Benedict,  224,  226. 

Mephistopheles,  428. 

"Merchant  of  Venice,"  465. 

Miecislav,  Duke  of  Poland,  363. 

Mercury,  71,  126. 

"  Mercy,  To,"  492. 

Meredith,  Owen,  507. 

Merimee,  Prosper,  292. 

Merken,  Madame  van,  377. 

Merlin,  251. 

"  Merlin,"  466. 

"  Merope,"  231. 

Mesopotamia,  38. 

Mesrob,  350. 

"Messenger  Cloud,"  29. 

Messenian  war,  77. 

Messenius,  398. 

"  Messiah,"  425,  426. 

"Metamorphoses  "  (Ovid's),  148,  510. 

"  Metamorphoses  of  the  Gods,"  64. 

"  Metamorphoses,  or  the  Golden  Ass,"  173. 

Metaphorical  languages,  5. 

Metastasio,  Peter  A.  D.  B.,  194,  229. 

Meteren,  E.  van,  373. 

"Metrical  Tales,"  500. 

Metz,  58. 

Meun,  Jean  de,  252. 

Mexico,  picture-writing,  1. 

Mezeray,  F.  B.  de,  273. 

Micah,  54. 

Michael,  182. 

Michael  Angelo,  206,  212,  213. 


Michael  of  Kildare,  467. 

Michelet,  Jules,  289. 

Mickiewicz,  Adam,  363,  3G6,  367. 

Middle  Ages,  449  ;  philosophy,  151. 

Middleton,  Thomas,  481. 

Midgard,  386. 

Midgard  Serpent,  385-387. 

Mignet,  289. 

Milan,  Duke  of,  204. 

Mill,  James,  505. 

Mill,  John  Stuart,  506,  509,  526. 

Miller,  Hugh,  507. 

Miller,  Joaquin,  535. 

Milman,  Henry  Hart,  501. 

Milne-Edwards,  294. 

Milnes,  Monckton,  502. 

Milo,  oration  in  defense  of,  150. 

Milton,  John,  225,  372,  452,  453,  465,  477, 

483,  486. 
Mimes,  141. 
Mimographers,  141. 
Minerva,  71,  126. 
Mines,  63. 

Minnesingers,  405,  412,  415,  431. 
Minor  prophets,  54. 
"  Minstrel,"  495. 
"Minute  Philosopher,"  532. 
Mir-Ali-Schir,  348. 
Mir-Mohammed  Taqui,  33. 
Miracle  plays,  474. 
Miranda,  Saa  de,  328,  338,  342. 
Mirandola,  Pico  della,  206. 
Mirgholah,  47. 
Mirkhond,  47. 

'  Mirror  of  the  Heart,"  374. 

'Mirror  for  Magistrates,"  474. 

'Misanthrope,  Le,"  269. 

'  Miscellaneous  Essays  "  (Temple's),  485. 

'  Mishna,"  57. 
Mistland,  386. 
Mistral,  291. 

Mitchell,  Donald  G.,  528. 
Mitchell,  Maria,  532. 
Mitchell,  O.  M.,  532. 
Mitford,  Mary  Russell,  501,  503. 
Mito,  Lord  of,  17. 
Moab,  King  of,  1. 
Moabite  inscriptions,  1 ;  stone,  1. 
Moasi,  44. 

MoawyYah,  Caliph,  185. 
Mocarabians,  336. 
Mochnachi,  M.,  366. 
Modena,  225. 
Mohammed,  ISO,  183, 187. 
Mohammed  Akbar,  Sultan,  46. 
Mohammedan  Hindus,  21. 
Mohammedan  religion,  46,  179,  180. 
Mohan,  65. 
Molbech,  C.,  398. 
Moldavia,  367. 

Moliere,  J.  B.  P.  de,  132,  266, 268,  354. 
Molza,  Francesco  M.,  212. 
Mommsen,  444,  446. 
Monasteries.     See  Armenian* 
Mongolia,  31. 
Mongols,  40. 
Monkhouse,  Cosmo,  508. 
Monmouth,  Duke  of,  487. 
Monosyllabic  languages,  312. 
Monstrelet,  E.  de,  369. 
Montaigne,  Michael  de,  259. 
Montalembert,  Comte  de,  293. 
"  Monte  Christo,"  292. 


INDEX. 


563 


Montecuccoli,  Count,  222. 

Montemayor,  George  de,  117,  324,  328,  338. 

Montenegro,  359. 

Montesquieu,  Baron  de,  227,  277. 

Montgomery,  James,  501. 

Monti,  Viiiceuzo,  194,  "231,  233,  234,  23S, 

239. 

Montiano,  Augustin  de,  332. 
Monuments.      See  Assyrian,  Babylonian, 

Egyptian,  and  P/tcenician  Monuments. 
Moore,  493. 

Moore,  Thomas,  497,  500,  501. 
Moorish  ballads,  304. 
Moors,  67,  179,  311 ;  schools  of,  58.    See 

Spanish, 

"  Moral  and  Political  Philosophy,"  494. 
"  Moral  System  of  Nasir,"  47. 
Moral  Tales  (Mann<r>tel's),  285. 
Morales,  Ambrose  de,  328. 
Moralities,  254,  424,  474. 
Moratin,  L.  F.  de,  332. 
Moratin,  N.  F.  de,  331,  332. 
Moravia,  360. 
More,  Hannah,  494. 
More,  Henry,  453,  476. 
More,  Sir  Thomas,  473. 
Morfit,531. 

Morgan,  Augustus  de,  506. 
"Morgante  Macrgiore,"  207. 
Morley,  John,  509. 

"  Morning  and  Evening  Prayers,"  394. 
Morocco,  ISO. 
Morris,  George  P.,  525. 
Morris,  Gouverneur,  513. 
Morris,  William,  507. 
Morse,  S.  F.  B.,  531. 
"Mort  Arthur,"  470. 
"  Mort  Artus,  The,"  466. 
Morton,  Dr.,  532. 
Moschus,  108,  109. 
Mosenthal,  S.  H.,  435. 
Moses,  49,  50,  53,  55,  65. 
Mosheim,  J.  L.  von,  446. 
Motley,  J.  L.,  517. 
Moulton,  Louise  Chandler,  536. 
Mufarabes,  297. 
Mudarra,  304. 
Muir,  504. 
Mulah,  the,  45. 
Miiller  (Danish),  398. 
Mitller,  John  von,  445. 
Miiller,  K.  O.,  444,  445. 
Miiller,  Max.  346,  509. 
Milliner,  A.  G.  A.,  434. 
Muloch,Miss.  D.  M.,  504. 
Mundt,  Theodore,  432. 
Munin,  385. 
Muntinghe,  379. 
Muratori,  Ludovico  Antonio,  228,  236,  238, 

^39 

Murger,  Henri,  292,  293. 
Murray,  Lindley,  515. 
Musaeus,  73,  117. 
"Musarion,"  426. 
Muses,  73. 
Museum,  108. 
Music,  Etruscan,  129 ;  French,  268 ;  Greek, 

78 ;  Italian,  225,  228. 
Muspelheim,  386. 
Musset,  Alfred  de,  291. 
"  My  Prisons,"  232. 
"  Myriad  Leaves,  Collection  of,"  18. 
Myrtis,  83. 


Mysteries,  84,  250,  253,  254,  307,  316,  416, 
424,  474. 

Mysticism,  Chinese,  14;  Hindu,  30;  Neo- 
Platonic,  111. 

Mystics,  417. 

Mythology.  See  Arabic,  German,  Greek, 
Persian,  Roman,  and  Scandinavian  My- 
thology. 

N^vius,  129,  130,  133, 134. 

Nahuni,  54. 

Nanna,  396. 

Naples,  220. 

Napoleon,  286,  289. 

Nardi,  James,  219. 

"  Narrative  of  an  Expedition  to  Japan," 
519. 

"  Narrative  of  the  United  States  Explor- 
ing Expedition,"  519. 

Naruszewicz,  A.  S.,  366. 

Nascimento,  Manuel  do,  344. 

"  Nathan  the  Wise,"  426. 

"Natural  and  General  History  of  the  In- 
dies," 315. 

"Natural  History"  (Buffon's),  283;  (Pli- 
ny's), 169. 

"  Natural  Theology,"  494. 

Nature,  86. 

"  Nature  of  Man,"  119. 

"  Nature  of  Things,  The,"  145. 

Naubert,  Benedicte,  441. 

"Naval  History  of  the  United  States," 
518. 

Neal,  Alice  B.,  523. 

Neal,  John,  522,  525. 

Neal,  Joseph  C. ,  528. 

Neander,  J.  A.  W.,446. 

Neapolitan  dialects,  194. 

Nebi, 

Nebuchadnezzar,  56. 

Necker,  Jacques,  285. 

Necropoles,  61. 

Nedhog,  387. 

Nefl,  349. 

"  Nehemiah,'1  56  ;  writings,  49. 

Nemesis,  89. 

Nemesius,  119. 

Neo-Hellenic  language,  69,  119. 

Neo-Latin  languages,  195. 

Neo-Platonists,  41,  111,  112, 172. 

Nepos,  Cornelius,  152. 

Neptune,  71, 126. 

Neri,  the,  197. 

Nero,  156, 160, 168. 

Neshk   letters,  179. 

Nestorians,  38. 

Netherlands,  368. 
'  New  American  Cyclopaedia,"  529. 
'  New  Atlantis,"  477. 
1  New  Doctrine,"  369. 
'  New  Home,"  523. 

'New  Testament,"  57,  117;  revised  edi- 
tion, 59.  See  Bible. 

"  New  Way  to  pay  Old  Debts,"  481. 

New  York  obelisk,  61. 

Newman,  John,  511. 

Newspapers.    See  Periodicals. 

Newton,  Isaac,  264,  453. 

Newton,  John,  494. 

"  Nibelungen-lied,"  177,  346,  389,  410,  413, 
415,  420. 

Nicholas  V.,  204. 

Nicolai,  C.  F.,425. 


564 


INDEX. 


Nicole,  273. 

Nicolini,  232. 

"  Nicolo  de  Lapi,"  235. 

Niebuhr,  B.  G.,  137,  139,  236,  445,  504. 

Niemcewicz,  J.  U. ,  363,  366. 

Nieuwland,  P.,  378. 

Nifelheiin,  386,  387. 

Niflunga,  391. 

Nihilism,  353. 

"  Nihonghi,"  17. 

"Nile  Notes, "519. 

Nixes,  407. 

Nizami,  45,  46. 

Noah,  4. 

"  Noah's  Ark,"  402. 

Nomadic  languages,  4. 

Nominalists,  243,  468. 

Nomz,    Jan,  378. 

Nonconformists,  453. 

Nonuus,  116, 117. 

Nordenflycht,  Charlotte,  399. 

Norman,  519. 

Norman  conquest,  4,  119  ;  literature,  177  ; 
people,  251. 

Norman-French  language,  244  ;  literature, 
457,  465. 

Nornor,  387. 

Norse  alphabet,  389 ;  history,  392 ;  lan- 
guage, 387,  388  ;  literature,  388-394  ;  po- 
etry, 389;  religion,  388;  runes,  390;  sagas, 
392. 

"Norse  Folk, "519. 

Norsemen,  3. 

"  North  American  Herpetology,"  532. 

"  North  American  Review,"  534. 

North,  Christopher.    See  Wilson,  John. 

Northmen,  383. 

Norton,  A.,  530. 

Norton,  Mrs.,  502. 

Norton,  Professor  VV.  A.,  532. 

Norton,  Thomas,  475. 

Norwegian  drama,  404  ;  fiction,  404 ;  lan- 
guage, 387,  388  ;  literature,  404. 

Nota,  230. 

"  Notes  on  the  Manners,  etc.,  of  the  North 
American  Indians,"  518. 

"Notes  on  Virginia,"  513. 

"  Notices  of  Illustrious  Grammarians  and 
Rhetoricians,"  164. 

Nott,  Dr.,  532. 

Nott,  President,  530. 

"  Nouvelle  Heloise,"  282. 

Novalis,  430,  440. 

Novelle,  216. 

Novels.     See  Fiction. 

"  Novels  "  (of  Justinian),  175. 

"  Novels  and  Tales  "  ( Sacchetti's),  203. 

"  Noviim  Orjjanuin,"  477. 

"Numbers,"  55. 

Numenius,  56,  112. 

OBADIAH,  54. 

Obelisks,  61,  04. 

"  Oberon,"  426. 

"  Observations  on  the  Sublime  and  Beauti- 
ful," 435. 

"Observer,"  238. 

Occam,  William,  467,  468. 

"  Ocean  of  Love,"  33. 

"  Ocean  Navigation  and  the  New  World," 
219. 

"  Oceana,"  477. 

Octavius,  149. 


"  Ode  on  Alexander's  Feast,"  487. 
"  Ode  on  Eton  College,"  492. 

'Ode  to  Evening,''  492. 

'Ode  to  God,"  355. 

'  Ode  to  the  Departing  Year,"  498. 

'Odes,  Book  of,"  13,  17. 

'Odes  of  Horace,"  146,  147. 
Odin,  384-387,  389,  390,  392,  407. 
"Odin's  Raven  Song,"  390. 
"  Odyssey,"  26,  73,  90,  488,  495. 
"CEdipus  Tyrannus,"  98. 
Oehlenschlager,  A.  G.,  396,  397. 
Oersted,  A.  S.,  398. 
Oersted,  H.  C.,  398. 
"  Old  Age  "  (Cicero  on),  151. 
Old  Testament,  revised  edition,  59.    See 

Bible. 

Oliphant,  Mrs.,  503. 
"Ollapodiana,"  528. 
Olmedo,  334. 
Olmsted,  519. 

Olmsted,  Professor  D.,  532. 
Olympus,  70,  71,  84. 
Om,  22. 

Omar,  Caliph,  184. 
Omar  Kheyam,  44. 
Ommyi'ades,  185,  187. 
"Omoo,"522. 

'  On  the  Advancement  of  Learning,"  476. 

'  On  Angling,-'  485. 

'  On  Consolation,"  168. 

'  On  the  Consolations  of  Philosophy,"  173. 

'  On  Invention,1'  150. 

'On  the  Mind,"  282. 

'On  the  Origin  of  Human  Knowledge," 
281. 

'   On  the  Origin  of  Language,''  426. 
On  the  Perseverance  of  Wise  Men,"  168. 

'  On  Providence,"  168. 
On  the  Reform  of  the  Florentine  Govern- 
ment," 218. 
"On  the  State," 477. 
"  On  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful,"  494. 
"  On  True  Christianity,  >'  420. 
"One  Hundred  Persons,''  18. 
Opitz,  Martin,  423,  424. 
Ops,  126. 

"  Orations  of  Cato,"  137. 
"  Orator,  The,"  138,  150. 
"  Orator  to  Marius  Brutus,  The,"  150. 
Oratory.     See    American,    Athens,    Bohe- 
mian, Dutch,  English,  French,   Greek, 
Italian,  Polish,  and  Roman  Oratoi-y. 
"Orestes,''  213. 
Oriani,  Barnaba,  228. 
Origen,  119. 

"  Origin  of  Species,"  509. 
"  Original  Cronykil,1'  471. 
"  Origins,  The,"  137. 
"  Orlando  Furioso,"  208,  482. 
"  Orlando  Innamorato,"  207. 
Ormin,  467. 
"Ormulum,"  467. 
Ormuzd,  41. 
"  Orphan,  The,"  485. 
"  Orphan  of  China,''  13. 
"  Orphan  of  the  House  of  Tacho,"  13. 
Orpheus,  73,  84. 
"  Orpheus,"  206. 
Orphic  doctrines,  83  ;  poems,  83. 
"  Orphic  Sayings,"  527. 
Oscans,  123,  124  ;  drama,  128. 
Oscar  II.,  404. 


INDEX. 


565 


Osgood,  Frances  8.,  525. 

Osgood,  Kate  Putnam,  536. 

Osgood,  Samuel,  530,  537. 

O'Shaughnessy,  Arthur,  508. 

Osiris,  03. 

Osmanlis.    See  Turks. 

Ossian,  460. 

Otfried,  410. 

"  Othello,"  479. 

Otis,  James,  513,  514. 

Otway,  Thomas,  485. 

Ovid,  134,  145,  146,  148,  510. 

Oviedo,  Gonzalo  de,  315. 

Owen,  D.  D.,  531. 

Owen,  John,  453. 

"  Owl  and  the  Nightingale/'  467. 

Oxenstjerna,  399,  400. 

Oxford  library,  42. 

PAA.LZOW,  ATJOUSTE  VON,  441. 

Pabodie,  W.  J.,  525. 

Pacuvius,  133,  134. 

Padua,  58,  221, 227. 

Paeans,  72. 

Pagano,  Mario,  227. 

Paine,  Thomas,  532. 

Painting,  144. 

"  Palace  of  Honor,"  472. 

Palacky,  Franz,  363. 

"Palainedes  Unjustly  Sacrificed,"  375. 

Palatine,  Mount,  124. 

Palestine,  38,  50. 

Palaeologi,  116. 

Paley,  William,  455,  494. 

Palfrey,  518. 

Pali,  31. 

Palladio,  Andrea,  221. 

Palm,  van  der,  379. 

Palinblad,  W.  F.,  401. 

"  Pamela,"  490. 

Pan,  127. 

"Pandects,"  175. 

Pandu,  27. 

Panslavism,  356. 

Pantagruel,  258. 

Pantaloon,  214. 

Pantomime,  141, 142. 

Panurge,  258. 

Paper,  191. 

Papirian  Code,  139. 

Papirius,  Sextus,  139,  140. 

Papyrus,  36,  60. 

Paracelsus,  P.  A.  T.,  421. 

"  Paradise  Lost,"  225,  426,  452,  484. 

"  Paradise  Regained,"  483. 

Parini,  Giuseppe,  194,  228,  233,  234,  238. 

Paris  Academy,  220. 

Paris,  Matthew,  464. 

"  Parisina,"  498. 

Parker,  Matthew,  475. 

Parker,  Theodore,  527. 

Parkman,  538. 

Parley,  Peter,  518. 

Parmenides,  86. 

"  Parnasse  Contemporain,  Le,"  291. 

Parnassiens,  Les,  291. 

Parnassus,  73. 

Parnell,  Thomas,  253,  465. 

Parsee  language,  39 ;  literature,  40. 

Parsees,  41 ,  350. 

"Parsifal,"  412. 

Parthia,  39. 

Parton,  519,  538. 


Pascal,  Blaise,  264,  265,  272. 

Passeroni,  Gian  Carlo,  234,  235. 

"  Passion  Flowers,"  525. 

"  Passions,  The,"  492. 

Pasteur,  294. 

"  Pastime  of  Pleasure,"  470. 

"  Pastor  Fido,"  117,  215. 

Patanjali,  30. 

Paterculus,  C.  V.,  162. 

Patriarchal  system,  15. 

Patrizi,  Francesco,  222. 

Patroclus,  74. 

Patru,  Olivier,  266,  272. 

"  Paul  and  Virginia,"  285. 

Paulding,  522. 

Paulina  (wife  of  Seneca),  168. 

Pausamas,  114. 

Pavia,  221 ;  museum  of,  234. 

Payne,  John  Howard,  525. 

Peabody,  Dr.,  530. 

Pearson,  Bishop,  484. 

Pehlvi,  39,  40  ;  alphabet,  39 ;  language,  39 ; 
literature,  40. 

Peirce,  Benjamin,  532. 

Pelasgians,  123,  124,  126. 

Pelasgic  languages,  5. 

Pelayo,  305. 

Pellico,  Silvio,  232,  233. 

Pellisson,  266,  272. 

Petofi,  348. 

Peloponnesus,  69. 

Penates,  126. 

'  Pencillings  by  the  Way,"  519. 

'  Pense'es  de  la  Religion,"  265. 

'Penseroso,  II.,"  483. 

'entateuch,  49. 

'  Pentaur,  Epic  of,"  65. 

'  Pepita  Jimenez,"  334. 

Percival,  James  G.,  525. 

Percy,  Thomas,  472,  493,  495. 

Pergamos,  108. 

Periander,  85. 

Pericles,  80,  91,  100,  101,  104. 

"  Pericles,  Prince  of  Tyre,"  465. 

Periodicals.  See  American,  Armenian,  Bo- 
hemian, Dutch,  Egyptian,  English,  Fin- 
nish, Greek,  Japanese,  Polish,  Rouma- 
nian, Swedish,  and  Turkish  Periodicals. 

Peripatetics,  107,  111,  150. 

Peris,  182. 

Perry,  Commodore,  579. 

Perry,  Nora,  536. 

Perses,  76. 

Persian  alphabet,  179 ;  conquests,  63 ;  edu- 
cation, 48  ;  fiction,  18  ;  history,  47  ;  lan- 
guage, 39,  48,  179,  349 ;  literature,  41, 67, 
349 ;  mythology,  180  ;  people,  5,  20,  91 ; 
philosophy,  47  ;  poetry,  42,  43  ;  religion, 
40,  111 ;  science,  47.  See  Sufis. 

"  Persian  Letters,"  277. 

Persius,  135,  146,  157,  158,  171;  life  of, 
164. 

Perticari,  238. 

Pessimists,  436. 

Peter  of  Blois,  464. 

Peter  the  Great,  354. 

"  Peter  Schlemihl,"  441. 

Petrarch,  194,  195,  199,  212,  215. 

Pfeiffer,  Ida,  437. 

Phaedrus,  156,  157. 

Phaon,  80. 

Pharaoh,  63. 

"  Pharsalia."  161. 


566 


INDEX. 


Phelps,  Elizabeth  Stuart,  536. 

Philetas,  108. 

"  Philip  vau  Artevelde,"  502. 

Philip  of  Macedon,  103, 106. 

Philippics,  103,  149,  150. 

Phillips,  Wendell,  520. 

Philo,  37,  49,  50. 

Philo-Judseus,  112. 

Philosophical  languages,  5. 

Philosophy.      See  Alexandria,  American, 
Arabian,  Athens,  Chinese,  Cynic,   Dialec- 
tic, Dutch,  Egyptian,  Eltatic,  English 
Epicurus,    Essenes,    Experience,    French 
German,  Gnostics,  Greek,  Hebrew,  Hindu 
Ionic,    Italian,    Italic,   Latin,    Megaric 
Middle  Ages,  Neo-Platonists,  Peripatet 
icf,  Persian,  Pessimists,  Platonic  School 
Polish,  Pythagorean,  Realism,  Realists 
Roman,     Sanskrit,    Socratic,    Sophists 
Stoics,  and  Transcendental  Pnilosophy. 
'  Philosophy  of  Experience,"  526. 
'  Philosophy  of  History,"  443. 
'Philosophy  of  Identity,"  435. 
'  Philosophy  of  Language,"  494. 
'  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,"  494. 
'  Philosophy  of  the  Unconscious,"  437. 

Phoenician  alphabet,  1, 2, 5, 15,  37;  country, 
5 ;  history,  37  ;  language,  4,  37,  50,  298 ; 
literature,  37 ;  monuments,  37 ;  people, 
63. 

Phosphoric  school,  401. 

"Phosphorus,  The,"  401. 

Phrynichus,  91,  95. 

"Physical  Geography  of  the  Sea,"  532. 

Piatt,  S.  M.  B.,  536. 

"  Picciola,"  293. 

Pichler,  Caroline,  441. 

Picture-writing,  8. 

"  Picturesque  Views  of  the  Cordilleras  " 
437. 

Piedmontese  dialect,  194. 

Pignotti,  Lorenzo,  235. 

Pike,  Albert,  525. 

Pike,  Zebulon,  516. 

"  Pilgrim's  Prosfress,"  469,  484. 

Pindar,  2,  77,  79,  81-84. 

Pindemonte,  Count,  233,  234. 

Pinkney,  Lieutenant,  516. 

Pinkney,  William,  513. 

"  Pioneers,  The,"  521. 

"  Pirates  on  the  Coast  of  Kiangnan,  Stories 
of,"  14. 

Pisa,  221,  227. 

Pisistratids,  90,  91. 

Pisistratus,  75,  95. 

Pitt  the  elder,  493. 

Pitt  the  younger,  493. 

Pittacus,  85. 

"  Pity,  To,'-  492. 

Pio  Clementine  Museum,  227. 

Pius  II.,  204. 

Pius  VI.,  227. 

"Place  of  the  World,"  170. 

Placido,  334. 

Plato,  56,  68,  87, 100. 101, 104, 105, 107, 150, 
173,  201,  205,  222,  437. 

Platonic  Academy,  99,  206. 

Platonic  school,  ill. 

Plautus,  126,  131,  207. 

Playfair,  Sir  John,  505-507. 

"  Pleasures  of  Hope,"  496. 

"  Pleasures  of  the  Imagination  "  (Addi- 
son's),  489. 


"Pleasures  of  Imagination"  (Akenside'sl 
491. 

Pleiades,  Arabian,  183. 

Pliny  the  elder,  109,  171. 

Pliny  the  younger,  102,  1G5,  1G9, 171  ;  let- 
ters of,  105  ;  on  Christianity,  165-107. 

Plotinus,  112,  116. 

Ploug,  398. 

"  Plurality  of  Worlds,"  277. 

Plutarch,  114. 

Pluto,  126. 

Poe,  Edgar  A.,  522,  524. 

"  Poems  to  Nanna,"  396. 

"Poetical  Reason,  The,"  238. 

Poetry.  See  Alexandria,  American,  Anglo- 
Saxon,  Arabian,  Assyrian,  Auguf tun,  Bab- 
ylonian, Bohtmian,  Bolivia,  Byzantium, 
Celtic,  Chinese,  Cuba,  Cynic  Poets,  Cym- 
ric, Danish,  Doric,  Dutch,  Egyptian, 
English,  Etruscan,  Finnish,  French,  Ger- 
man, Greek,  Hebrew,  Hindu,  Hungarian, 
Jrifh,  Italian,  Japanese,  Latin,  Latium, 
Norse,  Orphic,  Persian,  Polish,  Portu- 
guese, Provencal,  Roman,  Roumanian, 
Russian, Sanskrit,  Scandina i-ian,  Scotch, 
Servian,  Sicily,  Spanish,  t-uabian,  Swed- 
ish, Turkish,  Tuscan,  and  Wets/t  Poetry. 

"  Poetry  and  Truth,"  427. 

Pole,  Cardinal,  473. 

Polenta,  Guide  di,  197 

Policinella,  128. 

Polish  drama,  366 ;  education,  364, 365 ;  fic- 
tion, 366  ;  history,  364-300  :  language, 
353,  363 ;  literature,  3C3-3C7  ;  oratory, 
365;  periodicals,  365;  philosophy,  366; 
poetry,  3C4,  306,  367  ;  science,  365. 

Political  languages,  4. 

Politics.  See  American  and  Italian  Poli- 
tics, Nihilism  and  Panslavism. 

Poliziano,  Angelo,  206,  212. 

Pollio,  Asinius,  134. 

Pollok,  Robert,  501. 

Pollux,  127. 

Polybius,  113. 

Polycarp,  118. 

"  Polyeucte,"  263. 

"  Poly-Olbion,"  465,  483. 

Pompey,  149,  154,  155  ;  panegyric  on,  150. 

Pomponius,  139. 

Pomponius  Mela,  170. 

Foot,  376. 

Pope,  Alexander,  454,  487,  488. 

PSppig,  437. 

"  Popular  Science  Monthly,"  534. 

Porphyry,  112. 

Porrex,  465. 

Port  Royal,  Abbey  of,  265. 

Porta,  Luigi  da.  216. 

Porter,  Jane,  502. 

Portuguese  drama,  341;  education.  343 ;  his- 
tory, 342  ;  language,  178,  208,  334  ;  liter- 
ature, 335,  344 ;  English  influence  on, 
344 ;  French  influence  on,  343,  344  :  Itil 
ian  influence  on,  338;  poetry,  336-339, 
343. 

Poseidon,  70,  71. 

"  Position  of  Egypt  in  the  History  of  the 
World,"  438. 

"  Positive  Philosophy,"  293. 

Potocki,  Count  J.,  366. 

Potocki,  Count  I..  366. 

"  Power  Men,"  434. 

"  Practical  Navigator,"  631. 


INDEX. 


567 


Prakrit,  20,  28,  31. 
Prati,  240. 

"  Pravda  Russkaya,"  353. 
"  Pre'cieuses  Ridicules,'1  268. 
Prentice,  G.  1).,  5'25,  M9. 
Prentiss,  S.  S. ,  520. 
Prescott,  Mary,  530. 
Prescott,  W.  H.,  517. 
Preston,  Harriet,  53G. 
Preston,  Margaret,  536. 
Preston,  W.  C.,  520. 
Priestley,  Joseph,  533. 
Prime,  S.  C.,  519. 
"  Primitive  Legislation,"  287 
"Prince,  The,"  222. 


"  Princeton  Review,"  534. 

"  Principles  of  Psychology,''  508. 

Printing,  invention  of,  11,  370,  417,  449 ;  ir 

England,  471 ;  in  Turkey,  349. 
"  Prisoner  of  Chillon,"  498. 
"  Prithivi  Raja,  Adventures  of,"  32. 

Probus,"  522. 


Procter,  Adelaide,  508. 
Procter,  Bryan  Waller,  501. 
Proctor,  Edna  Dean,  536. 
Prnemia,  75 


Propertius,  147. 

"  Prophetic  Almanac,"  420. 

"Prophets,  The,"  49. 

Proscenium,  97. 

Proserpine,  71. 

Protectorate,  452,  453,  484. 

Provencal  language,  178,  244,  245,  250,  298, 

309;   literature,   308,  336;  poetry,   125. 

201,  293. 

Provence,  242-250,  291,  298. 
Proverbs,  54,  329. 
Provincia.     See  Provence. 
"  Provincial  Letters,"  265. 
Prudentius,  A.  C.,  172. 
Pryor,  Matthew,  486. 
"  Psalms  of  David,"  49,  53. 
"  Psalter  of  Cashel,"  460. 
Ptolemies,  61 ,  63,  65. 
Ptolemy  of  Alexandria,  114, 116. 
Ptolemy  Epiphanes,  62. 
Ptolemy  Euergetes,  108. 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  65, 108. 
Ptolemy  Soter,  107,  110. 
Publius  Syrus,  142. 
Puffendorf ,  Baron  von,  423. 
Pulci,  Luigi,  207. 
Pulgar,  Hernando  del,  305,  310. 
Punic  war,  first,  122, 129, 136  ;  second,  136, 

161. 

"  Punica,"  161. 
"  Puranas,"  24. 
Puritans,  453,  511. 
Pushkin,  A.  S.,  356. 
"  Puss  in  Boots,"  217. 
"  Putnam's  Magazine,"  534. 
Pyramids,  64. 
Pyrrhon,  111. 
Pythagoras,  84,  87. 
Pythagorean     philosophy,    84,     85,     87  ; 

schools,  56,  99,  105. 

QUARLES,  FRANCIS,  483. 

Quatrefages,  294. 

u  Quest  of  the  Saint-Graal,"  466. 


Quevedo,  Francisco  de,  326,  327. 
Quinault,  Philippe,  268. 
Quincy,  Josiah,  514. 
Quinet,  Edgar,  289. 
Quiutana,  Manuel,  332. 
Quiutilian,  82,  14<J,  152,  164,  171. 
Quirinal,  124. 
Quiriims,  127. 

RABBINICAL  literature,  49,  57 ;  language, 
51. 

Rabbinites,  58. 

Rabelais,  Francis,  258. 

Rabener,  Theophilus  W.,  425. 

Racine,  Jean,  ICO,  263,  266,  267. 

Radclitfe,  Mrs.,  493. 

Rafn,  398. 

Ragnarok,  387. 

Rahbek,  K.  L.,  396. 

Rahel,  441. 

Rai  Sanyo,  17. 

Raleigh,  Sir  Walter,  477. 

Ralli,  the,  119. 

"  Ralph  Roister  Doister,"  475. 

Rama,  26. 

Ramadan,  180. 

"  Ramayana,"  23,  26,  33. 

"  Rambler,"  490. 

Rambouillet,  Madame  de,  261. 

Rameses,  2,  61,  64,  65. 

Ramler,  Charles  W.,  425. 

Rammohun  Roy,  34. 

Ramsay,  Allan,  117,  491. 

Ramsay,  David,  515. 

.Randall,  519. 

Randolph,  John,  520. 

Rangabe,  Alexander,  120. 

Ranke,  446. 

RaouL     See  Solta. 

"  Rape  of  the  Bucket,"  225. 

"  Rape  of  the  Lock,"  488. 

"  Rape  of  Proserpine,"  17L 

Rask,  Professor,  368. 

Rask,  R.  C.,  398. 

"  Rasselas,"  490. 

"  Rationalism  in  Europe,"  509. 

Ran,  H.,  442. 

Raumer,  F.  L.  G.  von,  446. 

Raupach,  E.  B.  S.,  435. 

Ravana,  26. 

Raynal,  Abb(5,  281,  284,  285. 

Read,  T.  B.,  525. 

Reade,  Charles,  504. 

Realism,  358. 

Realists,  243,  468. 

"  Recit  d'une  Soeur,"  293. 

Red  Cross  Knight,  482. 

Redden,  Laura  C.,  536. 

Redi,  Francesco,  222,  224,  227. 

Redondillas,  303 

Reformation,  257,  312,  449,  451,  457,  472. 

"  Regeneration  of  Italy,"  240. 

Reid,  Thomas,  239,  455,  494. 

(i  Reign  of  Charles  V.,"  492. 

"  Reigning  Dynasty,  History  of,"  47. 

Reimarus,  446. 

Reinhard,  F.  V.,446. 

Reinhold,  C.  L.,  435. 

Religion.  See  Alexandria,  Anglo-Saxon, 
Arabian. Armenian,  Bible,  Bramo-Somaj, 
Buddhism,  Chinese,  Christianity,  Egyp- 
tian, Etruscan,  French,  Greek,  Hebrew, 
Hindu,  Japanese,  Magi,  Mohammedan, 


568 


INDEX. 


Nonconformists,  Norse,  Persian,  Puri- 
tans, Reformation,  Roman,  Sabeism, 
Shintoism,  Slavic,  Theology,  and  Zenclic 
Religions. 

"  Reliques  of  Ancient  English  Poetry,"  472, 
493,  495. 

Rellstab,  442. 

"  Remorse,"  498. 

Remy,  Saint,  242. 

Renaissance,  243,  257. 

Renan,  293. 

"Renard»253. 

Renouard,  A.  A.,  293. 

"  Republic,  The  "  (Cicero's),  151 ;  (Plato's), 
106. 

Restoration,  453,  457,  484. 

Retz,  Cardinal  de,  266,  274. 

Rennio,  16. 

"  Revenge,"  487. 

"  Reveries,"  528. 

"  Revolt  of  Islam,"  500. 

Revolution,  English,  453,  457,  484. 

Rey  of  Naglowic,  363,  364. 

"  Reynard  the  Fox,"  369,  416. 

Reynolds,  Sir  Joshua,  494. 

"  Rhadamiste,"  268. 

Rhapsodists,  73. 

Rhea,  127. 

"  Rhetoric  "  (Cavalcanti's),220 ;  (Hilton's), 
473. 

Ribeyro,  Bernardin,  337. 

Ricardo,  D.,505. 

"  Ricciarda,"  232. 

"  Ricciardetto,"  234. 

Richard  Co3ur  de  Lion,  248. 

Richardson,  Samuel,  454,  490. 

Richelieu,  Cardinal,  244,  262. 

Richter,  Jean  Paul,  427,  439. 

"  Ridicule  of  the  Gods,"  225. 

Ridley,  Nicholas,  473. 

"  Rig- Veda,"  24. 

"  Rig's  Song,"  389. 

"  Rights  of  Nations,"  240. 

Rimini,  Francesca  da,  197, 198. 

Rinuccini,  Octavius,  228. 

Rinaldo,  209. 

Ripley,  George,  527,  529. 

"  Riseide,"  234. 

Ritchie,  Anna  Mowatt,  523,  526. 

"  Rites,  Book  of,"  13. 

Ritter,  Carl,  445. 

"  Ritusanhara,"  27. 

"  River  Y,"  375. 

Rizzi,  Alessandro,  241. 

"  Robbers,  The,"  428,  433. 

Robert,  Christopher,  351. 

Robert  of  Gloucester,  467. 

Roberti,  Count,  235. 

Robertson,  William,  455,  492. 

"  Robin  and  Makyne,"  472. 

"  Robin  Hood,"  470. 

"  Robinson  Crusoe,"  423,  488. 

Robinson,  Edward,  530. 

Robinson,  Mary,  508. 

Robinson,  Mrs. ,  533. 

Robinson,  Mrs.     See  Talvi. 

Rochefoucauld,  Duke  de,  266,  272. 

Roderic,  Don,  306. 

Roderic,  King,  306. 

"  Roderic,  the  Last  of  the  Goths,"  306, 497. 

Rodrigo  Diaz,  299.     See  Rodriguez. 

Rodriguez  (the  Cid),  248.  See  Rodrigo 
Dias. 


Rogers,  531. 

Rogers,  Samuel,  501. 

"  Rokeby,"  497. 

"  Rolf  Krage,"  395. 

Rollin,  Charles,  273. 

Rollo  the  Dane,  250. 

Romaguosi,  John  D.,  239. 

Romaic  alphabet,  3 ;  language,  69. 

Roman  alphabet,  3,  345,  353,  409 ;  charac- 
ter, 134  ;  conquests,  63,  65 ;  drama,  129, 
130,  133,  141,  142,  159;  fiction,  156: 
games,  134 ;  history,  128,  135,  152,  164, 
171 , 172  ;  history  compared  with  Greek, 
152;  jurisprudence,  139,  174,  175,  193, 
195 ;  language,  125  ;  literature,  68,  116, 
121-176 ;  literature  compared  with  Arab, 
184  ;  mythology,  126,  127,  133  ;  oratory, 
113,  135,  148,  164,  172 ;  people,  20,  124, 
220,  221,  227  ;  philosophy,  148,  150,  167, 
172,  173  ;  poetry,  108,  127,  128,  142,  144, 
146,  147,  160,  171 ;  religion,  71,  126,  127, 
134  ;  satire,  128,  135,  157  ;  sciences,  113, 
155, 164, 167, 172.  See  Latin  and  Rome. 

"Roman  Archaeology,"  113. 

"  Roman  History,"  504. 

"  Roman  Nights,"  235. 

Roman  Provinces,  dialects  of,  194. 

Romance  languages,  178,  243, 251,  298,  299, 
335,367. 

"  Romance  of  the  Rose,"  252,  469. 

"Romance  of  Setna,"  64. 

Romance- Wallon,  244,  250. 

Romanic  languages,  178,  195. 

Romans-Provencaux,  244. 

Romantic  school,  430,  434. 

Rome,  Greek  literature  in,  113,  121,  129, 
171. 

"  Romeo  and  Juliet,"  216,  479 

Romulus,  127. 

Roncesvalles,  303,  305. 

Ronsard,  P.  de,  260. 

Rosa,  Salvator,  224,  226. 

"  Rosamunda,"  213. 

Roscellinus,  243. 

Roscins,  141. 

Roscommon,  Lord,  486. 

Rosetta  Stone,  62. 

Rosini,  235. 

Rosmini,  Serbati,  240. 

Rossetti,  Christina,  508. 

Rossetti,  Dante,  507. 

Rossi,  Gherardo  de',  230. 

Roswitha,  410. 

Rotgans,  375. 

Rotteck,  C.  W.  R.  von,  445. 

Roumanian  history,  367  ;  language,  367 ; 
literature,  367  ;  periodicals,  367  ;  poetry, 
367 ;  science,  367 ;  theology,  367. 

Roumi,  45. 

Round  Rable,  251,  412,  461,  465,  46& 

Roundelays,  303. 

Rousseau,  Jean  Baptiste,  276. 

Rousseau,  Jean  Jacques,  282. 

Rovani,  235. 

Rowe,  Nicholas,  481. 

Rowson,  Susanna,  533. 

Royal  Academy  of  London,  220. 

"  Royal  Ronans,"  18. 

Royer  Collard,  287,  293. 

Rucellia,  Giovanni,  213,  215. 

Riickert,  432. 

Rudel,  Geoffrey,  248. 

"  Rudens,"  132. 


INDEX. 


569 


Rueda,  Lope  de,  317. 

Ruge,  436. 

Bugler,  447. 

Ruhnkenius,  372. 

Ruiz,  Juan,  301. 

Rumford,  Count,  516,  531. 

"  Rune  Song,"  389,  390. 

Runeberg,  J.  L.,  402. 

Runes,  387,  389. 

Runic  alphabet,  3,  387,  409. 

Rush,  Dr.,  515. 

Ruskin,  John,  505. 

"  Russia  as  it  is,"  533. 

Russian  drama,  354-356,  358;  education, 
354,  355  ;  fiction,  358 ;  history,  356  ;  lan- 
guage, 353;  literature,  23,  356-358; 
poetry,  354,  356,  357  ;  science,  358. 

"  Ruth,"  54. 

Rutledge,  513,  514. 

Rybinski,  364. 

Rydberg,  404. 

SAAD-EL-DIN,  349. 

Sabeism,  179. 

Sabelians,  123. 

Sabines,  123,  124. 

Sacchetti,  Franco,  203. 

Sachs,  Hans,  416,  420. 

Sackville,  Thomas,  465,  474,  475. 

"  Sacramental  Acts,"  318,  320. 

"  Sacred  History,"  172. 

Bade,  Laura  de,  200. 

Sadi,  45. 

Saga  literature,  389,  392,  393. 

Sagamen,  390,  391,  393. 

Sagas,  177,  392,  461,  462. 

Sage,  A.  R.  le,  277,  314,  325. 

Sahidic  dialect,  60. 

St.  Aldegonde,  Marnix  de,  373. 

"  Saint  Graal,  The,"  466. 

St.  Pierre,  Bernardin  de,  285. 

Saint  R<5my,  242. 

St.  Simon,  Duke  de,  266,  274. 

Sainte-Beuve,  293. 

Saintine,  293. 

"  Saint's  Everlasting  Rest,"  476, 

"  Sakuntala,"  29. 

Sakya,  Saint,  30. 

Sakyamuni,  30. 

Salamanca,  school  of,  331. 

Salamis,  91. 

Saldana,  Count  de,  303. 

Salerno,  193. 

Sales,  St.  Francis  de,  259. 

Salian  hymn,  125. 

Sallust,  152-154. 

Salmasius,  Claudius,  372. 

Salviati,  Leonardo,  214,  219. 

"  Sama-Veda,"  24. 

Samarcand,  185. 

Samaritan  writing,  1. 

Samson,  55. 

"  Samuel,  Book  of."  55. 

Samund  the  Wise,  389,  390. 

San  Graal,  412. 

"  San  Graal,"  251,  466. 

Sancho,  324. 

Sanchuniathon,  37. 

Sanctis,  De,  241. 

Sand,  George.  292. 

Sand,  George  (assassin),  434. 

Sandeau,  Jules,  292. 

Sandoval,  Fray  Prudencio  de,  329. 


Sandys,  George,  510. 

Sang  Real,  412,  466. 

Sanhedrim,  108. 

Sannazzaro,  Jacopo,  214. 

Semones,  126, 127. 

Sanskrit  education,  33 ;  history,  29 ;  lan- 
guage, 20,  28,  30,  352  ;  literature,  20-34, 
47  ;  philosophy,  29 ;  poetry,  24 ;  science, 

Santillana,  Marquis  of,  309. 

Santob,  Rabbi,  302. 

Santsos,  Alexander,  120. 

Santsos,  Panagiotis,  120. 

Sappho,  72,  80. 

"Sappho  "  (Grillparzer's),  434. 

Saracens,  63,  65,  115,  180,  184,  211. 

Sarcey,  293. 

Sardanapalus,  36. 

Sardou,  Victorien,  291. 

Sargent,  525. 

Sargon,  36. 

Sarpi,  Paul,  226. 

Sassanides,  39,  40,  44. 

Satire,  129.  See  Egyptian,  French,  Ger- 
man, Italian,  Roman,  Servian,  Spanish, 
and  Turkish  Satire. 

"  Satires  of  Horace,"  146. 

Satura,  129. 

Saturn,  126. 

Saturniau  Verse,  125. 

Sauday,  33. 

"  Saul,"  231. 

Saurin,  James,  272. 

Savonarola,  Jerome,  220  ;  life  of,  241. 

"Savoyard  Vicar's  Confession  of  Faith," 
283. 

Saxe,  John  G. ,  5?5. 

Saxon  English,  467. 

Saxon  language,  408,  467  ;  literature,  467. 

"  Saxon  Chronicle,"  463,  467. 

Saxonic  school,  424,  425. 

Scsevote,  the,  140. 

Scaldic  literature,  389. 

Scalds,  177,  388,  389,  390,  391,  393. 

Scaliger,  J.  C.,372. 

Scaliger,  J.  J.,  372. 

Scamozzi,  Vincenzio,  222. 

Scandinavian  language,  387  ;  literature, 
382-404  ;  mythology,  384 ;  people,  3 ;  po- 
etry, 177.  See  Danish,  Icelandic,  Norse, 
Norwegian,  and  Sicedish  Language,  etc. 

"  Scarlet  Letter,"  521. 

Scarron,  Madame,  275. 

Scarron,  Paul,  261. 

Scene,  97. 

Schaff,  Philip,  537. 

Schaffarik,  P.  J.,  363. 

Scheele,  C.  W.,  403. 

Schelling,  F.  W.  J.,  435,  436,  527. 

Schiller,  J.  C.  F.,  406,  487-489,  433,  434, 
442. 

Schlagintweit,  Adolf,  437. 

Schlagintweit,  Herman,  437. 

Schlegel,  27. 

Schlegel,  Augustus  von,  430,  431,  443. 

Schlegel,  Friedrich  von,  430,  431,  443. 

Schlegel,  John  Elias,  425. 

Schleiermacher,  F.  B.  E. ,  446. 

Schlosser,  F.  C.,  445,  446. 

Schoolcraft,  H.  R.,  518,  519. 

Schopenhauer,  Arthur,  358,  436, 437. 

Schoppe,  Amalie,  441. 

Schoppenhauer,  Johanna,  441. 


570 


INDEX. 


Schubart,  C.  F.  D.,  430. 

Schucking,  442. 

Schuyler,  Eugene,  538. 

Schwab,  Gustav,  431. 

Science.  See  Alexandria,  American,  Ara- 
bian, Assyrian,  Babylonian,  Chaldean, 
Chinese,  Danish,  Dutch,  Egyptian,  Eng- 
lish, Etruscan,  Finnish,  Greek,  Hindu, 
Italian,  Japanese,  Persian,  Polish,  Ro- 
man, Roumanian,  Russian,  Sanskrit,  and 
Turkish  Science, 

"  Scientific  American,"  534. 

"  Scienza  Nuova,"  139,  23G. 

Scipio  Africanus  Major,  130,  138. 

Scipio  Africanus  Minor,  138. 

Scipio  Lucius,  125. 

Scolia,  81. 

"  Schoolmaster,  The,"  473. 

Scotch  literature,  460,  471 ;  poetry,  471 ; 
theology,  471.  See  English  Literature, 

Scott,  Michael,  464,  471. 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  256,  456,  465,  471,  496- 
498,  506. 

Scotus,  Johannes  Duns,  464,  468. 

Scribe,  A.  E.,  291. 

Scripts.    See  Alphabets. 

Scudery,  G.  de,  262. 

Scudery,  Mademoiselle  de,  261,  262,  274. 

Sears,  President,  530. 

"  Seasons,  The,"  (Barbieri's),  234  ;  (Thom- 
son's), 145,  491. 

Secontismo,  223. 

Sedgwick,  Catharine  M.,  519,  523. 

Segni,  Bernardo,  219. 

Segura,  Juan  Lorenzo,  301. 

Selden,  John,  452,  477. 

Select! ,  126. 

Semitic  alphabet,  35,  37  ;  languages,  3, 5, 6, 
38,  50, 179 ;  races,  4,  5. 

Seneca,  133. 

Seneca,  the  elder,  164. 

Seneca,  Marcus  A.,  160,  168. 

"  Septuagint,"  49,  56,  108,  110,  117.  See 
Bible. 

"Sepulchres"  (Foscolo's),  233;  (Pinde- 
monte's),  233. 

Sermons  (Fenelon's),  274. 

Servian  alphabet,  358  ;  drama,  360 ;  fiction, 
300  ;  language,  353,  358,  359 ;  literature, 
358,  360 ;  poetry,  359,  360 ;  satire,  360. 

Settembrini,  241. 

"  Seven  Brothers,"  46. 

Seven  Lords  of  Lara,  304. 

"  Seven  Parts,  The,"  300. 

Seven  Sages,  85,  88. 

"  Seven  Stars  of  the  Bear,"  46. 

St§vign»5,  Madame  de,  261,  266,  272,  275. 

Shadwell,  Thomas,  485. 

Shaftesbury,  First  Earl  of,  487. 

Shaftesbury,  Third  Earl  of,  488. 

Shah  Jehan,  42. 

"  Shah  Namah,"  43,  44,  34G. 

Shakspeare,  132,   183,  216,  217,  238,  301, 

451,  452,  465,  467,  478,  479. 
Sheahs,  lf<3. 

Sheersen,  395. 

Shelley,  Mrs.  M.  W.,  503. 

Shelley,  Percy  Bysshe,  499,  500. 

Sliem,  4. 

Shenstone,  William,  491. 

Shepherd  Kings,  63. 

Sheridan,  R.  B.,  493,  495. 

Shinran,  16. 


Shintoism,  16, 17. 

"  Ship  of  Fools,"  416. 

"  Shipwreck,"  491. 

Shirley,  James,  452,  481. 

"  Short  Account  of  the  Ruin  of  the  Indies," 

315. 

"  Short  Studies,"  509. 
Siamese  language,  529. 
Sicily,  69,  121, 123 ;  dialects,  194 ;  poetry, 

201. 
Sidney,  Sir  Philip,  451,  470,  477. 

Sidonian  inscriptions,  1,  2. 

Siebold,  P.  F.  von,  437. 

Siefert,  Louise,  291. 

"  Siege  of  Florence,"  235. 

Siegfried,  393,  413,  414. 

Siena,  221,  227. 

"  Siete  Partidas,  Las,"  300. 

"  Sighs,"  394. 

Sigourney,  Lydia  H.,  523,  525. 

Sigurd,  391,  393. 

Sikeli,  123. 

Silesian  schools,  423,  424. 

Silius,  ItalicusC.,  161. 

"  Silkworm,  The,"  234. 

Silliman,  B.,  531. 

Siloam,  Pool  of,  2. 

Silver  Age,  123, 160. 

"  Silvise,"  161. 

Simeon  of  Polotzk,  354. 

Simms,  W.  G.,  522,525. 

Simonides,  77,  81-83,  90. 

"Simplicity,  To,"  492. 

"  Sinless  Child,"  525. 

"  Sir  Charles  Grandison,"  490. 

"  Sir  Thaddeus,"  367. 

Sirius,  40. 

Sirventes,  246,  247. 

Sismondi,  J.  C.  L.  S.  de,  288,  289,  293. 

Sisters  of  War,  386. 

Siva,  21. 

"  Six  Months  in  Italy,"  519. 

"  Six  Years  of  Exile,"  286. 

Skelton,  John,  474. 

"  Sketch-Book,"  521. 

"  Sketches  in  Black  and  White,"  537. 

"  Sketches  of  Distinguished  Women," 
519. 

Skulda,  386. 

Slavic  alphabet,  3,  354  ;  languages,  5,  352, 
360,  362,  367  ;  literatures,  352-367 ;  race, 
352  ;  religion,  352.  See  Bohemian,  Pol- 
ish, Roumanian,  Russian,  and  Servian. 

Sleipner,  390. 

Slidell,  519. 

Slovaks,  360. 

Smith,  Adam,  455,  494. 

Smith,  Charlotte,  493. 

Smith,  E.  Oakes,  523,  525. 

Smith,  H.  B.,  530. 

Smith,  Seba,  529. 

Smith,  Sydney,  506. 

Smits,  377. 

Smollett,  Tobias,  454,  490. 

Smyrna,  73. 

Smyth,    Newman,  537. 

Sneedorf ,  395. 

"  Social  Contract,"  282. 

Socrates,  10,  100,  104,  105,  107. 

Socratic  schools,  111. 

SoStla,  Caroline,  363. 

"  Sofonisba,"  213. 

Sol,  127. 


INDEX. 


571 


Solis/Antonio  de,  329. 

Solomon,  49,  50,  54,  55. 

Solon,  75,  77,  SI,  85,  90. 

"Song  of  the  Bell,"  429. 

"Soug  of  the  Prophetess,"  389. 

"  Song  of  Solomon,"  54. 

"  Soug  of  Voland,"  391. 

"  Song  of  the  Way-Tamer,"  390. 

"  Sonnets  on  the  Crimea,"  3G7. 

Sophists,  101. 

Sophocles,  G8,  97,  98. 

Bordello  of  Mantua,  248. 

"  Sorrows  of  Werther,"  427. 

South,  Robert,  484. 

"  Southern  Quarterly,"  534. 

Southerue,  Thomas,  485. 

Southey,  Robert,  306,  496. 

Southworth,  Emma,  523. 

Souza,  343. 

Spanish  Arabians,  186,  295,  296, 299  ;  autos, 
319,  341  ;  Cancioneros,  312 :  dancing, 
321 ;  drama,  296,  303,  306-308,  313,  316, 
332  ;  fiction,  302,  306,  314,  322  ;  lustory, 
302,  305,  315,  328  ;  inquisition,  310,  312, 
330 ;  Jews,  56,  58 ;  language,  4,  178,  297  ; 
literature,  295-334 ;  Arabic  influence, 
298 ;  French  influence,  330  ;  Italian  influ- 
ence, 309,  314 ;  Moors,  295, 296, 299 ;  peo- 
ple, 20 ;  poetry,  29G,  302,  303,  306,  309, 
313,  314,  325,  331  ;  proverbs,  329 ;  satire, 
327  ;  theatres,  321,  332.  See  Arabian  and 
Provencal. 

Spallauzani,  Lazarus,  228. 

Spauheims,  372. 

Sparks,  Jared,  518. 

Sparta,  77,  78,  90 ;  dialect  of,  82. 

"  Spectator,"  238,  489. 

"  Spectator  "  (Van  Etfen's),  377. 

Spegel,  398. 

Spencer,  Herbert,  508,  526. 

Spenser,  Edmund,  183,  450-452,  481. 

Speroni,  Sperone,  213,  220,  222. 

Sphinx,  61. 

Spiegel,  Van  de,  378. 

Spieghel,  Henry,  3G9,  373. 

"Spindle,  The,"  81. 

Spindler,  Charles,  442. 

Spinoza,  B.,  373,  437. 

"  Spirit  of  Laws,"  278. 

Spofford,  Harriet  Prescott,  523,  536. 

Spolverini,  234. 

Sprague,  Charles,  525. 

Sprague,  W.  B.,  530. 

Sprekers,  3G9. 

"  Spring  and  Autumn  Annals,"  8,  9. 

"  Spy,  The,"  521. 

Squier,  E.  G.,  519. 

Stael,  Madame  de,  286. 

Stagnelius,  E.  J.,  402. 

Stagyrite.     See  Ariosto. 

"  Stanzas  written  in  Dejection  near  Na- 
ples," 500. 

Star-worship,  179. 

State  languages,  4. 

Statius,  131,  132,  161. 

"  Statute  of  Wislica,"  364. 

"  Statutes  of  the  Reigning  Dynasty,"  12. 

Stedman,  E.  C.,  535. 

Steele,  Richard,  489. 

Stendhal,  293. 

Stephen,  Leslie,  509. 

Stephens,  Ann  J.,  523,  525. 


Stephens,  John  L. ,  519. 

Sterne,  Laurence,  454,  491. 

Sterahold,  Thomas,  474. 

Stesichorus,  81,  82. 

Stewart,  Dugald,  239,  505,  506. 

Stilicho,  171. 

Stilluigtieet,  Bishop,  484. 

Stinson,  F.  J.,  537. 

Stjernhjelm,  George,  398. 

Stockton,  F.  R.,  537. 

Stoddard,  Elizabeth,  536. 

Stoddard,  R.  H.,  535. 

Stoics,  111,  112,  151,  157, 160, 167. 

Stoke,  Metis,  309. 

"  Stolberg,  Christian,"  430. 

"  Stolberg,  Leopold,"  430. 

Storch,  H.  F.  von,  442. 

"  Storm  and  Stress,"  430. 

Story,  Joseph,  531. 

Story,  W.  W.,535. 

Stowe,  H.  B.,  519,  522. 

Strabo,  114. 

Strapparola,  217. 

Stratico,  Count  Simone,  227. 

Strauss,  436. 

Street,  Alfred  B.,  525. 

Stuart,  379. 

Stuart,  Moses,  530. 

Stub,  395. 

Sturleson,  Snorre,  389,  391,  392. 

Styl,  378. 

Suabiau  dialect,  411 ;  minstrels,  411 ;  po- 
etry, 411 ;  school,  431. 

"  Subjection  of  Women,"  509. 

"  Sublime,  The,"  112. 

Suckling,  Sir  John,  483. 

Sue,  Eugene,  292. 

Suetonius,  129,  164. 

Sufis,  42,  45,  46. 

Suja,  42. 

Sully,  Duke  of,  273. 

Sulpicius,  Severus,  172. 

Sumarokof,  355. 

"  Summary  View  of  the  Rights  of  British 
America,"  513. 

Sumner,  Charles,  520. 

Sun  Song,  390. 

Sunnees,  183. 

Surrey,  Earl  of,  474. 

"  Swallow  Barn,"  522. 

Swedenborg,  Emanuel,  403. 

Swedish  drama,  398;  fiction,  403;  lan- 
guage, 387,  388;  literature,  398-402; 
French  influence  on,  399 ;  periodicals, 
"99 :  poetry,  398. 

Swift,  Dean,  487-J89. 

Swinburne,  Algernon,  507. 

Swiss  school,  424. 

Switzerland,  383. 

Sylla,  129. 

Sylvanus,  126. 

Symmachus,  J.  A.,  172,  195. 

Symonds,  Addington,  509. 

Symposia,  76. 

Synesius,  119. 

Syriac  alphabet,  179;  language,  38,  66; 
literature,  38. 

Syrian  language,  530. 

"  System  of  Penal  Laws  for  the  United 
States,"  531. 

Szigligeti,  348. 

Szymonowicz,  Simon,  364. 


572 


INDEX. 


TABLE  TALK,  419. 

Tacitus,  152,  150,  158,  ICO,  1C2,  163,  171, 

384.  407. 

Taiue,  Hippolyte,  289,  293. 
'  Tale  of  a  Tub,"  488. 
'  Tale  of  Two  Brothers,"  64. 
'Tales"  (Pichler's),  441. 
'  Tales  of  Youth,"  461. 
'Talmud,"  57,  180. 
'  Talvi,"  360,  441. 
Tamerlane,  305. 
"  Taming  of  the  Shrew,"  301. 
Tao,  9. 
Taoleti,  188. 
Tappan,  Rev.  D.,  530. 
Tarentum,  122. 
Tarsia,  212. 

Tartaglia,  Niccolo,  221. 
Tartar  language,  4,  348,  367. 
"  Tartuffe,"  269. 
Tasso,   Torquato,   117,  183,  194,  206, '209^ 

212,  213,  215,  220,  222. 
"  Tasso  "  (poem),  427,  433. 
Tassoni,  Alessandro,  224,  225. 
"  Tatler,"  489. 
Tauler,  Johann,  417. 
Taylor,  Bayard,  519,  535. 
Taylor,  Henry,  502. 
Taylor,  Isaac,  505. 
Taylor,  Jeremy,  452,  476,  484. 
"  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,"  59. 
"  Telemachus,"  274. 
Telesio,  Bernadiu,  222. 
Tegner,  393,  402. 
"  Tempest,"  479. 
Temple,  Sir  William,  485. 
Temples,    Abou  -  Simbel,    2  ;    Apollo,    2  ; 

Egyptian,  61 ;  of  the  Sun,  61. 
Ten  Kate,  377. 
Tennyson,  Alfred,  502,  540. 
Tensons,  246,  247. 
"  Tent  Life,"  519. 

Terence,  126,  131,  132, 134  ;  life  of,  164. 
Terminus,  126. 
Terpander,  79,  81. 
Tertullian,  Q.  S.  F.,  173. 
Tesias.     See  Sle.sichorus. 
Testament.     See  Bible. 
"  Testament  of  the  Faire  Cresside,"  472. 
"Testament  of  Love,"  468. 
Teutones,  405. 
Teutonic  language,  178. 
Teutonicus,  Notker,  410. 
Thackeray,  W.  M.,503. 
"  Thalaba  the  Destroyer,"  497. 
Thales,  85. 
Thaxter,  Celia,  536. 
Theatres.    See  Chinese,  Greek,  Japanese, 

and  Spanish  Theatres. 
Thebaid,  161. 
Theban  dialect,  60. 
Themistocles,  83,  91. 
Theocritus,  108, 109. 
Theodophilus,  410. 
Theodoric,  123. 
Theodoric   the   Great.     See   D-letrich   of 

Bern. 

Theodoric  the  monk,  394. 
Theodosius,  115, 174. 
Theogony,  76. 
Theology.      See     Armenian,     Bohemian, 

Dutch,  German,  Koiimanian,  and  Scotch 

Theology.   Bee  Religion. 


Theon,  116. 

"  Theory  of  Moral  Sentiment,"  494. 

"  Theory  of  Population,"  505. 

"Theory  of  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful," 

506. 

Thera,  2. 
Thermopylae,  77. 
Thespis,  95,  97. 
Thibet,  31. 

Thierry,  Amadee,  288,  289. 
Thierry,  Augustine,  288,  289. 
Thiers,  L.  A.,  289. 
Thiiiwall,  Bishop,  504. 
"  Thirty  Years'  View,"  520. 
Thomasius,  Christian,  423. 
Tholuck,  F.  A.  G.,446. 
Thomas,  Edith  M.,  536. 
Thompson,  Benjamin,  515,  531. 
Thompson,  J.  P.,  530. 
Thompson,  J.  R.,  525. 
Thomson,  James,  455,  491. 
Thor,  385,  387. 
Thoreau,  H.  D.,  528,  529. 
Thoresen,  Magdalene,  404. 
Thorild,  Thomas,  400,  401. 
Thothmes  III.,  Gl. 
"  Three  Black  Crows,"  465. 
Three  Unities,  478. 
Threnos,  72. 

Thucydides,  68,  88,  100,  103,  152,  154. 
Thursday,  387. 
Tiberius,  142,  156. 
Tibullus,  147. 
Tiburtine  Inscription,  125. 
Tickuor,  George,  518. 
Tieck,  Ludwig,  430,  431,  440. 
Tillotson,  Archbishop,  484. 
Tiniocreon,  77,  82. 
"  Timou  of  Athens,"  479. 
Timothy  Titcomb,  529. 
Tiraboschi,  G.,  238. 
"  Titan,"  440. 
Tocqueville,  Alexis  de,  293. 
Togray,  44. 
Tollens,  H.  C.,380. 
Tolstoi,  Count,  358. 
Tommaseo,  239. 
Tooke,  Home,  494. 
Torre,  Alfonso  de  la,  310. 
Torre,  Bachiller  de  la,  326. 
Torrey,  531. 

Torricelli,  Evangelista,  221. 
Torti,  233. 
Toru-Dutt,  34. 

"  Tour  to  the  Hebrides,"  490. 
Tourgee,  Albion,  537. 
Tournaments,  191. 
Toussaint.  Anna,  380. 
Tragedy,  94,  100.     See  Drama. 
"  Tragical  History  of  Doctor  Faustus,"  479. 
"  Tragi-Comedy  of  Calisto  and  Melibcea," 

308. 
Trajan,  emperor,  116,  162  ;  panegyric  on, 

165, 171. 

Transcendental  philosophy,  435,  526. 
"  Transformations,  Book  of,"  13. 
"Traveller,  The,"  495. 
Travels.     See  American  Travels. 
"  Travels  in  the  Equinoctial  Regions    ol 

America,"  437. 
"Travels  in  the   Seaboard   Slave  States," 

519. 
"  Treatise  on  Sensation,"  281. 


INDEX. 


573 


"  Treatise  on  the  Will,"  530. 

Tree  of  Life,  38C. 

Trepassi.     See  Metastasio. 

Triads,  461. 

TrUmond,  482. 

Tribonian,  175. 

Tripoli,  Countess  of,  248. 

Trissino,  G.  G.,  213. 

"  Tristam  de  L«5onois,"  251. 

"  Tristia,  The,"  148. 

Tristram  Shandy,  234. 

"Troilus  and  Cressida"  (Chaucer's),  469; 
(Shakspeare's),  479. 

"Trois  Mousquetaires,"  292. 

Trojan  war,  74,  41'2. 

Trollope,  Anthony,  508. 

Trollope,  Mrs.  Frances,  503. 

Troubadours,  125,  179,  182,  242,  245,  308, 
336,  469. 

Trueba,  Antonio  de,  334. 

Trouveres,  182,  207,  243,  250,  469. 

Trumbull,  B.,  518. 

Trumbull,  John,  514. 

Tschudi,  437. 

Tshand,  32. 

Tshiau-teng-shi,  Poems  of,  13. 

Txicker,  532. 

Tucker,  Abraham,  494. 

Tuckerman,  Henry  T.,  524,  528,  529. 

Tuesday,  387. 

Tulsi-Das,  33. 

Turanian  language,  4,  345,  34C,  348. 

Turgenieff,  358. 

Turin,  221. 

Turkish  alphabet,  179,  349  ;  conquests,  63, 
65;  education,  349;  fiction,  349;  his- 
tory, 348,  349  ;  language,  48,  179,  348, 
349,  367;  law,  349;  literature,  348;  in- 
fluence of  Arabic  on,  349  ;  influence  of 
Persian  on,  349 ;  periodicals,  349 ;  poetry, 
348,  349  ;  satire,  349  ;  science,  349.  See 
Finnixh  Literature. 

"Turkish  History,"  477. 

Turks,  116  ;  in  Armenia,  350. 

Turnus,  King,  143,  144. 

"  Turpin,  Chronicle  of,"  252. 

Tuscan  dialect,  194  ;  poetry,  195. 

"  Tusculan  Disputations,"  151. 

Twain,  Mark,  538. 

"  Twelve  Tables,"  125,  139. 

"  Twenty-ninth  of  February,"  434. 

"  Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona,"  479. 

"  Two  Sisters  of  the  West,"  525. 

"  Two  Years  Before  the  Mast,  519. 

Tyndale,  William,  473. 

Tyndall,  509,  52C. 

Tyler,  Moses  Coit,  537. 

Tyntr,  Rev.  Dr.,  530. 

"Typee,"522. 

"  Types  of  Mankind,"  532. 

Tyr,  387. 

Tyrtaeus,  77. 

UDALL,  NICHOLAS,  475. 

Ueberweg,  446. 

Uedmann,  446. 

Ugolino,  Count,  198. 

TJgoni,  Matthias,  238. 

Uhland,  Johan  Ludwig,  431. 

Ulphilas,  409,  463. 

Ulrici,  436. 

Ulysses,  74. 

Uinbrians,  123,  124  ;  dialect,  194. 


"  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  522. 

"  Undine,"  440. 

United  Provinces,  370. 

United  States.     See  American  Literature. 

"Universal  History"  (Bianchini's), 236. 

Universities,  English,  464. 

"  Upapuranas,"  24. 

Urdu,  33. 

Utgard,  386. 

"  Utopia,"  473. 

Utrecht,  370. 

VAFTHRUDNIR,  389. 

"  Vafthrudnir's  Song,"  389. 

Vala,  390. 

Valckenaer,  L.  G.,  372. 

Valcra,  334. 

Valens,  Emperor,  172. 

Valerius,  Flaccus  C.,  161. 

Valerius  Maximus,  1C4. 

Valhalla,  386. 

Valkyriur,  386,  415. 

Vallenhoven,  375. 

"  Valley  of  the  Amazon,"  519. 

Valmiki,  26,  47. 

Valois,  Marguerite  de,  257. 

Vanbrugh,  Sir  John,  485. 

Varchi,  Benedetto,  219. 

Varengar,  384. 

Varga,  348. 

Varingjar,  384. 

Varius,  133,  147. 

Varro,  132,  137. 

Vasari,  Giorgio,  219. 

Vedanta,  30. 

"  Vedas,"21,23,  31,  32. 

Vega,  Garcilasso  de  la,  314,  329. 

Vega,  Lope  de,  316,  317,  320,  326,  337. 

Vehse,  445. 

Veira,  342. 

Velde,  Van  der,  442. 

Venetian  dialect,  194. 

Venezuela,literature,  334. 

Venice,  227,  351. 

"  Venice  Preserved,"  485. 

Venus,  71, 126,  385. 

Vere,  De,  532. 

Vergne,  Mile,  de  la,  261. 

Verona,  227. 

Verres,  139  ;  orations  against,  149. 

Verri,  Alessandro,  235. 

Vert,  Octavia  Le,  520. 

Vesta,  126. 

Vestals,  126. 

Vettori,  Pietro,  220. 

"Vicar  of  Wakefield,"  493. 

Vicente,  Gil,  341. 

Vicente,  Paula,  341. 

Vico,  Giovanni  Battista,  139,  227,  236. 

Vienna,  4. 

"  View  of  Ireland,"  451. 

Vignola,  221. 

Vigny,  Alfred,  Comte  de,  288,  291. 

Vikings,  383. 

Villani,  Giovanni,  203. 

Villani,  Matteo,  203. 

Villani,  Filippo,  203. 

Villari,  241. 

Ville-Hardouin,  G.  de,  251, 255. 

Villemain,  A.  F.,  288. 

Villena,  Marquis  of,  309. 

Villon,  255. 

Virchow,  438. 


574 


INDEX. 


Virgil,  122, 130, 143, 145,  146, 147. 

Visconti,  E.  Q.,  227. 

Vishnu,  21,  22.  26. 

"  Vision  of  Piers  Plowman,"  468. 

Visscher,  3G9,  373. 

"  VitaNuova,"  196. 

Vitalis,  402. 

Vitruvius  Pollio,  M.,  155. 

Vituli,  123. 

Vladimir  the  Great,  354. 

Vogel,  E.,  437. 

Voiture,  Vincent,  260,  262. 

Voland,  391. 

Volsunga  Saga,  393. 

Volta,  Alessandro,  228. 

Voltaire,  18,  112,  235,  238,  243,  253,  263, 

267,  273,  278. 
Voltaire,  the  Persian,  47. 
"Voluspa,"  389. 

Vondel,  J.  van  den,  369,  374,  375. 
Voss.     See  Vossius. 
Voss,  J.  H.,  430. 
Vossius,  G.  J.,  372. 
Vossius,  Isaac,  372. 
"  Voyage  of  Anacharsis,"  285. 
Vries,  De,  380. 
Vulcan,  71,  126,  391. 
"  Vulgate,  The,"  57,  174. 
Vyasa,  24,  27,  47. 

WACE,  ROBERT,  465. 
Wagenaar,  Jan,  377. 
Wahabees,  183. 
Wali,  33. 

Walkyres,  the,  408. 
"Wallace,  The,"  471. 
Wallace,  W.  R.,  525. 
Wallachia,  367  ;  language,  367. 
Wallenberg,  400. 
"  Wallenstein,"  429,  434. 
Waller,  Edmund,  453,  483,  486. 
Wallia,  Archbishop,  401. 
Wallons,  243. 
Walloon,  368. 
Walpole,  Horace,  493,  494. 
Walr<5,  Van,  380. 
Walter  of  the  Vogel  Weide,  412. 
Walton,  Izaak,  485. 

"  Wanderings  in  the  Valley  of  the  Missis- 
sippi," 519. 
Ware,  Henry,  530. 
"  War  of  Catiline,"  154. 
"  War  of  the  Giants,"  171. 
"  War  of  Granada,"  314. 
"  War  Lyrics,"  535. 
Warburton,  Bishop,  489. 
Ware,  William,  522. 
Wai-field,  Catherine  A.,  523,  525. 
Warner,  Charles  Dudley,  537. 
Warner,  Misses,  523. 
Warren,  T.,  514. 
Warsaae,  398. 
Warton,  Thomas,  493. 
Washington,  George,  513. 
Wasson,  D.  A.,  52S. 
Water,  Te,  378. 
Waters,  Clara  E.,  536. 
Watson,  Bishop,  494. 
Watts,  Isaac,  489. 
"Waverley,"  502. 
Waverley  Novels,  502. 
Wayland,  391. 
Wayland,  President,  530. 


"  Wealth  of  Nations,"  494. 

Webber,  522. 

Webster,  Augusta,  508. 

Webster,  Daniel,  520. 

Webster,  John,  481. 

Webster,  Noah,  529. 

"  Webster's  Dictionary,"  529. 

Wednesday,  387. 

Weert,  De,  3fi9. 

Weid,  Prince  Maximilian  von,  437. 

Weiss,  John,  528. 

Welby,  Amelia  B.,  525. 

Welhaven,  404. 

Wellekeus,  J.  B.,  375. 

Welsch,  243. 

Welsh  fiction,  461 ;  history,  412 ;  language, 
400  ;  literature,  461  ;  poetry,  461 ;  ro- 
mances, 461. 

Wergelaud,  H.  A.,  404. 

Werner,  F.  L.  Z.,  434. 

Wesley,  John,  455. 

"  Westminster  Review,"  506. 

"  Westward  Ho,"  522. 

Wette,  De,  446. 

Whately,  Archdeacon,  506. 

Wheatou,  Henry,  531. 

"Where  is  the  German  Fatherland?" 
431. 

Whewell,  William,  506, 507. 

Whipple,  E.  P.,  528. 

White,  Andrew  D.,  537. 

White,  Bishop,  515. 

White,  Kirke,  501. 

White,  R.  G.,  528. 

White  Women,  the,  408. 

Whitman,  Sarah  H.,  525. 

Whitman,  Walt,  535. 

Whitney,  531. 

Whitney,  Prof.  W.  D.,  537. 

Whitefield,  George,  455. 

Whittier,  John  G.,  524. 

Wickliffe,  John,  361,  458,  467,  468. 

"  Wieland,"  515. 

Wieland,  C.  M.,  426. 

Wilberforce,  William.  494. 

Wilde,  Richard  H.,  5L>5. 

"  Wilhelm  Meister's  Apprenticeship,"  439i 

"  Wilhelm  Tell,"  434. 

Wilkes,  C.,  519. 

"  Will,  The,"  512. 

Willard,  Emma,  523. 

William  the  Conqueror,  244. 

William  of  Malmesbury,  464. 

Williams,  W.  R.,530. 

Willis,  N.  P.,  519,  521,  524. 

Wilson,  Alexander,  533. 

Wilson,  John,  499,  503,  505,  507. 

Wilson,  Thomas,  473. 

Winckelmann,  J.  J.,  442. 

Winifred,  Paul,  410. 

"  Winter  in  Madeira,"  519. 

Winter,  Van,  377. 

Winter,  William,  535. 

"Winter's  Tale,"  479. 

Winther,  R.  V.  C.  F.,  397. 

Winthrop,  T.,  536. 

Wirt,  William,  516. 

Wiselius,  S.  I.,  380. 

Wisin,  Von,  355. 

Witherspoon,  John,  533. 

Wolf,  J.  C.  von,  239,  423. 

Wolff,  Elizabeth  B.,  378. 

Wolfram  of  Eschenbach,  412,  413. 


INDEX. 


675 


Wolsey,  Cardinal,  473. 

Women.      See   American,   French,    Greek, 

ttinilu,  and  Japanese  Women. 
"  Women  Artists  in  all  Ages,"  519. 
"  Women  of  the  Revolution,"  519. 
Wooden,  387. 
Woolsey,  Sarah,  53G. 
Woolson,  Constance  Fenimore,  536. 
"  Worcester's  Dictionary,"  529. 
Wordsworth,  William,  43G,  456,  496,  540. 
Wordsworth,  William,  498,  499,  506. 
"  Works  and  Days,"  75. 
"  World  in  the  Middle  Ages,"  533. 
"  Worthies  of  England,"  476. 
Wyatt,  Sir  Thomas,  474. 
Wycherly,  William,  485. 
Wynne,  532. 
Wyntoun,  Andrew,  471. 

XENOPHANES,  86. 
Xeuophon,  68,  104,  153. 

YAJUR-VEPA,  24. 

Tale  College,  511,  614. 

Yates,  Edmund,  508. 

"  Year  in  Spain,"  519. 

"  Years  of  Wild  Oats,"  440. 

Yggdrasil,  385,  386. 

Yrner,  384. 


Youmans,  Professor  E.  L.,  537. 

Young,  537. 

Young,  Edward,  455,  487,  491. 

Young  Germany,  432. 

Yriarte,  Tomas  de,  331. 

"  Yussuf  and  Zuleika,"  42-44,  46. 

"ZAIRE,"  253,  279. 
Zalesski,  3G7. 
Zaluski,  365. 
Zaneka,  241. 
Zechariah,  54. 

Zeudic  language,  39  ;  literature,  39  ;  relig- 
ion, 40. 

Zendavesta,  40. 
Zeno,  86,  111. 

Zeno,  Apostolo,  229,  238,  239. 
Zeuobia,  112. 
Zeuodotus,  109. 
Zephaniah,  54. 
Zeus,  2,  70,  71,  85. 
Zina,  241. 
Zodiac,  35. 
"  Zophiel,"  525. 
Zorilla,  333. 

Zoroaster,  40,  41,56,  350. 
Zschokke,  J.  H.  D.,  441. 
Zurita,  Geronimo,  328. 
Zwingle,  Ulrica,  41S>. 


